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href="#Common_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Common characteristics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Common_characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Common characteristics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Common_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habitat_and_population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitat_and_population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Habitat and population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitat_and_population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_economic_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_economic_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Social and economic structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_economic_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Variability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_and_revisionist_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_and_revisionist_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern and revisionist perspectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_and_revisionist_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_hunter-gatherer_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_hunter-gatherer_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Modern hunter-gatherer groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_hunter-gatherer_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Social movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hunter-gatherer</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagter-versamelaar" title="Jagter-versamelaar – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jagter-versamelaar" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_und_Sammler" title="Jäger und Sammler – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Jäger und Sammler" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D9%88%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9" title="صياد وجامع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صياد وجامع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%86%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B8" title="Ловци събирачи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ловци събирачи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societat_ca%C3%A7adora-recol%C2%B7lectora" title="Societat caçadora-recol·lectora – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Societat caçadora-recol·lectora" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovci_a_sb%C4%9Bra%C4%8Di" title="Lovci a sběrači – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lovci a sběrači" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A6gere_og_samlere" title="Jægere og samlere – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jægere og samlere" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_und_Sammler" title="Jäger und Sammler – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jäger und Sammler" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCtid-korilased" title="Kütid-korilased – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kütid-korilased" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B7%CE%B3%CF%8C%CF%82-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%AD%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Κυνηγός-συλλέκτης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυνηγός-συλλέκτης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caza_y_recolecci%C3%B3n" title="Caza y recolección – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Caza y recolección" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88asistoj-kolektistoj" title="Ĉasistoj-kolektistoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉasistoj-kolektistoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehiztari-biltzaileak" title="Ehiztari-biltzaileak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ehiztari-biltzaileak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%DB%8C-%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87" title="شکارچی-گردآورنده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شکارچی-گردآورنده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasseur-cueilleur" title="Chasseur-cueilleur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chasseur-cueilleur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jager-samler" title="Jager-samler – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Jager-samler" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiagaithe/cnuasaitheoir%C3%AD" title="Fiagaithe/cnuasaitheoirí – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fiagaithe/cnuasaitheoirí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caza-recolecci%C3%B3n" title="Caza-recolección – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Caza-recolección" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EB%A0%B5%EC%B1%84%EC%A7%91%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C" title="수렵채집사회 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수렵채집사회" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0" title="शिकारी-फ़रमर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शिकारी-फ़रमर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovci-sakuplja%C4%8Di" title="Lovci-sakupljači – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Lovci-sakupljači" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemburu-pengumpul" title="Pemburu-pengumpul – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemburu-pengumpul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venation_e_collection" title="Venation e collection – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Venation e collection" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vei%C3%B0imenn_og_safnarar" title="Veiðimenn og safnarar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Veiðimenn og safnarar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacciatori-raccoglitori" title="Cacciatori-raccoglitori – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cacciatori-raccoglitori" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D" title="ציידים-לקטים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ציידים-לקטים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juru_bedhag-kayal" title="Juru bedhag-kayal – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Juru bedhag-kayal" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuhigi_mu_Rwanda" title="Ubuhigi mu Rwanda – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Ubuhigi mu Rwanda" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wawindaji-wakusanyaji" title="Wawindaji-wakusanyaji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Wawindaji-wakusanyaji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%AA%C3%A7%C3%AErvan_%C3%BB_komker" title="Nêçîrvan û komker – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nêçîrvan û komker" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venatio_et_collectio" title="Venatio et collectio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Venatio et collectio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Med%C5%BEiotojai-rankiotojai" title="Medžiotojai-rankiotojai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Medžiotojai-rankiotojai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xasores-coliores" title="Xasores-coliores – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Xasores-coliores" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vad%C3%A1szat_%C3%A9s_gy%C5%B1jt%C3%B6get%C3%A9s" title="Vadászat és gyűjtögetés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vadászat és gyűjtögetés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%86%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B8" title="Ловци собирачи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ловци собирачи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BC" title="ഹണ്ടർ ഗാതറർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹണ്ടർ ഗാതറർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80-_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80" title="शिकारी- संचयी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शिकारी- संचयी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemburu-pengumpul" title="Pemburu-pengumpul – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemburu-pengumpul" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD-%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B3%D1%87" title="Анчин-түүгч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Анчин-түүгч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jager-verzamelaar" title="Jager-verzamelaar – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jager-verzamelaar" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jager-gadderaar" title="Jager-gadderaar – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Jager-gadderaar" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%9F%E6%8E%A1%E9%9B%86%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A" title="狩猟採集社会 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="狩猟採集社会" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jegere_og_samlere" title="Jegere og samlere – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jegere og samlere" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakt_og_sanking" title="Jakt og sanking – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jakt og sanking" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca%C3%A7aire-culheire" title="Caçaire-culheire – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Caçaire-culheire" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovchilar_va_terimchilar" title="Ovchilar va terimchilar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ovchilar va terimchilar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spo%C5%82ecze%C5%84stwo_zbieracko-%C5%82owieckie" title="Społeczeństwo zbieracko-łowieckie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Społeczeństwo zbieracko-łowieckie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca%C3%A7ador-coletor" title="Caçador-coletor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Caçador-coletor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A2n%C4%83tor-culeg%C4%83tor" title="Vânător-culegător – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vânător-culegător" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Охотники-собиратели – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Охотники-собиратели" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB-%E0%B6%B5%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%90%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F" title="දඩයක්කාර-ඵලවැලරැස්කරන්නා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දඩයක්කාර-ඵලවැලරැස්කරන්නා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hunter-gatherer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaadhsi_iyo_Qadhaabsi" title="Ugaadhsi iyo Qadhaabsi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Ugaadhsi iyo Qadhaabsi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%86%D0%B8-%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%99%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B8" title="Ловци-сакупљачи – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ловци-сакупљачи" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovci-sakuplja%C4%8Di" title="Lovci-sakupljači – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Lovci-sakupljači" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mets%C3%A4st%C3%A4j%C3%A4-ker%C3%A4ilij%C3%A4t" title="Metsästäjä-keräilijät – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Metsästäjä-keräilijät" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4gar-_och_samlarsamh%C3%A4lle" title="Jägar- och samlarsamhälle – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jägar- och samlarsamhälle" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8C" title="คนเก็บของป่าล่าสัตว์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คนเก็บของป่าล่าสัตว์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avc%C4%B1-toplay%C4%B1c%C4%B1" title="Avcı-toplayıcı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Avcı-toplayıcı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%86%D1%96_%D1%96_%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%96" title="Мисливці і збирачі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мисливці і збирачі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%92_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%92" title="شکار جمع کرنے والے – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شکار جمع کرنے والے" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%83n_b%E1%BA%AFt_v%C3%A0_h%C3%A1i_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3m" title="Săn bắt và hái lượm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Săn bắt và hái lượm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8B%A9%E7%8C%8E%E9%87%87%E9%9B%86" title="狩猎采集 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="狩猎采集" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8B%A9%E7%8D%B5%E6%8E%A1%E9%9B%86" title="狩獵採集 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="狩獵採集" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q27443#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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</div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hunting and gathering" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_Gathering_(novel)" title="Hunting and Gathering (novel)">Hunting and Gathering (novel)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_Gathering_(film)" title="Hunting and Gathering (film)">Hunting and Gathering (film)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Plant gathering" redirects here. For the hobby or academic activity, see <a href="/wiki/Plant_collecting" title="Plant collecting">Plant collecting</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Living_on_the_rainforest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Living_on_the_rainforest.jpg/250px-Living_on_the_rainforest.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Living_on_the_rainforest.jpg/500px-Living_on_the_rainforest.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="958" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/African_Pygmies" title="African Pygmies">Pygmy</a> hunter-gatherers in the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a> in August 2014</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>hunter-gatherer</b> or <b>forager</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> living in a community, or according to an ancestrally derived <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle" title="Lifestyle">lifestyle</a>, in which most or all <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> is obtained by <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is, by gathering food from local naturally occurring sources, especially wild <a href="/wiki/Edible_plants" title="Edible plants">edible plants</a> but also <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honey_hunting" title="Honey hunting">honey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eggs_as_food" title="Eggs as food">bird eggs</a>, or anything safe to eat, or by <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> game (pursuing or <a href="/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">trapping</a> and killing <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wild animals</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">catching fish</a>). This is a common practice among most vertebrates that are <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivores</a>. Hunter-gatherer <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a> stand in contrast to the more <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">sedentary</a> <a href="/wiki/Agrarian_society" title="Agrarian society">agricultural societies</a>, which rely mainly on cultivating <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> and raising <a href="/wiki/Domesticated_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Domesticated animal">domesticated animals</a> for food production, although the boundaries between the two ways of living are not completely distinct. </p><p>Hunting and gathering was humanity's original and most enduring successful <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competitive</a> <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> in the natural world, occupying at least 90 percent of <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">invention of agriculture</a>, hunter-gatherers who did not change were displaced or conquered by farming or <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralist</a> groups in most parts of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephens_897–902_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens_897–902-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across Western Eurasia, it was not until approximately 4,000 BC that farming and metallurgical societies completely replaced hunter-gatherers. These technologically advanced societies expanded faster in areas with less forest, pushing hunter-gatherers into denser woodlands. Only the middle-late Bronze Age and Iron Age societies were able to fully replace hunter-gatherers in their final stronghold located in the most densely forested areas. Unlike their <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> counterparts, Neolithic societies could not establish themselves in dense forests, and Copper Age societies had only limited success.<sup id="cite_ref-Gavashelishvili1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gavashelishvili1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to men, a single study found that women engage in hunting in 79% of modern hunter-gatherer societies.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in the same direction...their analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a few contemporary societies of <a href="/wiki/Uncontacted_peoples" title="Uncontacted peoples">uncontacted people</a> are still classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their foraging activity with <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">By ideology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associative_economics" title="Associative economics">Associative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neomercantilism" title="Neomercantilism">Neo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_fascism" title="Economics of fascism">Fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">Nationalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Religious <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Buddhist economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_finance" title="Christian finance">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabbath_economics" title="Sabbath economics">Sabbath economics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_economics" title="Socialist economics">Socialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(movement)" title="Mutualism (movement)">Mutualist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_market_economy" title="Socialist market economy">Socialist market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist-oriented_market_economy" title="Socialist-oriented market economy">Socialist-oriented market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_credit" title="Social credit">Social credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_economy" title="Traditional economy">Traditionalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">By coordination</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">Closed (autarky)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralized_planning_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decentralized planning (economics)">Decentralized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_economy" title="Digital economy">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_economy" title="Dual economy">Dual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informal_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Informal sector">Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_economy" title="Natural economy">Natural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_economy" title="Open economy">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">Planned</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robinson_Crusoe_economy" title="Robinson Crusoe economy">Robinson Crusoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">Subsistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">Underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_archipelago" title="Vertical archipelago">Vertical archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_economy" title="Virtual economy">Virtual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">By regional model</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li>Asian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_model_of_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian model of capitalism">East Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Consensus" title="Beijing Consensus">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Singapore" title="Economy of Singapore">Singaporean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala_model" title="Kerala model">Keralan</a></li></ul></li> <li>European <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_model" title="German model">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Rhenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Soviet</a></li></ul></li> <li>Latin America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">Socialism of the 21st century</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Sectors</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_sector" title="Voluntary sector">Voluntary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Property types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">Collective ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ownership" title="Social ownership">Social ownership</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Transition</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">Collectivization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatization" title="Corporatization">Corporatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demutualization" title="Demutualization">Demutualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financialization" title="Financialization">Financialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalization" title="Liberalization">Liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketization" title="Marketization">Marketization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalization" title="Municipalization">Municipalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutualization">Mutualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialization (economics)">Socialization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialization_(Marxism)" title="Socialization (Marxism)">Marxist</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Coordination</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barter" title="Barter">Barter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_market" title="Open market">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_in_kind" title="Calculation in kind">In kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indicative_planning" title="Indicative planning">Indicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_balance_planning" title="Material balance planning">Material balancing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_system" title="Price system">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-managed_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-managed economy">Self-managed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_peer-to-peer_processes#P2P_economic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Social peer-to-peer processes">Peer-to-peer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">Open access</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Other types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_economics" title="Expeditionary economics">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_Democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusive Democracy">Inclusive Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_economy" title="Information economy">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newly_industrialized_country" title="Newly industrialized country">Newly industrialized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_economy" title="Palace economy">Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonomy" title="Plutonomy">Plutonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_economy" title="Post-industrial economy">Post-industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource-based_economy" title="Resource-based economy">Resource-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Token_economy" title="Token economy">Token</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_economy" title="Traditional economy">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_economy" title="Transition economy">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/20px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/40px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economic_systems_sidebar" title="Template:Economic systems sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economic_systems_sidebar" title="Template talk:Economic systems sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economic_systems_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economic systems sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hunting and gathering was presumably the <a href="/wiki/Subsistence" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence">subsistence</a> strategy employed by human societies beginning some 1.8 million years ago, by <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i>, and from its appearance some 200,000 years ago by <i><a href="/wiki/Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Homo sapiens</a></i>. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived in groups that consisted of several families resulting in a size of a few dozen people.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> period some 10,000 years ago, and after this was replaced only gradually with the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mammoth_House_(Replica).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mammoth_House_%28Replica%29.JPG/250px-Mammoth_House_%28Replica%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mammoth_House_%28Replica%29.JPG/330px-Mammoth_House_%28Replica%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mammoth_House_%28Replica%29.JPG/500px-Mammoth_House_%28Replica%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3842" data-file-height="2252" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mal%27ta%E2%80%93Buret%27_culture" title="Mal'ta–Buret' culture">Mal'ta-Buret'</a> people in the Baikal region of Siberia lived in dwellings built of <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a> bones, similar to those found in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> Western Eurasia.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Late Pleistocene witnessed the <a href="/wiki/Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">spread</a> of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human">modern humans</a> outside of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> as well as the extinction of all other human species. Humans spread to the <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australian continent</a> and the Americas for the first time, coincident with <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">the extinction</a> of numerous predominantly <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene_megafauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleistocene megafauna">megafaunal</a> species.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major extinctions were incurred in Australia beginning approximately 50,000 years ago and in the Americas about 15,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient North Eurasians">Ancient North Eurasians</a> lived in extreme conditions of the <a href="/wiki/Mammoth_steppe" title="Mammoth steppe">mammoth steppes</a> of Siberia and survived by hunting <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a>, bison and woolly rhinoceroses.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of the Americas">settlement of the Americas</a> began when <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> hunter-gatherers entered North America from the North Asian mammoth steppe via the <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a> land bridge.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Binford" title="Lewis Binford">Lewis Binford</a> suggested that <a href="/wiki/Homo_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo (genus)">early humans</a> obtained food via <a href="/wiki/Scavenging" class="mw-redirect" title="Scavenging">scavenging</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early humans in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a> lived in <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodland" title="Woodland">woodlands</a>, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view, they used carcasses of such animals that had either been killed by <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a> or that had died of natural causes.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists have demonstrated that the evidence for early human behaviors for hunting versus carcass scavenging vary based on the ecology, including the types of predators that existed and the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">endurance running hypothesis</a>, long-distance running as in <a href="/wiki/Persistence_hunting" title="Persistence hunting">persistence hunting</a>, a method still practiced by some hunter-gatherer groups in modern times, was likely the driving evolutionary force leading to the evolution of certain human characteristics. This hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis: both subsistence strategies may have been in use sequentially, alternately or even simultaneously. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_in_2000_BC.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/World_in_2000_BC.svg/290px-World_in_2000_BC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/World_in_2000_BC.svg/435px-World_in_2000_BC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/World_in_2000_BC.svg/580px-World_in_2000_BC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="2234" /></a><figcaption>Hunter-gatherers (yellow) 4,000 years ago (rough estimate)</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting at the transition between the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Paleolithic" title="Middle Paleolithic">Middle</a> to <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> period, some 80,000 to 70,000 years ago, some hunter-gatherer bands began to specialize, concentrating on hunting a smaller selection of (often larger) game and gathering a smaller selection of food. This specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as <a href="/wiki/Fishing_net" title="Fishing net">fishing nets</a>, hooks, and bone <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transition into the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> originated as early as 12,000 years ago in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and also independently originated in many other areas including <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif/220px-ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif/330px-ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif/440px-ArchaeoGLOBE_FHG.gif 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>A global map illustrating the decline of foraging/fishing/hunting/gathering around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephens_897–902_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephens_897–902-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a> was also being used as a food production system in various parts of the world over this period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_in_1000_BCE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/World_in_1000_BCE.png/330px-World_in_1000_BCE.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/World_in_1000_BCE.png/495px-World_in_1000_BCE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/World_in_1000_BCE.png/660px-World_in_1000_BCE.png 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="2234" /></a><figcaption>Hunter-gatherers (yellow) 3,000 years ago (rough estimate)</figcaption></figure> <p>Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the developing world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were formerly available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a> has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>—according to Diamond, because of <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a> by humans,<sup id="cite_ref-Diamond_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diamond-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of several explanations offered for the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary extinction event</a> there. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arri_Raats,_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman,_Boesmansrus_camp,_Northern_Cape,_South_Africa_(20540522615).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arri_Raats%2C_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman%2C_Boesmansrus_camp%2C_Northern_Cape%2C_South_Africa_%2820540522615%29.jpg/220px-Arri_Raats%2C_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman%2C_Boesmansrus_camp%2C_Northern_Cape%2C_South_Africa_%2820540522615%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arri_Raats%2C_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman%2C_Boesmansrus_camp%2C_Northern_Cape%2C_South_Africa_%2820540522615%29.jpg/330px-Arri_Raats%2C_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman%2C_Boesmansrus_camp%2C_Northern_Cape%2C_South_Africa_%2820540522615%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arri_Raats%2C_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman%2C_Boesmansrus_camp%2C_Northern_Cape%2C_South_Africa_%2820540522615%29.jpg/440px-Arri_Raats%2C_Kalahari_Khomani_San_Bushman%2C_Boesmansrus_camp%2C_Northern_Cape%2C_South_Africa_%2820540522615%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3280" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> man in the <a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari Desert</a> in South Africa. Many San still live as hunter-gatherers.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion led to the development of the first <a href="/wiki/Form_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Form of government">forms of government</a> in agricultural centers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">Ancient India</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norte_Chico_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Norte Chico civilization">Norte Chico</a>. </p><p>As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live in areas unsuitable for agricultural use. </p><p>Archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> is the field of study whereby food plants of various peoples and tribes worldwide are documented. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_characteristics">Common characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Common characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Cultural universal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BuffaloHunters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BuffaloHunters.jpg/250px-BuffaloHunters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BuffaloHunters.jpg/330px-BuffaloHunters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/BuffaloHunters.jpg/500px-BuffaloHunters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="437" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bison_hunting" title="Bison hunting">Bison hunt</a> under the wolf-skin mask, <a href="/wiki/George_Catlin" title="George Catlin">George Catlin</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1832</span></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitat_and_population">Habitat and population</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Habitat and population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most hunter-gatherers are <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements. Mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available. </p><p>Some hunter-gatherer cultures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a>, lived in particularly rich environments that allowed them to be sedentary or semi-sedentary. Amongst the earliest example of permanent settlements is the Osipovka culture (14–10.3 thousand years ago),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which lived in a fish-rich environment that allowed them to be able to stay at the same place all year.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One group, the <a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a>, had the highest recorded population density of any known hunter and gatherer society with an estimated 21.6 persons per square mile.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_economic_structure">Social and economic structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Social and economic structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hunter-gatherers tend to have an <a href="/wiki/Egalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Egalitarian">egalitarian</a> social ethos,<sup id="cite_ref-PropertyEquality_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PropertyEquality-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although settled hunter-gatherers (for example, those inhabiting the Northwest Coast of North America and the <a href="/wiki/Calusa" title="Calusa">Calusa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>) are an exception to this rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Lourandos_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lourandos-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fitzhugh_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzhugh-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San people</a> or "Bushmen" of southern Africa have social customs that strongly discourage hoarding and displays of authority, and encourage economic equality via sharing of food and material goods.<sup id="cite_ref-Cashdan_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cashdan-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> defined this socio-economic system as <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive Communism">primitive communism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg/250px-Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg/330px-Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg/500px-Mbendjele_meat_sharing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Mbendjele meat sharing</figcaption></figure> <p>The egalitarianism typical of human hunters and gatherers is never total but is striking when viewed in an evolutionary context. One of humanity's two closest primate relatives, <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, are anything but egalitarian, forming themselves into hierarchies that are often dominated by an <a href="/wiki/Alpha_(ethology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha (ethology)">alpha male</a>. So great is the contrast with human hunter-gatherers that it is widely argued by <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">paleoanthropologists</a> that resistance to being dominated was a key factor driving the evolutionary emergence of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">human consciousness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">social organization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most anthropologists believe that hunter-gatherers do not have permanent leaders; instead, the person taking the initiative at any one time depends on the task being performed.<sup id="cite_ref-gowdy_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gowdy-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dahlberg_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dahlberg-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume,_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows,_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume%2C_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows%2C_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg/250px-Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume%2C_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows%2C_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume%2C_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows%2C_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg/330px-Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume%2C_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows%2C_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume%2C_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows%2C_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg/500px-Group_of_Andaman_Men_and_Women_in_Costume%2C_Some_Wearing_Body_Paint_And_with_Bows_and_Arrows%2C_Catching_Turtles_from_Boat_on_Water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption>Group of <a href="/wiki/Andamanese_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Andamanese peoples">Andamanese</a> hunting <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1903</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Within a particular tribe or people, hunter-gatherers are connected by both <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">band</a> (residence/domestic group) membership.<sup id="cite_ref-Kiefer_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiefer-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Postmarital residence among hunter-gatherers tends to be matrilocal, at least initially.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young mothers can enjoy childcare support from their own mothers, who continue living nearby in the same camp.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The systems of kinship and descent among human hunter-gatherers were relatively flexible, although there is evidence that early human kinship in general tended to be <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conventional assumption has been that women did most of the gathering, while men concentrated on big game hunting. In recent years, however, this assumption has been challenged by new research findings. Women in many hunter-gatherer societies hunted small game and, in some cases, even participated in big-game hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An illustrative account is Megan Biesele's study of the southern African Ju/'hoan, 'Women Like Meat'.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2006 study suggests that the sexual division of labor was the fundamental organizational innovation that gave <i>Homo sapiens</i> the edge over the Neanderthals, allowing our ancestors to migrate from Africa and spread across the globe.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 1986 study found most hunter-gatherers have a symbolically structured sexual division of labor.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is true that in a small minority of cases, women hunted the same kind of quarry as men, sometimes doing so alongside men. Among the <a href="/wiki/Ju%27/hoansi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ju'/hoansi">Ju'/hoansi</a> people of Namibia, women help men <a href="/wiki/Tracking_(hunting)" title="Tracking (hunting)">track</a> down quarry.<sup id="cite_ref-biesele_and_barclay_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-biesele_and_barclay-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Australian Martu, both women and men participate in hunting but with a different style of gendered division; while men are willing to take more risks to hunt bigger animals such as kangaroo for political gain as a form of "competitive magnanimity", women target smaller game such as lizards to feed their children and promote working relationships with other women, preferring a more constant supply of sustenance.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of <a href="/wiki/Projectile_points" class="mw-redirect" title="Projectile points">projectile points</a> and animal processing implements were discovered at the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andean</a> site of Wilamaya Patjxa, <a href="/wiki/Puno_District" title="Puno District">Puno District</a> in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2020 study inspired by this discovery found that of 27 identified burials with hunter gatherers of a known sex who were also buried with hunting tools, 11 were female hunter gatherers, while 16 were male hunter gatherers. Combined with uncertainties, these findings suggest that anywhere from 30 to 50 percent of big game hunters were female.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2023 study that looked at studies of contemporary hunter gatherer societies from the 1800s to the present day found that women hunted in 79 percent of hunter gatherer societies.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an attempted verification of this study found "that multiple methodological failures all bias their results in the same direction...their analysis does not contradict the wide body of empirical evidence for gendered divisions of labor in foraging societies".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout,_from_Australia_(1876,_vol_II).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg/250px-Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg/500px-Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>A 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australian</a> encampment.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the 1966 "<a href="/wiki/Man_the_Hunter" title="Man the Hunter">Man the Hunter</a>" conference, anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Richard_Borshay_Lee" title="Richard Borshay Lee">Richard Borshay Lee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irven_DeVore" title="Irven DeVore">Irven DeVore</a> suggested that <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a> was one of several central characteristics of nomadic hunting and gathering societies because mobility requires minimization of material possessions throughout a population. Therefore, no surplus of resources can be accumulated by any single member. Other characteristics Lee and DeVore proposed were <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> in territorial boundaries as well as in <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demographic</a> composition. </p><p>At the same conference, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a> presented a paper entitled, "<a href="/wiki/Original_affluent_society" title="Original affluent society">Notes on the Original Affluent Society</a>", in which he challenged the popular view of hunter-gatherers lives as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> had put it in 1651. According to Sahlins, ethnographic data indicated that hunter-gatherers worked far fewer hours and enjoyed more <a href="/wiki/Leisure" title="Leisure">leisure</a> than typical members of industrial society, and they still ate well. Their "affluence" came from the idea that they were satisfied with very little in the material sense.<sup id="cite_ref-sahlins_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sahlins-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in 1996, Ross Sackett performed two distinct meta-analyses to empirically test Sahlin's view. The first of these studies looked at 102 time-allocation studies, and the second one analyzed 207 energy-expenditure studies. Sackett found that adults in foraging and horticultural societies work on average, about 6.5 hours a day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sahlins' theory has been criticized for only including time spent hunting and gathering while omitting time spent on collecting firewood, food preparation, etc. Other scholars also assert that hunter-gatherer societies were not "affluent" but suffered from extremely high infant mortality, frequent disease, and perennial warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers Gurven and Kaplan have estimated that around 57% of hunter-gatherers reach the age of 15. Of those that reach 15 years of age, 64% continue to live to or past the age of 45. This places the life expectancy between 21 and 37 years.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They further estimate that 70% of deaths are due to diseases of some kind, 20% of deaths come from violence or accidents and 10% are due to degenerative diseases. </p><p>Mutual exchange and sharing of resources (i.e., meat gained from hunting) are important in the economic systems of hunter-gatherer societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Kiefer_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kiefer-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, these societies can be described as based on a "<a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">gift economy</a>". </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg/250px-AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg/500px-AinuBearSacrificeCirca1870.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="4352" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Iomante" title="Iomante">Iomante</a></i> ceremony (bear sending). Japanese scroll painting, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1870</span></figcaption></figure> <p>A 2010 paper argued that while hunter-gatherers may have lower levels of inequality than modern, industrialised societies, that does not mean inequality does not exist. The researchers estimated that the average <a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a> amongst hunter-gatherers was 0.25, equivalent to the country of Denmark in 2007. In addition, wealth transmission across generations was also a feature of hunter-gatherers, meaning that "wealthy" hunter-gatherers, within the context of their communities, were more likely to have children as wealthy as them than poorer members of their community and indeed hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate an understanding of social stratification. Thus while the researchers agreed that hunter-gatherers were more egalitarian than modern societies, prior characterisations of them living in a state of egalitarian primitive communism were inaccurate and misleading.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This study, however, exclusively examined modern hunter-gatherer communities, offering limited insight into the exact nature of social structures that existed prior to the Neolithic Revolution. Alain Testart and others have said that anthropologists should be careful when using research on current hunter-gatherer societies to determine the structure of societies in the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic</a> era, emphasising cross-cultural influences, progress and development that such societies have undergone in the past 10,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diet">Diet</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal_of_a_second_voyage_for_the_discovery_of_a_north-west_passage_from_the_Atlantic_to_the_Pacific_-_performed_in_the_years_1821-22-23,_in_His_Majesty%27s_ships_Fury_and_Hecla,_under_the_orders_of_(14801456013).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Journal_of_a_second_voyage_for_the_discovery_of_a_north-west_passage_from_the_Atlantic_to_the_Pacific_-_performed_in_the_years_1821-22-23%2C_in_His_Majesty%27s_ships_Fury_and_Hecla%2C_under_the_orders_of_%2814801456013%29.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Journal_of_a_second_voyage_for_the_discovery_of_a_north-west_passage_from_the_Atlantic_to_the_Pacific_-_performed_in_the_years_1821-22-23%2C_in_His_Majesty%27s_ships_Fury_and_Hecla%2C_under_the_orders_of_%2814801456013%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Journal_of_a_second_voyage_for_the_discovery_of_a_north-west_passage_from_the_Atlantic_to_the_Pacific_-_performed_in_the_years_1821-22-23%2C_in_His_Majesty%27s_ships_Fury_and_Hecla%2C_under_the_orders_of_%2814801456013%29.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3152" data-file-height="2590" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">seal hunters</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1821</span></figcaption></figure> <p>As one moves away from the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, the importance of plant food decreases and the importance of aquatic food increases. In cold and heavily forested environments, edible plant foods and large game are less abundant and hunter-gatherers may turn to aquatic resources to compensate. Hunter-gatherers in cold climates also rely more on stored food than those in warm climates. However, aquatic resources tend to be costly, requiring <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a> technology, and this may have impeded their intensive use in prehistory. Marine food probably did not start becoming prominent in the diet until relatively recently, during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Stone_Age" title="Late Stone Age">Late Stone Age</a> in southern Africa and the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a> is important in assessing the quality of game among hunter-gatherers, to the point that lean animals are often considered secondary resources or even starvation food. Consuming too much lean meat leads to adverse health effects like <a href="/wiki/Protein_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein poisoning">protein poisoning</a>, and can in extreme cases lead to death. Additionally, a diet high in <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> and low in other <a href="/wiki/Macronutrient" class="mw-redirect" title="Macronutrient">macronutrients</a> results in the body using the protein as energy, possibly leading to protein deficiency. Lean meat especially becomes a problem when animals go through a lean season that requires them to <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolize</a> fat deposits.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In areas where plant and fish resources are scarce, hunter-gatherers may trade meat with horticulturalists for <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>. For example, tropical hunter-gatherers may have an excess of protein but be deficient in carbohydrates, and conversely tropical horticulturalists may have a surplus of carbohydrates but inadequate protein. Trading may thus be the most cost-effective means of acquiring carbohydrate resources.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variability">Variability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Variability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pume_1b.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pume_1b.tif/lossless-page1-220px-Pume_1b.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pume_1b.tif/lossless-page1-330px-Pume_1b.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pume_1b.tif/lossless-page1-440px-Pume_1b.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="1062" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yaruro_people" title="Yaruro people">Savanna Pumé</a> couple on a hunting and gathering trip in the llanos of Venezuela. The man carries a bow, three steel-tipped arrows, and a hat that resembles the head of a jabiru stork as camouflage to approach near enough to deer for a shot. The woman carries a steel-tipped digging stick and a carrying basket for collecting wild <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tubers</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Hunter-gatherer societies manifest significant variability, depending on <a href="/wiki/Climate_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate zone">climate zone</a>/<a href="/wiki/Life_zone" title="Life zone">life zone</a>, available technology, and societal structure. Archaeologists examine hunter-gatherer tool kits to measure variability across different groups. Collard <i>et al.</i> (2005) found temperature to be the only statistically significant factor to impact hunter-gatherer tool kits.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using temperature as a proxy for risk, Collard <i>et al.'s</i> results suggest that environments with extreme temperatures pose a threat to hunter-gatherer systems significant enough to warrant increased variability of tools. These results support Torrence's (1989) theory that the risk of failure is indeed the most important factor in determining the structure of hunter-gatherer toolkits.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One way to divide hunter-gatherer groups is by their return systems. James Woodburn uses the categories "immediate return" hunter-gatherers for egalitarianism and "delayed return" for nonegalitarian. Immediate return foragers consume their food within a day or two after they procure it. Delayed return foragers store the surplus food.<sup id="cite_ref-kelly_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kelly-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hunting-gathering was the common human mode of subsistence throughout the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, but the observation of current-day hunters and gatherers does not necessarily reflect Paleolithic societies; the hunter-gatherer cultures examined today have had much contact with modern civilization and do not represent "pristine" conditions found in <a href="/wiki/Uncontacted_peoples" title="Uncontacted peoples">uncontacted peoples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The transition from hunting and gathering to <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> is not necessarily a one-way process. It has been argued that hunting and gathering represents an <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptive strategy</a>, which may still be exploited, if necessary, when environmental change causes extreme food stress for agriculturalists.<sup id="cite_ref-cambridge_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cambridge-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies, especially since the widespread adoption of agriculture and resulting cultural diffusion that has occurred in the last 10,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nowadays,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (September 2024)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> some scholars speak about the existence within <a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">cultural evolution</a> of the so-called mixed-economies or dual economies which imply a combination of food procurement (gathering and hunting) and food production or when foragers have trade relations with farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_and_revisionist_perspectives">Modern and revisionist perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern and revisionist perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shoshoni_tipis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shoshoni_tipis.jpg/280px-Shoshoni_tipis.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shoshoni_tipis.jpg/420px-Shoshoni_tipis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Shoshoni_tipis.jpg/560px-Shoshoni_tipis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3717" data-file-height="2853" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a> encampment in the <a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Range" title="Wind River Range">Wind River Range</a> of Wyoming, photographed by Percy Jackson, 1870</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hunter-gatherer" title="Special:EditPage/Hunter-gatherer">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Disputed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-disputed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/45px-System-search.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/68px-System-search.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/90px-System-search.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section's <b>factual accuracy is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Hunter-gatherer#Disputed" title="Talk:Hunter-gatherer">talk page</a>. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliably sourced</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some of the theorists who advocate this "revisionist" critique<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What revisionist critique? (July 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> imply that, because the "pure hunter-gatherer" disappeared not long after <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> (or even agricultural) contact began, nothing meaningful can be learned about prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of modern ones (Kelly,<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 24–29; see Wilmsen<sup id="cite_ref-Wilmsen_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilmsen-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p><p>Lee and Guenther have rejected most of the arguments put forward by Wilmsen.<sup id="cite_ref-ca-lee_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ca-lee-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aa-lee_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aa-lee-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What are these arguments? (July 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Doron Shultziner and others have argued that we can learn a lot about the life-styles of prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers—especially their impressive levels of egalitarianism.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bathurst_Island_men.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bathurst_Island_men.jpg/250px-Bathurst_Island_men.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bathurst_Island_men.jpg/375px-Bathurst_Island_men.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bathurst_Island_men.jpg/500px-Bathurst_Island_men.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Three <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> on <a href="/wiki/Bathurst_Island_(Northern_Territory)" title="Bathurst Island (Northern Territory)">Bathurst Island</a> in 1939. According to Peterson (1998), the island population was isolated for 6,000 years until the 18th century. In 1929, three-quarters of the population supported themselves on <a href="/wiki/Bush_tucker" title="Bush tucker">bush tucker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-peterson_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterson-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>There are nevertheless a number of contemporary hunter-gatherer peoples who, after contact with other societies, continue their ways of life with very little external influence or with modifications that perpetuate the viability of hunting and gathering in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such group is the <a href="/wiki/Pila_Nguru" class="mw-redirect" title="Pila Nguru">Pila Nguru</a> (Spinifex people) of <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>, whose land in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Victoria_Desert" title="Great Victoria Desert">Great Victoria Desert</a> has proved unsuitable for European agriculture (and even pastoralism).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Another are the <a href="/wiki/Sentinelese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentinelese people">Sentinelese</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, who live on <a href="/wiki/North_Sentinel_Island" title="North Sentinel Island">North Sentinel Island</a> and to date have maintained their independent existence, repelling attempts to engage with and contact them.<sup id="cite_ref-Pandya2009_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pandya2009-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Savanna <a href="/wiki/Yaruro_people" title="Yaruro people">Pumé</a> of Venezuela also live in an area that is inhospitable to large scale economic exploitation and maintain their subsistence based on hunting and gathering, as well as incorporating a small amount of manioc horticulture that supplements, but is not replacing, reliance on foraged foods.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Americas">Americas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_peoples_in_Canada#Paleo-Indians_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal peoples in Canada">Aboriginal peoples in Canada § Paleo-Indians period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lithic_period_in_Mesoamerica" title="Lithic period in Mesoamerica">Lithic period in Mesoamerica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg/220px-Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg/330px-Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg/440px-Glyptodon_old_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a> hunting a <a href="/wiki/Glyptodon" title="Glyptodon">glyptodon</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Evidence suggests big-game hunter-gatherers crossed the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a> from Asia (Eurasia) into North America over a land bridge (<a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a>), that existed between 47,000 and 14,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-national_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-national-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 18,500–15,500 years ago, these hunter-gatherers are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> <a href="/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna">megafauna</a> along ice-free corridors that stretched between the <a href="/wiki/Laurentide_Ice_Sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurentide Ice Sheet">Laurentide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cordilleran_Ice_Sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cordilleran Ice Sheet">Cordilleran</a> ice sheets.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using <a href="/wiki/Boat#History" title="Boat">primitive boats</a>, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hunter-gatherers would eventually flourish all over the Americas, primarily based in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> of the United States and Canada, with offshoots as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Gasp%C3%A9_Peninsula" title="Gaspé Peninsula">Gaspé Peninsula</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic coast</a>, and as far south as <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monte_Verde" title="Monte Verde">Monte Verde</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Removed previous citation to a non-expert's personal website; a reliable source should be cited in its place. (March 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> American hunter-gatherers were spread over a wide geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making <a href="/wiki/Knapping" title="Knapping">knapping</a> styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period <a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">lithic reduction</a> tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 25 to 50 members of an extended family.<sup id="cite_ref-TENNESSEE_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TENNESSEE-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a> saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers. Individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, however, and thus archaeologists have identified a pattern of increasing regional generalization, as seen with the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Southwest" title="Archaic Southwest">Southwest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arctic_tradition" title="Paleo-Arctic tradition">Arctic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dalton_tradition" title="Dalton tradition">Dalton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plano_cultures" title="Plano cultures">Plano</a> traditions. These regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, with a more mixed <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a> of small game, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, seasonally <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">wild vegetables</a> and harvested plant foods.<sup id="cite_ref-Fiedel_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fiedel-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg/220px-%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg/330px-%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg/440px-%C3%8Dndios_em_uma_fazenda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1872" data-file-height="1386" /></a><figcaption>Indigenous people at a Brazilian farm plantation in <a href="/wiki/Minas_Gerais" title="Minas Gerais">Minas Gerais</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1824</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Scholars like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kat_Anderson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kat Anderson (page does not exist)">Kat Anderson</a> have suggested that the term Hunter-gatherer is reductive because it implies that Native Americans never stayed in one place long enough to affect the environment around them. However, many of the landscapes in the Americas today are due to the way the Natives of that area originally tended the land. Anderson specifically looks at California Natives and the practices they utilized to tame their land. Some of these practices included pruning, weeding, sowing, burning, and selective harvesting. These practices allowed them to take from the environment in a sustainable manner for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>California Indians view the idea of wilderness in a negative light. They believe that wilderness is the result of humans losing their knowledge of the natural world and how to care for it. When the earth turns back to wilderness after the connection with humans is lost then the plants and animals will retreat and hide from the humans.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Negritos.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Negritos.png/220px-Negritos.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Negritos.png/330px-Negritos.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Negritos.png/440px-Negritos.png 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negritos</a> (<i>Negrillos</i>) in the Philippines, 1595</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg/220px-Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg/330px-Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg/440px-Groupe_d%C2%B4Indiens_Ona.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1057" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Selk%CA%BCnam_people" title="Selkʼnam people">Selkʼnam</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Tierra del Fuego">Tierra del Fuego</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1915</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Hadzabe_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/The_Hadzabe_house.jpg/250px-The_Hadzabe_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/The_Hadzabe_house.jpg/330px-The_Hadzabe_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/The_Hadzabe_house.jpg/500px-The_Hadzabe_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hadza_people" title="Hadza people">Hadza</a> hunter-gatherers in Tanzania, 2022</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beachcombing" title="Beachcombing">Beachcombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomads" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomads">Nomads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">Homo floresiensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">Human migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals">Neanderthals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_society" title="Origins of society">Origins of society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive skills">Primitive skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateless_society" title="Stateless society">Stateless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Hunter-Gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer">Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comb_Ceramic_culture" title="Comb Ceramic culture">Comb Ceramic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitted_Ware_culture" title="Pitted Ware culture">Pitted Ware culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontacted_peoples" title="Uncontacted peoples">Uncontacted peoples</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_hunter-gatherer_groups">Modern hunter-gatherer groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern hunter-gatherer groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aka_people" title="Aka people">Aka people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andamanese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Andamanese people">Andamanese people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angu_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Angu people">Angu people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aw%C3%A1-Guaj%C3%A1_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Awá-Guajá people">Awá-Guajá people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batek_people" title="Batek people">Batek people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ef%C3%A9_people" title="Efé people">Efé people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians" title="Fuegians">Fuegians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_people" title="Hadza people">Hadza people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiat" title="Iñupiat">Iñupiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarawa_people_(Andaman_Islands)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarawa people (Andaman Islands)">Jarawa people (Andaman Islands)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawahiva_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawahiva people">Kawahiva people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ket_people" title="Ket people">Ket people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maniq_people" title="Maniq people">Maniq people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_people" title="Mbuti people">Mbuti people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mlabri_people" title="Mlabri people">Mlabri people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moriori_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Moriori people">Moriori people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nukak people">Nukak people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onge_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Onge people">Onge people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penan_people" title="Penan people">Penan people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_people" title="Pirahã people">Pirahã people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raute_people" title="Raute people">Raute people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semang_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Semang people">Semang people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinelese_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentinelese people">Sentinelese people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tjimba_people" title="Tjimba people">Tjimba people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaruro_people" title="Yaruro people">Yaruro (Pumé) people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye%27kuana_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ye'kuana people">Ye'kuana people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yupik_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yupik people">Yupik people</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_movements">Social movements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Social movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a>, which strives for the abolishment of civilization and the return to a life in the wild.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeganism" title="Freeganism">Freeganism</a> involves gathering of food (and sometimes other materials) in the context of an urban or suburban environment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleaning" title="Gleaning">Gleaning</a> involves the gathering of food that traditional farmers have left behind in their fields.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_diet" title="Paleolithic diet">Paleolithic diet</a>, which strives to achieve a diet similar to that of ancient hunter-gatherer groups.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Current Anthropology. 35 (2): 175–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lourandos-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lourandos_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLourandos1997" class="citation book cs1">Lourandos, Harry (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tTy-I8no1MwC&q=egalitarian+hunter-gatherer"><i>Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521359467" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521359467"><bdi>978-0521359467</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Continent+of+Hunter-Gatherers%3A+New+Perspectives+in+Australian+Prehistory&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0521359467&rft.aulast=Lourandos&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtTy-I8no1MwC%26q%3Degalitarian%2Bhunter-gatherer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fitzhugh-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fitzhugh_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFitzhugh2003" class="citation book cs1">Fitzhugh, Ben (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FLH-fMsjyM8C&q=egalitarian+hunter-gatherer"><i>The Evolution of Complex Hunter-Gatherers: Archaeological Evidence from the North Pacific</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. <span class="nowrap">4–</span>5, 242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306478536" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306478536"><bdi>978-0306478536</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Complex+Hunter-Gatherers%3A+Archaeological+Evidence+from+the+North+Pacific&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E5%2C+242&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0306478536&rft.aulast=Fitzhugh&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFLH-fMsjyM8C%26q%3Degalitarian%2Bhunter-gatherer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSingh" class="citation web cs1">Singh, Manvir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aeon.co/essays/not-all-early-human-societies-were-small-scale-egalitarian-bands">"Beyond the !Kung"</a>. <i>Aeon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Aeon&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+%21Kung&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faeon.co%2Fessays%2Fnot-all-early-human-societies-were-small-scale-egalitarian-bands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cashdan-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cashdan_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCashdan1980" class="citation journal cs1">Cashdan, Elizabeth A. (1980). "Egalitarianism among Hunters and Gatherers". <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>82</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">116–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1980.82.1.02a00100">10.1525/aa.1980.82.1.02a00100</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7294">0002-7294</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/676134">676134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Egalitarianism+among+Hunters+and+Gatherers&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0002-7294&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F676134%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1980.82.1.02a00100&rft.aulast=Cashdan&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Scott, John; Marshall, Gordon (2007). <i>A Dictionary of Sociology</i>. US: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198609872" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198609872">978-0198609872</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFErdalWhiten1994" class="citation journal cs1">Erdal, D.; Whiten, A. (1994). "On human egalitarianism: an evolutionary product of Machiavellian status escalation?". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>35</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">175–</span>83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F204255">10.1086/204255</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53652577">53652577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=On+human+egalitarianism%3A+an+evolutionary+product+of+Machiavellian+status+escalation%3F&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F204255&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53652577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Erdal&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Whiten%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erdal, D. and A. Whiten 1996. "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian intelligence in human evolution". In, P. Mellars and K. Gibson (eds), <i>Modelling the early human mind.</i> Cambridge: McDonald Institute Monographs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gintis, Herbert. 2013. “The Evolutionary Roots of Human Hyper-Cognition.” <i>Journal of Bioeconomics</i> 15 (1): 83–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gintis, Herbert, Carel van Schaik, and Christopher Boehm. 2019. “Zoon Politikon: The Evolutionary Origins of Human Socio-Political Systems.” <i>Behavioural Processes, Behavioral Evolution</i>, 161 (April): 17–30. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.beproc.2018.01.007">10.1016/j.beproc.2018.01.007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gowdy-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gowdy_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGowdy1998" class="citation book cs1">Gowdy, John M. (1998). <i>Limited Wants, Unlimited Means: A Reader on Hunter-Gatherer Economics and the Environment</i>. St Louis: Island Press. pp. xv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/155963555X" title="Special:BookSources/155963555X"><bdi>155963555X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limited+Wants%2C+Unlimited+Means%3A+A+Reader+on+Hunter-Gatherer+Economics+and+the+Environment&rft.place=St+Louis&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=Island+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=155963555X&rft.aulast=Gowdy&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dahlberg-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dahlberg_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDahlberg1975" class="citation book cs1">Dahlberg, Frances (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eTPULzP1MZAC&q=Gathering+and+Hominid+Adaptation&pg=PA120"><i>Woman the Gatherer</i></a>. London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300029896" title="Special:BookSources/0300029896"><bdi>0300029896</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Woman+the+Gatherer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0300029896&rft.aulast=Dahlberg&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeTPULzP1MZAC%26q%3DGathering%2Band%2BHominid%2BAdaptation%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erdal, D. & Whiten, A. (1996) "Egalitarianism and Machiavellian Intelligence in Human Evolution" in Mellars, P. & Gibadfson, K. (eds) <i>Modelling the Early Human Mind</i>. Cambridge MacDonald Monograph Series. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kiefer-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kiefer_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kiefer_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKiefer2002" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit">Kiefer, Thomas M. (Spring 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410021259/http://www.suluarchipelago.com/E20Website2002/default.htm">"Anthropology E-20"</a>. <i>Lecture 8 Subsistence, Ecology and Food production</i>. Harvard University. 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Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 61–82.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWei-Hass2020" class="citation web cs1">Wei-Hass, Maya (2020-11-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210217213250/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/prehistoric-female-hunter-discovery-upends-gender-role-assumptions">"Prehistoric female hunter discovery upends gender role assumptions"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. 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(July 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLovgren2006" class="citation news cs1">Lovgren, Stefan (December 7, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061210022722/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/12/061207-sex-humans.html">"Sex-Based Roles Gave Modern Humans an Edge, Study Says"</a>. <i>National Geographic News</i>. 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(1986). <i>Essai sur les fondements de la division sexuelle du travail chez les chasseurs-cueilleurs.</i> Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-biesele_and_barclay-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-biesele_and_barclay_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBieseleBarclay2001" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Biesele, Megan; Barclay, Steve (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/32171204">"Ju/'Hoan Women's Tracking Knowledge And Its Contribution To Their Husbands' Hunting Success"</a>. <i>African Study Monographs</i>. Suppl. 26: <span class="nowrap">67–</span>84.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Study+Monographs&rft.atitle=Ju%2F%27Hoan+Women%27s+Tracking+Knowledge+And+Its+Contribution+To+Their+Husbands%27+Hunting+Success&rft.volume=Suppl.+26&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.date=2001-03&rft.aulast=Biesele&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft.au=Barclay%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F32171204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBirdBird2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bird, Rebecca Bliege; Bird, Douglas W. (2008-08-01). 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(1968). "Notes on the Original Affluent Society", <i>Man the Hunter.</i> R.B. Lee and I. DeVore (New York: Aldine Publishing Company) pp. 85–89. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/020233032X" title="Special:BookSources/020233032X">020233032X</a>. 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Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Aboriginal+Studies&rft.atitle=Demographic+transition+in+a+hunter-gatherer+population%3A+the+Tiwi+case%2C+1929%E2%80%931996&rft.volume=1998&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft.au=Taylor%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Flibrary%2Fjournal%2F1G1-21167358%2Fdemographic-transition-in-a-hunter-gatherer-population&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pandya2009-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pandya2009_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPandya2009" class="citation book cs1">Pandya, Vishvajit (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9UzX63tCpXQC&pg=PA357"><i>In the Forest: Visual and Material Worlds of Andamanese History (1858–2006)</i></a>. University Press of America. p. 357. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0761842729" title="Special:BookSources/978-0761842729"><bdi>978-0761842729</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/673383888">673383888</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Forest%3A+Visual+and+Material+Worlds+of+Andamanese+History+%281858%E2%80%932006%29&rft.pages=357&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F673383888&rft.isbn=978-0761842729&rft.aulast=Pandya&rft.aufirst=Vishvajit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9UzX63tCpXQC%26pg%3DPA357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archived at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/kJQuYKYxdVI">Ghostarchive</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140107175922/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJQuYKYxdVI&gl=US&hl=en">Wayback Machine</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJQuYKYxdVI">"North Sentinel Island: A Glimpse Into Prehistory"</a>. 15 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2017</span> – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=North+Sentinel+Island%3A+A+Glimpse+Into+Prehistory&rft.date=2013-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DkJQuYKYxdVI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKramerGreaves2016" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Karen L.; Greaves, Russell D. (2016). "Diversify or replace: what happens when cultigens are introduced into hunter-gatherer diets.". In Codding, Brian F.; Kramer, Karen L. (eds.). <i>Why Forage? Hunters and Gatherers in the Twenty-First Century</i>. Santa Fe; Albuquerque: School for Advanced Research Press and University of New Mexico Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">15–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826356963" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826356963"><bdi>978-0826356963</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Diversify+or+replace%3A+what+happens+when+cultigens+are+introduced+into+hunter-gatherer+diets.&rft.btitle=Why+Forage%3F+Hunters+and+Gatherers+in+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.place=Santa+Fe%3B+Albuquerque&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.pub=School+for+Advanced+Research+Press+and+University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0826356963&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Karen+L.&rft.au=Greaves%2C+Russell+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-national-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-national_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501094643/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html?era=e003">"Atlas of the Human Journey-The Genographic Project"</a>. National Geographic Society. 1996–2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html?era=e003">the original</a> on 2011-05-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Human+Journey-The+Genographic+Project&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society.&rft.date=1996%2F2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgenographic.nationalgeographic.com%2Fgenographic%2Fatlas.html%3Fera%3De003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news169474130.html">"The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+peopling+of+the+Americas%3A+Genetic+ancestry+influences+health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews169474130.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFladmark1979" class="citation journal cs1">Fladmark, K. R. (January 1979). "Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America". <i>American Antiquity</i>. 1. <b>44</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F279189">10.2307/279189</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/279189">279189</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162243347">162243347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Alternate+Migration+Corridors+for+Early+Man+in+North+America&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=1979-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162243347%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F279189%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F279189&rft.aulast=Fladmark&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEshlemanMalhiSmith2003" class="citation journal cs1">Eshleman, Jason A.; Malhi, Ripan S.; Smith, David Glenn (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227659833">"Mitochondrial DNA Studies of Native Americans: Conceptions and Misconceptions of the Population Prehistory of the Americas"</a>. <i>Evolutionary Anthropology</i>. <b>12</b>. University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign: <span class="nowrap">7–</span>18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fevan.10048">10.1002/evan.10048</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17049337">17049337</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Mitochondrial+DNA+Studies+of+Native+Americans%3A+Conceptions+and+Misconceptions+of+the+Population+Prehistory+of+the+Americas&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fevan.10048&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17049337%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Eshleman&rft.aufirst=Jason+A.&rft.au=Malhi%2C+Ripan+S.&rft.au=Smith%2C+David+Glenn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F227659833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TENNESSEE-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TENNESSEE_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBroster2002" class="citation web cs1">Broster, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1033">"Paleoindians in Tennessee"</a>. Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Tennessee Historical Society. Online Edition provided by: The University of Tennessee Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paleoindians+in+Tennessee&rft.pub=Tennessee+Department+of+Environment+and+Conservation.+Tennessee+Historical+Society.+Online+Edition+provided+by%3A+The+University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Broster&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftennesseeencyclopedia.net%2Fentry.php%3Frec%3D1033&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/10/011025072315.htm">"Blame North America Megafauna Extinction On Climate Change, Not Human Ancestors"</a>. ScienceDaily. 2001<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-04-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blame+North+America+Megafauna+Extinction+On+Climate+Change%2C+Not+Human+Ancestors&rft.pub=ScienceDaily&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2001%2F10%2F011025072315.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fiedel-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fiedel_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFiedel1992" class="citation book cs1">Fiedel, Stuart J. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Yrhp8H0_l6MC&q=Paleo-Indians%20tradition&pg=PA151"><i>Prehistory of the Americas</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521425445" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521425445"><bdi>978-0521425445</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistory+of+the+Americas&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0521425445&rft.aulast=Fiedel&rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYrhp8H0_l6MC%26q%3DPaleo-Indians%2520tradition%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStuart_B._Schwartz1999" class="citation book cs1">Stuart B. Schwartz, Frank Salomon (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PqEQWch7woQC&q=Formative%20stage%20in%20the%20americas&pg=PA256"><i>The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521630757" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521630757"><bdi>978-0521630757</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-11-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Native+Peoples+of+the+Americas&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0521630757&rft.aulast=Stuart+B.+Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Frank+Salomon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPqEQWch7woQC%26q%3DFormative%2520stage%2520in%2520the%2520americas%26pg%3DPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2013" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Kat (2013). <i>Tending the Wild</i>. Univ of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520280434" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520280434"><bdi>978-0520280434</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tending+the+Wild&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=Univ+of+California+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0520280434&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Kat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>Books</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBarnard,_A._J.2004" class="citation book cs1">Barnard, A. J., ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SU-tuR9t5KoC"><i>Hunter-gatherers in history, archaeology and anthropology</i></a>. Berg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1859738257" title="Special:BookSources/1859738257"><bdi>1859738257</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hunter-gatherers+in+history%2C+archaeology+and+anthropology&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1859738257&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSU-tuR9t5KoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBettinger,_R._L.1991" class="citation book cs1">Bettinger, R. L. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5F-bmYoOr6cC"><i>Hunter-gatherers: archaeological and evolutionary theory</i></a>. Plenum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306436507" title="Special:BookSources/0306436507"><bdi>0306436507</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hunter-gatherers%3A+archaeological+and+evolutionary+theory&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0306436507&rft.au=Bettinger%2C+R.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5F-bmYoOr6cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBowlesGintis2011" class="citation book cs1">Bowles, Samuel; Gintis, Herbert (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/A-cooperative-species-human-reciprocity-and-its-evolution-by-Bowles-and-Gintis.php"><i>A Cooperative Species: Human Reciprocity and Its Evolution</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691151250" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691151250"><bdi>978-0691151250</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cooperative+Species%3A+Human+Reciprocity+and+Its+Evolution&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0691151250&rft.aulast=Bowles&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Gintis%2C+Herbert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FA-cooperative-species-human-reciprocity-and-its-evolution-by-Bowles-and-Gintis.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span> (Reviewed in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/A-cooperative-species-human-reciprocity-and-its-evolution-by-Bowles-and-Gintis.php">The Montreal Review</a></i>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrody2001" class="citation book cs1">Brody, Hugh (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/othersideofedenh00brod"><i>The Other Side Of Eden: hunter-gatherers, farmers and the shaping of the world</i></a></span>. North Point Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/057120502X" title="Special:BookSources/057120502X"><bdi>057120502X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Side+Of+Eden%3A+hunter-gatherers%2C+farmers+and+the+shaping+of+the+world&rft.pub=North+Point+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=057120502X&rft.aulast=Brody&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fothersideofedenh00brod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCoddingKramer2016" class="citation book cs1">Codding, Brian F.; Kramer, Karen L., eds. (2016). <i>Why forage?: hunters and gatherers in the twenty-first century</i>. Santa Fe, Albuquerque: School for Advanced Research Press, University of New Mexico Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826356963" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826356963"><bdi>978-0826356963</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+forage%3F%3A+hunters+and+gatherers+in+the+twenty-first+century&rft.place=Santa+Fe%2C+Albuquerque&rft.pub=School+for+Advanced+Research+Press%2C+University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0826356963&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeeDeVore1968" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Richard B.; DeVore, Irven, eds. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8onGWvNpw18C"><i>Man the hunter</i></a>. Aldine de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/020233032X" title="Special:BookSources/020233032X"><bdi>020233032X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+the+hunter&rft.pub=Aldine+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=020233032X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8onGWvNpw18C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeltzer2009" class="citation book cs1">Meltzer, David J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jWgZPz6oXSwC"><i>First peoples in a new world: colonizing ice age America</i></a>. Berkeley: University of California. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520250529" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520250529"><bdi>978-0520250529</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+peoples+in+a+new+world%3A+colonizing+ice+age+America&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0520250529&rft.aulast=Meltzer&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjWgZPz6oXSwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorrison,_K._D.L._L._Junker2002" class="citation book cs1">Morrison, K. D.; L. L. Junker, eds. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6IAUKE7xv_cC"><i>Forager-traders in South and Southeast Asia: long term histories</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521016363" title="Special:BookSources/0521016363"><bdi>0521016363</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forager-traders+in+South+and+Southeast+Asia%3A+long+term+histories&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0521016363&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6IAUKE7xv_cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPanter-Brick,_C.R._H._LaytonP._Rowley-Conwy2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Panter-Brick" title="Catherine Panter-Brick">Panter-Brick, C.</a>; R. H. Layton; P. Rowley-Conwy, eds. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7yCpBRAY22UC"><i>Hunter-gatherers: an interdisciplinary perspective</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521776724" title="Special:BookSources/0521776724"><bdi>0521776724</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hunter-gatherers%3A+an+interdisciplinary+perspective&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0521776724&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7yCpBRAY22UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTurnbull,_Colin1987" class="citation book cs1">Turnbull, Colin (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forestpeople00coli"><i>The Forest People</i></a>. Touchstone. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671640996" title="Special:BookSources/978-0671640996"><bdi>978-0671640996</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forest+People&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0671640996&rft.au=Turnbull%2C+Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforestpeople00coli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>Articles</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMudarAnderson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mudar, Karen; Anderson, Douglas D. (Fall 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/17269/1/AP-v46n2-298-334.pdf">"New evidence for Southeast Asian Pleistocene foraging economies: faunal remains from the early levels of Lang Rongrien rockshelter, Krabi, Thailand"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Asian Perspectives</i>. <b>46</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">298–</span>334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fasi.2007.0013">10.1353/asi.2007.0013</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F17269">10125/17269</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56067301">56067301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Perspectives&rft.atitle=New+evidence+for+Southeast+Asian+Pleistocene+foraging+economies%3A+faunal+remains+from+the+early+levels+of+Lang+Rongrien+rockshelter%2C+Krabi%2C+Thailand&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E298-%3C%2Fspan%3E334&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F17269&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56067301%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fasi.2007.0013&rft.aulast=Mudar&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Douglas+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu%2Fbitstream%2F10125%2F17269%2F1%2FAP-v46n2-298-334.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNakaoTamuraArimatsuNakagawa2016" class="citation journal cs1">Nakao, Hisashi; Tamura, Kohei; Arimatsu, Yui; Nakagawa, Tomomi; Matsumoto, Naoko; Matsugi, Takehiko (30 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843228">"Violence in the prehistoric period of Japan: the spatio-temporal pattern of skeletal evidence for violence in the Jomon period"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biology_Letters" title="Biology Letters">Biology Letters</a></i>. <b>12</b> (3). The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> publishing: 20160028. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2016.0028">10.1098/rsbl.2016.0028</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4843228">4843228</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27029838">27029838</a>. <q>Our results suggest that the mortality due to violence was low and spatio-temporally highly restricted in the Jomon period, which implies that violence including warfare in prehistoric Japan was not common.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+Letters&rft.atitle=Violence+in+the+prehistoric+period+of+Japan%3A+the+spatio-temporal+pattern+of+skeletal+evidence+for+violence+in+the+Jomon+period&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=20160028&rft.date=2016-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4843228%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27029838&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2016.0028&rft.aulast=Nakao&rft.aufirst=Hisashi&rft.au=Tamura%2C+Kohei&rft.au=Arimatsu%2C+Yui&rft.au=Nakagawa%2C+Tomomi&rft.au=Matsumoto%2C+Naoko&rft.au=Matsugi%2C+Takehiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4843228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmber" class="citation web cs1">Ember, Carol R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hraf.yale.edu/ehc/summaries/hunter-gatherers">"Hunter Gatherers (Foragers)"</a>. <i>Explaining Human Culture</i>. Human Relations Area Files<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2018</span>. <q>Most cross-cultural research aims to understand shared traits among hunter-gatherers and how and why they vary. Here we look at the conclusions of cross-cultural studies that ask: What are recent hunter-gatherers generally like? How do they differ from food producers? How and why do hunter-gatherers vary?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Explaining+Human+Culture&rft.atitle=Hunter+Gatherers+%28Foragers%29&rft.aulast=Ember&rft.aufirst=Carol+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhraf.yale.edu%2Fehc%2Fsummaries%2Fhunter-gatherers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hunter-gatherer&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hunter-gatherers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hunter-gatherers">Hunter-gatherers</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ishgr.org/">International Society for Hunter Gatherer Research (ISHGR)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chags.univie.ac.at/history/">History of the Conference on Hunting and Gathering Societies (CHAGS)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foragers-association.org">The Association of Foragers: An international association for teachers of hunter-gatherer skills.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://foragers.wikidot.com/start">A wiki dedicated to the scientific study of the diversity of foraging societies without recreating myths</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBalmer2013" class="citation web cs1">Balmer, Yves (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140111014239/http://andaman-video.org/">"Ethnological videos clips. Living or recently extinct traditional tribal groups and their origins"</a>. Andaman Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.andaman-video.org">the original</a> on January 11, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ethnological+videos+clips.+Living+or+recently+extinct+traditional+tribal+groups+and+their+origins&rft.pub=Andaman+Association&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Balmer&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.andaman-video.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHunter-gatherer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hgcosmos.org/">Hunter-gatherer bibliographic site (HGCOSMOS)</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prehistoric_technology434" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prehistoric_technology" title="Template talk:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prehistoric technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prehistoric_technology434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system#Stone_Age_subdivisions" title="Three-age system">Subdivisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">New Stone Age</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Tools434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Tools</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">Farming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founder_crops" title="Founder crops">Founder crops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard / plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celt_(tool)" title="Celt (tool)">Celt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digging_stick" title="Digging stick">Digging stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goad" title="Goad">Goad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_products_revolution" title="Secondary products revolution">Secondary products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">Sickle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terracing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Food processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_oven" title="Earth oven">Earth oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grinding_slab" title="Grinding slab">Grinding slab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_stone" title="Ground stone">Ground stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearth" title="Hearth">Hearth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9F%C4%B1kl%C4%B1_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk#Hearths" title="Aşıklı Höyük">Aşıklı Höyük</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qesem_cave#Fire" title="Qesem cave">Qesem cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mano_(stone)" title="Mano (stone)">Manos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metate" title="Metate">Metate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">Mortar and pestle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_storage_pits" title="Prehistoric storage pits">Storage pits</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">Arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archery" title="History of archery">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Hunting" title="Gravettian">Nets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">Spear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_fragment_(Palart_310)" title="Baton fragment (Palart 310)">baton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ningen_spears" title="Schöningen spears">Schöningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woomera_(spear-thrower)" title="Woomera (spear-thrower)">woomera</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile points</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrowhead" title="Arrowhead">Arrowhead</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_arrowhead" title="Transverse arrowhead">Transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_Island_projectile_point" title="Bare Island projectile point">Bare Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_point" title="Cascade point">Cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creswellian_culture" title="Creswellian culture">Cresswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumberland_point" title="Cumberland point">Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamoka_projectile_point" title="Lamoka projectile point">Lamoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manis_Mastodon_site" title="Manis Mastodon site">Manis Mastodon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_point" title="Plano point">Plano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_drive_system" title="Game drive system">Game drive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Toolmaking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industry_(archaeology)" title="Industry (archaeology)">Earliest toolmaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurignacian" title="Aurignacian">Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupstone" title="Cupstone">Cupstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_hardening" title="Fire hardening">Fire hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian" title="Gravettian">Gravettian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafting" title="Hafting">Hafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_axe" title="Hand axe">Hand axe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grooves_(archaeology)" title="Grooves (archaeology)">Grooves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdale_axe_industry" title="Langdale axe industry">Langdale axe industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallois_technique" title="Levallois technique">Levallois technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">Lithic core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_reduction" title="Lithic reduction">Lithic reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_analysis" title="Lithic analysis">analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debitage" title="Debitage">debitage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">flake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">Lithic technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magdalenian" title="Magdalenian">Magdalenian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microblade_technology" title="Microblade technology">Microblade technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grime%27s_Graves" title="Grime's Graves">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepared-core_technique" title="Prepared-core technique">Prepared-core technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean" title="Solutrean">Solutrean industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Striking_platform" title="Striking platform">Striking platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_stone" title="Tool stone">Tool stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniface" title="Uniface">Uniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yubetsu_technique" title="Yubetsu technique">Yubetsu technique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Other tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">Adze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stitching_awl" title="Stitching awl">Awl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravettian#Use_of_animal_remains" title="Gravettian">bone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">Axe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannerstone" title="Bannerstone">Bannerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_(archaeology)" title="Blade (archaeology)">Blade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prismatic_blade" title="Prismatic blade">prismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">Bone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">Bow drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burin_(lithic_flake)" title="Burin (lithic flake)">Burin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canoe#History" title="Canoe">Canoe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chopper_(archaeology)" title="Chopper (archaeology)">Chopper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chopping_tool" title="Chopping tool">tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaver_(Stone_Age_tool)" title="Cleaver (Stone Age tool)">Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denticulate_tool" title="Denticulate tool">Denticulate tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_plough" title="Fire plough">Fire plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-saw" title="Fire-saw">Fire-saw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammerstone" title="Hammerstone">Hammerstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">Knife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microlith" title="Microlith">Microlith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quern-stone" title="Quern-stone">Quern-stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racloir" title="Racloir">Racloir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scraper_(archaeology)" title="Scraper (archaeology)">Scraper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grattoir_de_c%C3%B4t%C3%A9" title="Grattoir de côté">side</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">Stone tool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tally_stick#Paleolithic_tally_sticks" title="Tally stick">Tally stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons#Copper_Age" title="History of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronocice_pot" title="Bronocice pot">illustration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Architecture434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Ceremonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">Pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">Standing stones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megalith" title="Megalith">megalith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_row" title="Stone row">row</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_architecture" title="Neolithic architecture">Neolithic architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_long_house" title="Neolithic long house">long house</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_megalith_architecture" title="British megalith architecture">British megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_megalith_architecture" title="Nordic megalith architecture">Nordic megalith architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burdei" title="Burdei">Burdei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff_dwelling" title="Cliff dwelling">Cliff dwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">Hut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiggly_hole" title="Quiggly hole">Quiggly hole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacal" title="Jacal">Jacal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse" title="Longhouse">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">Mudbrick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh#Lifestyle_and_technology" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit-house" title="Pit-house">Pit-house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_pueblitos" title="Navajo pueblitos">Pueblitos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo" title="Pueblo">Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abri_de_la_Madeleine" title="Abri de la Madeleine">Abri de la Madeleine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibudu_Cave" title="Sibudu Cave">Sibudu Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">Roundhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilt_house" title="Stilt house">Stilt house</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_pile_dwellings_around_the_Alps" title="Prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps">Alp pile dwellings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ness_of_Brodgar" title="Ness of Brodgar">Stone roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wattle_and_daub" title="Wattle and daub">Wattle and daub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Water management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flush_toilet#History" title="Flush toilet">Flush toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">Reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feature_(archaeology)" title="Feature (archaeology)">Archaeological features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broch" title="Broch">Broch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burnt_mound" title="Burnt mound">Burnt mound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulacht_fiadh" title="Fulacht fiadh">fulacht fiadh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causewayed_enclosure" title="Causewayed enclosure">Causewayed enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tor_enclosure" title="Tor enclosure">Tor enclosure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_circular_enclosures_in_Central_Europe" title="Neolithic circular enclosures in Central Europe">Circular enclosure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_Circle" title="Goseck Circle">Goseck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus" title="Cursus">Cursus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henge" title="Henge">Henge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornborough_Henges" title="Thornborough Henges">Thornborough</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_architectural_elements" title="Megalithic architectural elements">Megalithic architectural elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_extant_buildings" title="List of oldest extant buildings">Oldest extant buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_circle" title="Timber circle">Timber circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_trackway" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber trackway">Timber trackway</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_Track" title="Sweet Track">Sweet Track</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arts_and_culture434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">Material goods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basket_weaving" title="Basket weaving">Baskets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beadwork" title="Beadwork">Beadwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed#History" title="Bed">Beds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles" title="History of clothing and textiles">Clothing/textiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology" title="Timeline of clothing and textiles technology">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cosmetics" title="History of cosmetics">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Glue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hide_materials" title="History of hide materials">Hides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoe#History" title="Shoe">shoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96tzi#Clothes_and_shoes" title="Ötzi">Ötzi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewellery#History" title="Jewellery">Jewelry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amber#Use" title="Amber">amber use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror#History" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery#History" title="Pottery">Pottery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cord-marked_pottery" title="Cord-marked pottery">Cord-marked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_ware" title="Grooved ware">Grooved ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">Jōmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstan_ware" title="Unstan ware">Unstan ware</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_needle#History" title="Sewing needle">Sewing needle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">Weaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">Wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areni-1_winery" title="Areni-1 winery">winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press#Early_history" title="History of the wine press">wine press</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Upper_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Upper Paleolithic">Art of the Upper Paleolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Middle_Paleolithic" title="Art of the Middle Paleolithic">Art of the Middle Paleolithic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blombos_Cave#Archaeological_remains_and_material_culture_from_the_Middle_Stone_Age_levels" title="Blombos Cave">Blombos Cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stone_Age_art" title="List of Stone Age art">List of Stone Age art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_stone" title="Bird stone">Bird stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairn" title="Cairn">Cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carved_stone_balls" title="Carved stone balls">Carved stone balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark" title="Cup and ring mark">Cup and ring mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hill_figure" title="Hill figure">Hill figure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_stones" title="Guardian stones">Guardian stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwion_Gwion_rock_paintings" title="Gwion Gwion rock paintings">Gwion Gwion rock paintings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Pre-history" title="History of painting">painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment#History" title="Pigment">pigment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_art" title="Megalithic art">Megalithic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroform" title="Petroform">Petroform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosomatoglyph" title="Petrosomatoglyph">Petrosomatoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">Pictogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">Rock art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rock_cupule" title="Rock cupule">Rock cupule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_carving" title="Stone carving">Stone carving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture#Prehistoric_periods" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_menhir" title="Statue menhir">Statue menhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circle" title="Stone circle">Stone circle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stone_circles" title="List of stone circles">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_circles_in_the_British_Isles_and_Brittany" title="Stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany">British Isles and Brittany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em"><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Burial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">Burial mounds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowl_barrow" title="Bowl barrow">Bowl barrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Round_barrow" title="Round barrow">Round barrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_mounds_in_the_United_States" title="List of burial mounds in the United States">U.S. sites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_tomb" title="Chamber tomb">Chamber tomb</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cotswold-Severn_Group" title="Cotswold-Severn Group">Cotswold-Severn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cist" title="Cist">Cist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dartmoor_kistvaens" title="Dartmoor kistvaens">Dartmoor kistvaens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clava_cairn" title="Clava cairn">Clava cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_cairn" title="Court cairn">Court cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremation#History" title="Cremation">Cremation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">Dolmen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_dolmen" title="Great dolmen">Great dolmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">Funeral pyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallery_grave" title="Gallery grave">Gallery grave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transepted_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Transepted gallery grave">transepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge-shaped_gallery_grave" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge-shaped gallery grave">wedge-shaped</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jar_burial" title="Jar burial">Jar burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_barrow" title="Long barrow">Long barrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_barrow" title="Unchambered long barrow">unchambered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8nsalen" title="Grønsalen">Grønsalen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">Megalithic tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">Mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectangular_dolmen" title="Rectangular dolmen">Rectangular dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_cairn" title="Ring cairn">Ring cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_dolmen" title="Simple dolmen">Simple dolmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_box_grave" title="Stone box grave">Stone box grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tor_cairn" title="Tor cairn">Tor cairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unchambered_long_cairn" title="Unchambered long cairn">Unchambered long cairn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Other cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeoastronomical_sites_by_country" title="List of archaeoastronomical sites by country">sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Evolutionary musicology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_archaeology" title="Music archaeology">music archaeology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenic_drugs_and_the_archaeological_record" title="Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record">Spiritual drug use</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric counting">Prehistoric counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">trepanning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_drum" title="Alligator drum">Alligator drum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_flute" title="Paleolithic flute">flutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_(instrument)" title="Gudi (instrument)">gudi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diepkloof_Rock_Shelter" title="Diepkloof Rock Shelter">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Howiesons_Poort#Symbolism" title="Howiesons Poort">symbolism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_societies36" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Types_of_societies" title="Template:Types of societies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Types_of_societies" title="Template talk:Types of societies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Types_of_societies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Types of societies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_societies36" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Society#Types" title="Society">Types of societies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_people" title="Hill people">Montane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">Nomadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_society" title="Pastoral society">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_society" title="Agrarian society">Agricultural/Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">Complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hunting_topics139" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hunting_topics" title="Template:Hunting topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hunting_topics" title="Template talk:Hunting topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hunting_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hunting topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hunting_topics139" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting,_fishing_and_animals_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Hunting, fishing and animals in ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Medieval hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_hunting_technologies" title="North American hunting technologies">North American hunting technologies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bat-fowling" title="Bat-fowling">Bat-fowling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beagling" title="Beagling">Beagling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowhunting" title="Bowhunting">Bowhunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big-game_hunting" title="Big-game hunting">Big-game hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coursing" title="Coursing">Coursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_stalker" title="Game stalker">Game stalkering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gigging" title="Gigging">Gigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_hunting" title="Green hunting">Green hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">Falconry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_with_eagles" title="Hunting with eagles">Eagles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_sports" title="Field sports">Field sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fowling" title="Fowling">Fowling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handgun_hunting" title="Handgun hunting">Handgun hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_hunting" title="Internet hunting">Internet hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layout_hunting" title="Layout hunting">Layout hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monter%C3%ADa_(hunt)" title="Montería (hunt)">Montería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muttonbirding" title="Muttonbirding">Muttonbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistence_hunting" title="Persistence hunting">Persistence hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">Pest control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plume_hunting" title="Plume hunting">Plume hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlighting" title="Spotlighting">Spotlighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophy_hunting" title="Trophy hunting">Trophy hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapping" title="Trapping">Trapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_hunting" title="Trail hunting">Trail hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treeing" title="Treeing">Treeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_hunting" title="Upland hunting">Upland hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varmint_hunting" title="Varmint hunting">Varmint hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venatio" title="Venatio">Venatio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">Waterfowl hunting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_call" title="Game call">Game call</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duck_call" title="Duck call">Duck call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghillie_suit" title="Ghillie suit">Ghillie suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_bag" title="Hunting bag">Hunting bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_weapon" title="Hunting weapon">Hunting weapon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_gun" title="Air gun">Air gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assegai" title="Assegai">Assegai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow and arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_spear" title="Bear spear">Bear spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boar_spear" title="Boar spear">Boar spear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boomerang" title="Boomerang">Boomerang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blowgun" title="Blowgun">Blowgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistol" title="Pistol">Pistol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punt_gun" title="Punt gun">Punt gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifle" title="Rifle">Rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">Spear-thrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">Shotgun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_sword" title="Hunting sword">Sword</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throwing_stick" title="Throwing stick">Throwing stick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silencer_(firearms)" title="Silencer (firearms)">Silencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_brake" title="Shooting brake">Shooting brake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_sticks_(weapon_mount)" title="Shooting sticks (weapon mount)">Shooting sticks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Game_(hunting)" title="Game (hunting)">Game</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alligator_hunting" title="Alligator hunting">Alligator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_hunting" title="Bear hunting">Bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Five_game" title="Big Five game">Big five</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bison_hunting" title="Bison hunting">Bison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boar_hunting" title="Boar hunting">Boar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coon_hunting" title="Coon hunting">Raccoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_hunting" title="Deer hunting">Deer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deer_stalking" title="Deer stalking">Stalking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_hunting" title="Fox hunting">Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hare_coursing" title="Hare coursing">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_hunting" class="mw-redirect" title="Human hunting">Human</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Headhunting" title="Headhunting">Headhunting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackal_coursing" title="Jackal coursing">Jackal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mink_hunting" title="Mink hunting">Mink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_game" title="Plains game">Plains game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbiting" title="Rabbiting">Rabbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rook_shooting" title="Rook shooting">Rook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_hunting" title="Tiger hunting">Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_hunting" title="Turkey hunting">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtling_(hunting)" title="Turtling (hunting)">Turtle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_hunting" title="Lion hunting">Lion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quail_hunting" title="Quail hunting">Quail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_hunting" title="Wolf hunting">Wolf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_hunting_with_dogs" title="Wolf hunting with dogs">With dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">Seal</a></li> <li>Squirrel <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Squirrel_poaching" title="Squirrel poaching">Poaching</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">Whale</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_whaling" title="Aboriginal whaling">Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_drive_hunting" title="Dolphin drive hunting">Dolphin drive hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_hunting_of_the_bowhead_whale" title="Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale">Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_jump" title="Buffalo jump">Buffalo jump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buffalo_pound" title="Buffalo pound">Buffalo pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chase_(land)" title="Chase (land)">Chase (land)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_park_(England)" title="Deer park (England)">Deer park (England)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_forest" title="Deer forest">Deer forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_kite" title="Desert kite">Desert kite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_larder" title="Game larder">Game larder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_reserve" title="Game reserve">Game reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_farm" title="Game farm">Game farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guest_ranch" title="Guest ranch">Guest ranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_blind" title="Hunting blind">Hunting blind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_hide" title="Bird hide">Bird hide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salter_(trap)" title="Salter (trap)">Salter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporting_lodge" title="Sporting lodge">Sporting lodge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jagdschloss" title="Jagdschloss">Jagdschloss</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_trap" title="Wolf trap">Wolf trap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_Australia" title="Hunting in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dugong_hunting_in_Australia" title="Dugong hunting in Australia">Dugong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangaroo_industry" title="Kangaroo industry">Kangaroo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Azerbaijan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_tiger_hunts_in_Azerbaijan" title="Historical tiger hunts in Azerbaijan">Tiger</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_Cambodia" title="Hunting in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li>Chad <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_hunting_in_Chad" title="Elephant hunting in Chad">Elephant</a></li></ul></li> <li>Greenland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reindeer_hunting_in_Greenland" title="Reindeer hunting in Greenland">Reindeer</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_poaching_in_India" title="Tiger poaching in India">Tiger poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhino_poaching_in_Assam" title="Rhino poaching in Assam">Rhino poaching in Assam</a></li></ul></li> <li>Kenya <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_hunting_in_Kenya" title="Elephant hunting in Kenya">Elephant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_New_Zealand" title="Hunting in New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter-based_hunting_in_Fiordland" title="Helicopter-based hunting in Fiordland">Helicopter-based hunting in Fiordland</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pakistan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trophy_hunting_in_Pakistan" title="Trophy hunting in Pakistan">Trophy hunting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_Russia" title="Hunting in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_Romania" title="Hunting in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_Spain" title="Hunting in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li>Switzerland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_hunting_reserves_in_Switzerland" title="List of federal hunting reserves in Switzerland">Federal hunting reserves</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tonga <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_snaring" title="Pigeon snaring">Pigeon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_in_the_United_States" title="Hunting in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_fishing_in_Alaska" title="Hunting and fishing in Alaska">Alaska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_and_shooting_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Driven_grouse_shooting" title="Driven grouse shooting">Driven grouse shooting</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation and conservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bag_(fishing_and_hunting)" title="Bag (fishing and hunting)">Bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bag_limits" title="Bag limits">Bag limits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_officer" title="Conservation officer">Conservation officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_management" title="Deer management">Deer management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_Act_1831" title="Game Act 1831">Game Act 1831</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">Game law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_preservation" title="Game preservation">Game preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_Act_2004" title="Hunting Act 2004">Hunting Act 2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_season" title="Hunting season">Hunting season</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_hunting" title="Sustainable hunting">Sustainable hunting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bambi_effect" title="Bambi effect">Bambi effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blooding_(hunting)" title="Blooding (hunting)">Blooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canned_hunt" title="Canned hunt">Canned hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_hawking" title="Car hawking">Car hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duck_ague" title="Duck ague">Duck ague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconry_training_and_technique" title="Falconry training and technique">Falconry training and technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_chase" title="Fair chase">Fair chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_dressing_(hunting)" title="Field dressing (hunting)">Field dressing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamekeepers_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom">Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillie" title="Gillie">Gillie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_dog" title="Hunting dog">Hunting dog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun_dog" title="Gun dog">Gun dog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_magic" title="Hunting magic">Hunting magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hunting_deities" title="List of hunting deities">List of hunting deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_big-game_hunters" title="List of big-game hunters">List of big-game hunters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_hunting" title="Opposition to hunting">Opposition to hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parahawking" title="Parahawking">Parahawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_hunter" title="Professional hunter">Professional hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Cecil_the_lion" title="Killing of Cecil the lion">Killing of Cecil the lion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raptor_persecution" title="Raptor persecution">Raptor persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_orange" title="Safety orange">Safety orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari" title="Safari">Safari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Take_(hunting)" title="Take (hunting)">Take</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracking_(hunting)" title="Tracking (hunting)">Tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_Hunt" title="Wild Hunt">Wild Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hunter" title="White hunter">White hunter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boone_and_Crockett_Club" title="Boone and Crockett Club">Boone and Crockett Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countryside_Alliance" title="Countryside Alliance">Countryside Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducks_Unlimited" title="Ducks Unlimited">Ducks Unlimited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Associations_for_Hunting_and_Conservation_of_the_EU" title="Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU">Federation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Hunters%27_Association" title="Finnish Hunters' Association">Finnish Hunters' Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association" title="Hunt Saboteurs Association">Hunt Saboteurs Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Society_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Humane Society of the United States">Humane Society of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_Against_Cruel_Sports" title="League Against Cruel Sports">League Against Cruel Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Falconers_Association" title="North American Falconers Association">North American Falconers Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals" title="People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safari_Club_International" title="Safari Club International">Safari Club International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bowfishing" title="Bowfishing">Bowfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bounty_hunter" title="Bounty hunter">Bounty hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_sport" title="Blood sport">Blood sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drag_hunting" title="Drag hunting">Drag hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_trial" title="Field trial">Field trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">Fur trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_hunting" title="Ghost hunting">Ghost hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_strategy" title="Hunting strategy">Hunting strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honey_hunting" title="Honey hunting">Honey hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_collecting" title="Insect collecting">Insect collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">Mushroom hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchid_hunting" title="Orchid hunting">Orchid hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_of_gun_laws_by_nation" title="Overview of gun laws by nation">Overview of gun laws by nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox728" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27443#identifiers" title="Edit this at 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