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Animal coloration - Wikipedia

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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_reasons_for_animal_coloration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_reasons_for_animal_coloration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Camouflage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camouflage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Camouflage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camouflage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signalling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signalling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mimicry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mimicry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Mimicry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mimicry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Distraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Startle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Startle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Startle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Startle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motion_dazzle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motion_dazzle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Motion dazzle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motion_dazzle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Physical protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Temperature regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incidental_coloration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incidental_coloration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Incidental coloration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incidental_coloration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanisms_of_colour_production_in_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanisms_of_colour_production_in_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mechanisms of colour production in animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanisms_of_colour_production_in_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mechanisms of colour production in animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanisms_of_colour_production_in_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coloration_by_pigments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coloration_by_pigments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Coloration by pigments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coloration_by_pigments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variable_coloration_by_chromatophores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variable_coloration_by_chromatophores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Variable coloration by chromatophores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variable_coloration_by_chromatophores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_coloration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_coloration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Structural coloration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_coloration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioluminescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioluminescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Bioluminescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioluminescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal coloration</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تلون الحيوانات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تلون الحيوانات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloraci%C3%B3n_animal" title="Coloración animal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Coloración animal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D8%A2%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1" title="رنگ‌آمیزی جانور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رنگ‌آمیزی جانور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloraci%C3%B3n_animal" title="Coloración animal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Coloración animal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կենդանիների գունավորում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենդանիների գունավորում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%93%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="जंतुओं के रंग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जंतुओं के रंग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livrea" title="Livrea – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Livrea" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AB" title="د څارويو رنګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د څارويو رنګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umaszczenie" title="Umaszczenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Umaszczenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colora%C3%A7%C3%A3o_em_animais" title="Coloração em animais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Coloração em animais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85" title="Окраска животных – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Окраска животных" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_colour" title="Animal colour – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Animal colour" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Забарвлення тварин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Забарвлення тварин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0u_s%E1%BA%AFc_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_v%E1%BA%ADt" title="Màu sắc động vật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Màu sắc động vật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E4%BD%93%E8%89%B2" title="动物体色 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="动物体色" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3242894#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="View the 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">General appearance of an animal</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 1892 book by Frank Evers Beddard, see <a href="/wiki/Animal_Coloration_(book)" title="Animal Coloration (book)">Animal Coloration (book)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg/280px-Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg/420px-Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg/560px-Orientalischer_S%C3%BC%C3%9Flippfisch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2064" data-file-height="1424" /></a><figcaption>A brilliantly-coloured <a href="/wiki/Oriental_sweetlips" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental sweetlips">oriental sweetlips</a> fish (<i>Plectorhinchus vittatus</i>) waits while two boldly-patterned <a href="/wiki/Cleaner_fish" title="Cleaner fish">cleaner wrasse</a> (<i>Labroides dimidiatus</i>) pick parasites from its skin. The spotted tail and fin pattern of the sweetlips signals sexual maturity; the behaviour and pattern of the <a href="/wiki/Cleaner_fish" title="Cleaner fish">cleaner fish</a> signal their availability for <a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">cleaning service</a>, rather than as prey</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg/170px-Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg/255px-Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg/340px-Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="835" data-file-height="1214" /></a><figcaption>Bright coloration of orange elephant ear sponge, <i><a href="/wiki/Agelas_clathrodes" title="Agelas clathrodes">Agelas clathrodes</a></i> signals its bitter taste to predators</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Animal colouration</b> is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly coloured, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Peafowl" title="Peafowl">peafowl</a>, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colours and is <a href="/wiki/Iridescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridescent">iridescent</a>, while the female is far less visible. </p><p>There are several separate reasons why animals have evolved colours. <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a> enables an animal to remain hidden from view. Animals use colour to <a href="/wiki/Advertising_in_biology" title="Advertising in biology">advertise</a> services such as <a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">cleaning</a> to animals of other species; to <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signal</a> their <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual status</a> to other members of the same species; and in <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a>, taking advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">warning coloration</a> of another species. Some animals use flashes of colour to divert attacks by <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">startling</a> predators. Zebras may possibly use motion dazzle, confusing a predator's attack by moving a bold pattern rapidly. Some animals are coloured for physical protection, with pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn, while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for <a href="/wiki/Temperature_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature regulation">temperature regulation</a>. Finally, animals can be coloured incidentally. For example, blood is red because the <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">haem</a> pigment needed to carry oxygen is red. Animals coloured in these ways can have striking <a href="/wiki/Natural_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural patterns">natural patterns</a>. </p><p>Animals produce colour in both direct and indirect ways. Direct production occurs through the presence of visible coloured cells known as <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> which are particles of coloured material such as freckles. Indirect production occurs by virtue of cells known as <a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">chromatophores</a> which are pigment-containing cells such as hair follicles. The distribution of the pigment particles in the chromatophores can change under <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormonal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neuronal</a> control. For fishes it has been demonstrated that chromatophores may respond directly to environmental stimuli like visible light, UV-radiation, temperature, pH, chemicals, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-Meyer-Rochow_2001_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meyer-Rochow_2001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> colour change helps individuals in becoming more or less visible and is important in agonistic displays and in camouflage. Some animals, including many butterflies and birds, have <a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">microscopic structures</a> in scales, bristles or feathers which give them brilliant iridescent colours. Other animals including squid and some deep-sea fish can <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">produce light</a>, sometimes of different colours. Animals often use two or more of these mechanisms together to produce the colours and effects they need. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrographia_title_page.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Micrographia_title_page.gif/170px-Micrographia_title_page.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Micrographia_title_page.gif/255px-Micrographia_title_page.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Micrographia_title_page.gif/340px-Micrographia_title_page.gif 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="1737" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>'s <i>Micrographia</i></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">Coloration evidence for natural selection</a></div> <p>Animal coloration has been a topic of interest and <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> for centuries. In the <a href="/wiki/Classical_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical era">classical era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> recorded that the <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> was able to change its coloration to match its background, and when it was alarmed.<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his 1665 book <i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> describes the "fantastical" (<a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">structural</a>, not pigment) colours of the Peacock's feathers:<sup id="cite_ref-Hooke_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooke-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The parts of the Feathers of this glorious Bird appear, through the Microscope, no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers; for, as to the naked eye 'tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends out multitudes of Lateral branches, ... so each of those threads in the Microscope appears a large long body, consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts. <br />... their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies, which are exceeding thin, and lie very close together, and thereby, like <a href="/wiki/Nacre" title="Nacre">mother of Pearl</a> shells, do not onely reflect a very brisk light, but tinge that light in a most curious manner; and by means of various positions, in respect of the light, they reflect back now one colour, and then another, and those most vividly. Now, that these colours are onely fantastical ones, that is, such as arise immediately from the refractions of the light, I found by this, that water wetting these colour'd parts, destroy'd their colours, which seem'd to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction.</p><div class="templatequotecite">—&#8202;<cite>Robert Hooke<sup id="cite_ref-Hooke_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooke-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s 1859 theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, features such as coloration <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage. For example, individuals with slightly better camouflage than others of the same <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> would, on average, leave more offspring. In his <i><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i>, Darwin wrote:<sup id="cite_ref-Darwin_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darwin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the <a href="/wiki/Rock_ptarmigan" title="Rock ptarmigan">alpine ptarmigan</a> white in winter, the <a href="/wiki/Red_grouse" title="Red grouse">red-grouse</a> the colour of heather, and the <a href="/wiki/Black_grouse" title="Black grouse">black-grouse</a> that of peaty earth, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey, so much so, that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once acquired, true and constant.</p><div class="templatequotecite">—&#8202;<cite>Charles Darwin<sup id="cite_ref-Darwin_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Darwin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a>'s 1863 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i> describes his extensive studies of the insects in the Amazon basin, and especially the butterflies. He discovered that apparently similar butterflies often belonged to different families, with a harmless species <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicking</a> a poisonous or bitter-tasting species to reduce its chance of being attacked by a predator, in the process now called after him, <a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian mimicry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bates_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bates-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg/170px-Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg/255px-Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg/340px-Brazilian_Skunk_from_Edward_Bagnall_Poulton_Colours_of_Animals_1890.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1131" /></a><figcaption>Warning coloration of the <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunk</a> in <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a>'s <i>The Colours of Animals</i>, 1890</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a>'s strongly Darwinian 1890 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colours_of_Animals" title="The Colours of Animals">The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects</a></i> argued the case for three aspects of animal coloration that are broadly accepted today but were controversial or wholly new at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallet_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallet-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It strongly supported Darwin's theory of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, arguing that the obvious differences between male and female birds such as the <a href="/wiki/Argus_pheasant" class="mw-redirect" title="Argus pheasant">argus pheasant</a> were selected by the females, pointing out that bright male plumage was found only in species "which court by day".<sup id="cite_ref-poulton_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-poulton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The book introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Frequency-dependent_selection" title="Frequency-dependent selection">frequency-dependent selection</a>, as when edible mimics are less frequent than the distasteful models whose colours and patterns they copy. In the book, Poulton also coined the term <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">aposematism</a> for warning coloration, which he identified in widely differing animal groups including mammals (such as the <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunk</a>), bees and wasps, beetles, and butterflies.<sup id="cite_ref-poulton_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-poulton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Frank_Evers_Beddard" title="Frank Evers Beddard">Frank Evers Beddard</a>'s 1892 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Coloration_(1892_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal Coloration (1892 book)">Animal Coloration</a></i>, acknowledged that natural selection existed but examined its application to camouflage, mimicry and sexual selection very critically.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The book was in turn roundly criticised by Poulton.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg/220px-Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg/330px-Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg/440px-Roseate_Spoonbills_1905-1909_Abbott_H_Thayer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="457" /></a><figcaption>In <i>Roseate Spoonbills</i> 1905–1909, <a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Handerson Thayer</a> tried to show that even the bright pink of these conspicuous birds had a <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">cryptic</a> function.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Handerson Thayer</a>'s 1909 book <i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>, completed by his son Gerald H. Thayer, argued correctly for the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">crypsis</a> among animals, and in particular described and explained <a href="/wiki/Countershading" title="Countershading">countershading</a> for the first time. However, the Thayers spoilt their case by arguing that camouflage was the sole purpose of animal coloration, which led them to claim that even the brilliant pink plumage of the <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingo</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Roseate_spoonbill" title="Roseate spoonbill">roseate spoonbill</a> was cryptic—against the momentarily pink sky at dawn or dusk. As a result, the book was mocked by critics including <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> as having "pushed [the "doctrine" of concealing coloration] to such a fantastic extreme and to include such wild absurdities as to call for the application of common sense thereto."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roosevelt_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roosevelt-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Bamford_Cott" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Bamford Cott">Hugh Bamford Cott</a>'s 500-page book <i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>, published in <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">wartime</a> 1940, systematically described the principles of camouflage and mimicry. The book contains hundreds of examples, over a hundred photographs and Cott's own accurate and artistic drawings, and 27 pages of references. Cott focussed especially on "maximum disruptive contrast", the kind of patterning used in military camouflage such as <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_pattern_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Disruptive pattern material">disruptive pattern material</a>. Indeed, Cott describes such applications:<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>the effect of a disruptive pattern is to break up what is really a continuous surface into what appears to be a number of discontinuous surfaces... which contradict the shape of the body on which they are superimposed.</p><div class="templatequotecite">—&#8202;<cite>Hugh Cott<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">Animal coloration provided important early evidence for evolution by natural selection</a>, at a time when little direct evidence was available.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wallace_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallace-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stevens2011_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens2011-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mallet2001_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallet2001-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_reasons_for_animal_coloration">Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camouflage">Camouflage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Camouflage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_camouflage_methods" title="List of camouflage methods">List of camouflage methods</a></div> <p>One of the pioneers of research into animal coloration, <a href="/wiki/Poulton,_E._B." class="mw-redirect" title="Poulton, E. B.">Edward Bagnall Poulton</a><sup id="cite_ref-poulton_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-poulton-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> classified the forms of protective coloration, in a way which is still helpful. He described: protective resemblance; aggressive resemblance; adventitious protection; and variable protective resemblance.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes50_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These are covered in turn below. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG/220px-Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG/330px-Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG/440px-Orange_oak_leaf_bottom.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1045" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption>A camouflaged orange oak leaf butterfly, <i><a href="/wiki/Kallima_inachus" title="Kallima inachus">Kallima inachus</a></i> (centre) has protective resemblance.</figcaption></figure> <p>Protective resemblance is used by prey to avoid predation. It includes special protective resemblance, now called <a href="/wiki/Mimesis_(biology)" title="Mimesis (biology)">mimesis</a>, where the whole animal looks like some other object, for example when a caterpillar resembles a twig or a bird dropping. In general protective resemblance, now called <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">crypsis</a>, the animal's texture blends with the background, for example when a moth's colour and pattern blend in with tree bark.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes50_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png/220px-Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png/330px-Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png/440px-Insect_camouflage_PP08338.png 2x" data-file-width="3474" data-file-height="2314" /></a><figcaption>A flower mantis, <i><a href="/wiki/Hymenopus_coronatus" title="Hymenopus coronatus">Hymenopus coronatus</a></i>, uses special <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">Aggressive mimicry</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">Aggressive resemblance</a> is used by <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>. In special aggressive resemblance, the animal looks like something else, luring the prey or host to approach, for example when a <a href="/wiki/Flower_mantis" title="Flower mantis">flower mantis</a> resembles a particular kind of flower, such as an <a href="/wiki/Orchid" title="Orchid">orchid</a>. In general aggressive resemblance, the predator or parasite blends in with the background, for example when a <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopard</a> is hard to see in long grass.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes50_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>For adventitious protection, an animal uses materials such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell to conceal its outline, for example when a <a href="/wiki/Caddis_fly" class="mw-redirect" title="Caddis fly">caddis fly</a> larva builds a decorated case, or when a <a href="/wiki/Decorator_crab" title="Decorator crab">decorator crab</a> decorates its back with seaweed, sponges and stones.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes50_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In variable protective resemblance, an animal such as a <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleon</a>, flatfish, squid or <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> changes its skin pattern and colour using special <a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">chromatophore</a> cells to resemble whatever background it is currently resting on (as well as for <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signalling</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-forbes50_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main mechanisms to create the resemblances described by Poulton – whether in nature or in military applications – are <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">crypsis</a>, blending into the background so as to become hard to see (this covers both special and general resemblance); <a href="/wiki/Camouflage#Disruptive_patterning" title="Camouflage">disruptive patterning</a>, using colour and pattern to break up the animal's outline, which relates mainly to general resemblance; mimesis, resembling other objects of no special interest to the observer, which relates to special resemblance; <a href="/wiki/Countershading" title="Countershading">countershading</a>, using graded colour to create the illusion of flatness, which relates mainly to general resemblance; and <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence#Counterillumination_camouflage" title="Bioluminescence">counterillumination</a>, producing light to match the background, notably in some species of <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes50_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Countershading was first described by the American artist <a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Handerson Thayer</a>, a pioneer in the theory of animal coloration. Thayer observed that whereas a painter takes a flat canvas and uses coloured paint to create the illusion of solidity by painting in shadows, animals such as deer are often darkest on their backs, becoming lighter towards the belly, creating (as zoologist <a href="/wiki/Cott,_H._B." class="mw-redirect" title="Cott, H. B.">Hugh Cott</a> observed) the illusion of flatness,<sup id="cite_ref-cott_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cott-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and against a matching background, of invisibility. Thayer's observation "Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and <i>vice versa</i>" is called <i>Thayer's Law</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-forbesthayer_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbesthayer-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signalling">Signalling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Signalling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></div> <p>Colour is widely used for signalling in animals as diverse as birds and shrimps. Signalling encompasses at least three purposes: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_in_biology" title="Advertising in biology">advertising</a>, to signal a capability or service to other animals, whether within a species or not</li> <li>sexual selection, where members of one sex choose to mate with suitably coloured members of the other sex, thus driving the development of such colours</li> <li>warning, to signal that an animal is harmful, for example can sting, is poisonous or is bitter-tasting. Warning signals may be mimicked truthfully or untruthfully.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advertising_services">Advertising services</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Advertising services"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg/220px-Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg/330px-Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg/440px-Cleaner_station_komodo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Cleaner <a href="/wiki/Wrasse" title="Wrasse">wrasse</a> signals its <a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">cleaning services</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Priacanthidae" title="Priacanthidae">big eye squirrelfish</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Advertising_in_biology" title="Advertising in biology">Advertising in biology</a></div> <p>Advertising coloration can signal the services an animal offers to other animals. These may be of the same species, as in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, or of different species, as in <a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">cleaning symbiosis</a>. Signals, which often combine colour and movement, may be understood by many different species; for example, the cleaning stations of the banded coral shrimp <i><a href="/wiki/Stenopus_hispidus" title="Stenopus hispidus">Stenopus hispidus</a></i> are visited by different species of fish, and even by reptiles such as <a href="/wiki/Hawksbill_sea_turtle" title="Hawksbill sea turtle">hawksbill sea turtles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Sexual selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paradesia_decora_Keulemans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Paradesia_decora_Keulemans.jpg/180px-Paradesia_decora_Keulemans.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Paradesia_decora_Keulemans.jpg/270px-Paradesia_decora_Keulemans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Paradesia_decora_Keulemans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Male <a href="/wiki/Goldie%27s_bird-of-paradise" title="Goldie&#39;s bird-of-paradise">Goldie's bird-of-paradise</a> displays to a female</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></div> <p>Darwin observed that the males of some species, such as birds-of-paradise, were very different from the females. </p><p>Darwin explained such male-female differences in his theory of sexual selection in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="The Descent of Man">The Descent of Man</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Once the females begin to select males according to any particular characteristic, such as a long tail or a coloured crest, that characteristic is emphasized more and more in the males. Eventually all the males will have the characteristics that the females are sexually selecting for, as only those males can reproduce. This mechanism is powerful enough to create features that are strongly disadvantageous to the males in other ways. For example, some male <a href="/wiki/Birds-of-paradise" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds-of-paradise">birds-of-paradise</a> have wing or tail streamers that are so long that they impede flight, while their brilliant colours may make the males more vulnerable to predators. In the extreme, sexual selection may drive species to extinction, as has been argued for the enormous horns of the male Irish elk, which may have made it difficult for mature males to move and feed.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different forms of sexual selection are possible, including rivalry among males, and selection of females by males. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Warning">Warning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Warning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrurus_tener.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Micrurus_tener.jpg/220px-Micrurus_tener.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Micrurus_tener.jpg/330px-Micrurus_tener.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Micrurus_tener.jpg/440px-Micrurus_tener.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venomous</a> <a href="/wiki/Coral_snake" title="Coral snake">coral snake</a> uses bright colours to warn off potential predators.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a></div> <p>Warning coloration (aposematism) is effectively the "opposite" of camouflage, and a special case of advertising. Its function is to make the animal, for example a wasp or a coral snake, highly conspicuous to potential predators, so that it is noticed, remembered, and then avoided. As Peter Forbes observes, "Human warning signs employ the same colours – red, yellow, black, and white – that nature uses to advertise dangerous creatures."<sup id="cite_ref-Forbes52_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forbes52-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Warning colours work by being associated by potential predators with something that makes the warning coloured animal unpleasant or dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This can be achieved in several ways, by being any combination of: </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg/180px-Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg/270px-Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg/360px-Tyria_jacobaeae_caterpillar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="1038" /></a><figcaption>The black and yellow warning colours of the cinnabar moth caterpillar, <i><a href="/wiki/Tyria_jacobaeae" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyria jacobaeae">Tyria jacobaeae</a></i>, are avoided by some birds.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>distasteful, for example caterpillars, pupae and adults of the <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar_moth" title="Cinnabar moth">cinnabar moth</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Danaus_plexippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Danaus plexippus">monarch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Euphydryas_chalcedona" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphydryas chalcedona">variable checkerspot butterfly</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> have bitter-tasting chemicals in their blood. One monarch contains more than enough <a href="/wiki/Digitalis" title="Digitalis">digitalis</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxin</a> to kill a cat, while a monarch extract makes <a href="/wiki/European_starling" class="mw-redirect" title="European starling">starlings</a> vomit.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>foul-smelling, for example the <a href="/wiki/Skunk" title="Skunk">skunk</a> can eject a liquid with a long-lasting and powerful odour<sup id="cite_ref-CottSkunk_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CottSkunk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>aggressive and able to defend itself, for example <a href="/wiki/Honey_badger" title="Honey badger">honey badgers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>venomous, for example a <a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasp</a> can deliver a painful sting, while snakes like the <a href="/wiki/Viper_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Viper (animal)">viper</a> or <a href="/wiki/Coral_snake" title="Coral snake">coral snake</a> can deliver a fatal bite.<sup id="cite_ref-Forbes52_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forbes52-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Warning coloration can succeed either through inborn behaviour (<a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">instinct</a>) on the part of potential predators,<sup id="cite_ref-Lindstrom_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindstrom-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> or through a learned avoidance. Either can lead to various forms of mimicry. Experiments show that avoidance is learned in <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lizards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lizards">lizards</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> but that some birds such as <a href="/wiki/Great_tit" title="Great tit">great tits</a> have inborn avoidance of certain colours and patterns such as black and yellow stripes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindstrom_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindstrom-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mimicry">Mimicry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Mimicry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FinnBirdMimic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/FinnBirdMimic.jpg/170px-FinnBirdMimic.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/FinnBirdMimic.jpg/255px-FinnBirdMimic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/FinnBirdMimic.jpg/340px-FinnBirdMimic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="682" data-file-height="830" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hierococcyx_varius" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierococcyx varius">hawk-cuckoo</a> resembles a predatory <a href="/wiki/Accipiter_badius" class="mw-redirect" title="Accipiter badius">shikra</a>, giving the cuckoo time to lay eggs in a songbird's nest unnoticed</figcaption></figure> <p>Mimicry means that one species of animal resembles another species closely enough to deceive predators. To evolve, the mimicked species must have warning coloration, because appearing to be bitter-tasting or dangerous gives <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> something to work on. Once a species has a slight, chance, resemblance to a warning coloured species, natural selection can drive its colours and patterns towards more perfect mimicry. There are numerous possible mechanisms, of which the best known are: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Batesian_mimicry" title="Batesian mimicry">Batesian mimicry</a></b>, where an edible species resembles a distasteful or dangerous species. This is most common in insects such as <a href="/wiki/Butterflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterflies">butterflies</a>. A familiar example is the resemblance of harmless <a href="/wiki/Hoverflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoverflies">hoverflies</a> (which have no sting) to <a href="/wiki/Bees" class="mw-redirect" title="Bees">bees</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry" title="Müllerian mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</a></b>, where two or more distasteful or dangerous animal species resemble each other. This is most common among insects such as <a href="/wiki/Wasps" class="mw-redirect" title="Wasps">wasps</a> and bees (<a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">hymenoptera</a>).</li></ul> <p><i>Batesian mimicry</i> was first described by the pioneering naturalist <a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Bates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry W. Bates">Henry W. Bates</a>. When an edible prey animal comes to resemble, even slightly, a distasteful animal, natural selection favours those individuals that even very slightly better resemble the distasteful species. This is because even a small degree of protection reduces predation and increases the chance that an individual mimic will survive and reproduce. For example, many species of hoverfly are coloured black and yellow like bees, and are in consequence avoided by birds (and people).<sup id="cite_ref-bates_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bates-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Müllerian mimicry</i> was first described by the pioneering naturalist <a href="/wiki/Fritz_M%C3%BCller" title="Fritz Müller">Fritz Müller</a>. When a distasteful animal comes to resemble a more common distasteful animal, natural selection favours individuals that even very slightly better resemble the target. For example, many species of stinging wasp and bee are similarly coloured black and yellow. Müller's explanation of the mechanism for this was one of the first uses of mathematics in biology. He argued that a predator, such as a young bird, must attack at least one insect, say a wasp, to learn that the black and yellow colours mean a stinging insect. If bees were differently coloured, the young bird would have to attack one of them also. But when bees and wasps resemble each other, the young bird need only attack one from the whole group to learn to avoid all of them. So, fewer bees are attacked if they mimic wasps; the same applies to wasps that mimic bees. The result is mutual resemblance for mutual protection.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distraction">Distraction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Distraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG/220px-Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG/330px-Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG/440px-Gottesanbeterin_Abwehr.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1778" data-file-height="1380" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Praying_mantis" class="mw-redirect" title="Praying mantis">praying mantis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">deimatic</a> or threat pose displays conspicuous patches of colour to startle potential predators. This is not warning coloration as the insect is palatable.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Startle">Startle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Startle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></div> <p>Some animals such as many <a href="/wiki/Moth" title="Moth">moths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantis" title="Mantis">mantises</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshoppers</a>, have a repertoire of threatening or <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">startling behaviour</a>, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous <a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">eyespots</a> or patches of bright and contrasting colours, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator. This gives the prey animal an opportunity to escape. The behaviour is deimatic (startling) rather than aposematic as these insects are palatable to predators, so the warning colours are a bluff, not an <a href="/wiki/Honest_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Honest signal">honest signal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Springer_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Motion_dazzle">Motion dazzle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Motion dazzle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some prey animals such as <a href="/wiki/Zebra" title="Zebra">zebra</a> are marked with high-contrast patterns which possibly help to confuse their predators, such as <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a>, during a chase. The bold stripes of a herd of running zebra have been claimed make it difficult for predators to estimate the prey's speed and direction accurately, or to identify individual animals, giving the prey an improved chance of escape.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_Motion_Dazzle_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens_Motion_Dazzle-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Since dazzle patterns (such as the zebra's stripes) make animals harder to catch when moving, but easier to detect when stationary, there is an evolutionary trade-off between dazzle and <a href="#Camouflage">camouflage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevens_Motion_Dazzle_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevens_Motion_Dazzle-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> There is evidence that the zebra's stripes could provide some protection from flies and biting insects.<sup id="cite_ref-BBC_Zebra_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Zebra-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_protection">Physical protection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Physical protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">Biological pigment</a></div> <p>Many animals have dark pigments such as <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> in their <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eyes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fur" title="Fur">fur</a> to protect themselves against <a href="/wiki/Sunburn" title="Sunburn">sunburn</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> (damage to living tissues caused by <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Another example of photoprotective pigments are the <a href="/wiki/Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">GFP</a>-like proteins in some <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhizostomins" title="Rhizostomins">rhizostomins</a> have also been hypothesized to protect against ultraviolet damage.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature_regulation">Temperature regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Temperature regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg/220px-Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg/330px-Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg/440px-Bokermannohyla_alvarengai01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="907" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>This frog changes its skin colour to control its temperature.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Temperature_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature regulation">Temperature regulation</a></div> <p>Some frogs such as <i><a href="/wiki/Bokermannohyla_alvarengai" title="Bokermannohyla alvarengai">Bokermannohyla alvarengai</a></i>, which basks in sunlight, lighten their skin colour when hot (and darkens when cold), making their skin reflect more heat and so avoid overheating.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incidental_coloration">Incidental coloration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Incidental coloration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg/290px-Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg/435px-Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg/580px-Proteus_anguinus_Postojnska_Jama_Slovenija.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Olm" title="Olm">olm</a>'s blood makes it appear pink.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">Biological pigment</a></div> <p>Some animals are coloured purely incidentally because their blood contains pigments. For example, amphibians like the <a href="/wiki/Olm" title="Olm">olm</a> that live in caves may be largely colorless as colour has no function in that environment, but they show some red because of the <a href="/wiki/Haem" class="mw-redirect" title="Haem">haem</a> pigment in their red blood cells, needed to carry oxygen. They also have a little orange coloured <a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">riboflavin</a> in their skin.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Human <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albinos</a> and people with fair skin have a similar colour for the same reason.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanisms_of_colour_production_in_animals">Mechanisms of colour production in animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Mechanisms of colour production in animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zfishchroma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Zfishchroma.jpg/150px-Zfishchroma.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Zfishchroma.jpg/225px-Zfishchroma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Zfishchroma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption> Side of <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a> shows how <a href="/wiki/Chromatophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatophores">chromatophores</a> (dark spots) respond to 24 hours in dark (above) or light (below).</figcaption></figure> <p>Animal coloration may be the result of any combination of <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromatophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatophores">chromatophores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colour#Structural_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour">structural coloration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallin_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallin-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coloration_by_pigments">Coloration by pigments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Coloration by pigments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">Biological pigment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_camouflage" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasonal camouflage">Seasonal camouflage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg/220px-Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg/330px-Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg/440px-Flamingo_rubro-Phoenicopterus_ruber_ruber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>The red <a href="/wiki/Biological_pigment" title="Biological pigment">pigment</a> in a flamingo's plumage comes from its diet of shrimps, which get it from microscopic algae.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pigments are coloured chemicals (such as <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a>) in animal tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallin_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallin-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_fox" title="Arctic fox">Arctic fox</a> has a white coat in winter (containing little pigment), and a brown coat in summer (containing more pigment), an example of <a href="/wiki/Seasonal_camouflage" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasonal camouflage">seasonal camouflage</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Polyphenism" title="Polyphenism">polyphenism</a>). Many animals, including <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, are unable to synthesize most of the pigments that colour their fur or feathers, other than the brown or black melanins that give many mammals their earth tones.<sup id="cite_ref-HiltonPond_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HiltonPond-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For example, the bright yellow of an <a href="/wiki/American_goldfinch" title="American goldfinch">American goldfinch</a>, the startling orange of a juvenile <a href="/wiki/Red-spotted_newt" class="mw-redirect" title="Red-spotted newt">red-spotted newt</a>, the deep red of a <a href="/wiki/Northern_cardinal" title="Northern cardinal">cardinal</a> and the pink of a <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingo</a> are all produced by <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoid</a> pigments synthesized by plants. In the case of the flamingo, the bird eats pink shrimps, which are themselves unable to synthesize carotenoids. The shrimps derive their body colour from microscopic red algae, which like most plants are able to create their own pigments, including both carotenoids and (green) <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>. Animals that eat green plants do not become green, however, as chlorophyll does not survive digestion.<sup id="cite_ref-HiltonPond_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HiltonPond-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variable_coloration_by_chromatophores">Variable coloration by chromatophores</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Variable coloration by chromatophores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chromatophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromatophores">Chromatophores</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Animals_that_can_change_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Animals that can change color">Animals that can change color</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg/220px-Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg/330px-Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg/440px-Melanophores_with_dispersed_or_aggregated_melanosomes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="758" /></a><figcaption>Fish and frog melanophores are cells that can change colour by dispersing or aggregating pigment-containing bodies.</figcaption></figure> <p>Chromatophores are special pigment-containing <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> that may change their size, but more often retain their original size but allow the pigment within them to become redistributed, thus varying the colour and pattern of the animal. Chromatophores may respond to hormonal and/or neurobal control mechanisms, but direst responses to stimulation by visible light, UV-radiation, temperature, pH-changes, chemicals, etc. have also been documented.<sup id="cite_ref-Meyer-Rochow_2001_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meyer-Rochow_2001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The voluntary control of chromatophores is known as metachrosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallin_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallin-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleons</a> can rapidly change their appearance, both for camouflage and for signalling, as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> first noted over 2000&#160;years ago:<sup id="cite_ref-Aristotle_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aristotle-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it; it does so also when alarmed.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">—&#8202;<cite>Aristotle</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chromatophores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chromatophores.jpg/220px-Chromatophores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chromatophores.jpg/330px-Chromatophores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chromatophores.jpg/440px-Chromatophores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">Squid</a> chromatophores appear as black, brown, reddish and pink areas in this micrograph.</figcaption></figure> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopod</a> <a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">molluscs</a> like <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> and cuttlefish find themselves against a light background, they contract many of their chromatophores, concentrating the pigment into a smaller area, resulting in a pattern of tiny, dense, but widely spaced dots, appearing light. When they enter a darker environment, they allow their chromatophores to expand, creating a pattern of larger dark spots, and making their bodies appear dark.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">Amphibians</a> such as frogs have three kinds of star-shaped chromatophore cells in separate layers of their skin. The top layer contains '<a href="/wiki/Xanthophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthophores">xanthophores</a>' with orange, red, or yellow pigments; the middle layer contains '<a href="/wiki/Iridophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridophores">iridophores</a>' with a silvery light-reflecting pigment; while the bottom layer contains '<a href="/wiki/Melanophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanophores">melanophores</a>' with dark melanin.<sup id="cite_ref-HiltonPond_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HiltonPond-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_coloration">Structural coloration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Structural coloration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg/220px-Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg/330px-Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg/440px-Peacock_feathers_closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The brilliant iridescent colours of the peacock's tail feathers are created by <a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg/170px-Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg/255px-Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg/340px-Butterfly_magnification_series_collage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Butterfly wing at different magnifications reveals microstructured chitin acting as diffraction grating.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></div> <p>While many animals are unable to synthesize carotenoid pigments to create red and yellow surfaces, the green and blue colours of bird feathers and insect carapaces are usually not produced by pigments at all, but by structural coloration.<sup id="cite_ref-HiltonPond_53-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HiltonPond-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Structural coloration means the production of colour by microscopically-structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with <a href="/wiki/Visible_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Visible light">visible light</a>, sometimes in combination with pigments: for example, <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacock</a> tail feathers are pigmented brown, but their structure makes them appear blue, turquoise and green. Structural coloration can produce the most brilliant colours, often <a href="/wiki/Iridescence" title="Iridescence">iridescent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wallin_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wallin-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> For example, the blue/green gloss on the plumage of <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ducks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ducks">ducks</a>, and the purple/blue/green/red colours of many <a href="/wiki/Beetles" class="mw-redirect" title="Beetles">beetles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Butterflies" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterflies">butterflies</a> are created by structural coloration.<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Animals use several methods to produce structural colour, as described in the table.<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Mechanisms of structural colour production in animals </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Mechanism</th> <th>Structure</th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Diffraction_grating" title="Diffraction grating">Diffraction grating</a></td> <td>layers of chitin and air</td> <td>Iridescent colours of butterfly wing scales, peacock feathers<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Diffraction grating</td> <td>tree-shaped arrays of chitin</td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Morpho_(genus)" title="Morpho (genus)">Morpho</a></i> butterfly wing scales<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Selective mirrors</td> <td>micron-sized dimples lined with chitin layers</td> <td><i>Papilio palinurus</i>, <a href="/wiki/Emerald_swallowtail" class="mw-redirect" title="Emerald swallowtail">emerald swallowtail</a> butterfly wing scales<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Photonic_crystal" title="Photonic crystal">Photonic crystals</a></td> <td>arrays of nano-sized holes</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cattleheart" class="mw-redirect" title="Cattleheart">Cattleheart</a> butterfly wing scales<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Crystal fibres</td> <td>hexagonal arrays of hollow nanofibres</td> <td><i>Aphrodita</i>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_mouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea mouse">sea mouse</a> spines<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Deformed matrices</td> <td>random nanochannels in spongelike keratin</td> <td>Diffuse non-iridescent blue of <i>Ara ararauna</i>, <a href="/wiki/Blue-and-yellow_macaw" title="Blue-and-yellow macaw">blue-and-yellow macaw</a><sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Reversible proteins</td> <td>reflectin proteins controlled by electric charge</td> <td>Iridophore cells in <i><a href="/wiki/Doryteuthis_pealeii" class="mw-redirect" title="Doryteuthis pealeii">Doryteuthis pealeii</a></i> squid skin<sup id="cite_ref-Ball_55-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ball-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: Bioluminescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bioluminescence_emitted_by_comb_jelly_of_genus_Euplokamis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bioluminescence_emitted_by_comb_jelly_of_genus_Euplokamis.jpg/220px-Bioluminescence_emitted_by_comb_jelly_of_genus_Euplokamis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Bioluminescence_emitted_by_comb_jelly_of_genus_Euplokamis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="291" /></a><figcaption>A <i>Euplokamis</i> <a href="/wiki/Comb_jelly" class="mw-redirect" title="Comb jelly">comb jelly</a> is <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescent</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></div> <p>Bioluminescence is the production of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, such as by the <a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">photophores</a> of marine animals,<sup id="cite_ref-Bioluminescence_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bioluminescence-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and the tails of <a href="/wiki/Glowworm" title="Glowworm">glow-worms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Firefly" title="Firefly">fireflies</a>. Bioluminescence, like other forms of <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, releases energy derived from the chemical energy of food. A pigment, <a href="/wiki/Luciferin" title="Luciferin">luciferin</a> is catalysed by the <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> <a href="/wiki/Luciferase" title="Luciferase">luciferase</a> to react with oxygen, releasing light.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Comb_jelly" class="mw-redirect" title="Comb jelly">Comb jellies</a> such as <i>Euplokamis</i> are bioluminescent, creating blue and green light, especially when stressed; when disturbed, they secrete an ink which luminesces in the same colours. Since comb jellies are not very sensitive to light, their bioluminescence is unlikely to be used to signal to other members of the same species (e.g. to attract mates or repel rivals); more likely, the light helps to distract predators or parasites.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some species of <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> have light-producing organs (<a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">photophores</a>) scattered all over their undersides that create a sparkling glow. This provides <a href="/wiki/Counter-illumination" title="Counter-illumination">counter-illumination</a> camouflage, preventing the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below.<sup id="cite_ref-Abralia_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abralia-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Anglerfish" title="Anglerfish">anglerfish</a> of the deep sea, where it is too dark to hunt by sight, contain <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> bacteria in the 'bait' on their 'fishing rods'. These emit light to attract prey.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Albinism in biology">Albinism in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">Chromatophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_coat#Nomenclature_of_colours_and_patterns" title="Dog coat">Dog coat colours and patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_coat_genetics" title="Cat coat genetics">Cat coat genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equine_coat_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Equine coat colour">Equine coat colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equine_coat_colour_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Equine coat colour genetics">Equine coat colour genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roan_(colour)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roan (colour)">Roan (colour)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_coloration" title="Fish coloration">Fish coloration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Meyer-Rochow_2001-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meyer-Rochow_2001_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyer-Rochow_2001_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMeyer-Rochow2001" class="citation book cs1">Meyer-Rochow, VB (2001). <i><span></span></i>Fish chromatophores as sensors of environmental stimuli<i> - Book=</i>Sensory Biology of Jawed Fishes<i>; editors Kapoor BG &amp; Hara TJ; Science Publishers Enfield (NH), USA</i>. pp.&#160;317–334.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fish+chromatophores+as+sensors+of+environmental+stimuli+-+Book%3DSensory+Biology+of+Jawed+Fishes%3B+editors+Kapoor+BG+%26+Hara+TJ%3B+Science+Publishers+Enfield+%28NH%29%2C+USA&amp;rft.pages=317-334&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.aulast=Meyer-Rochow&amp;rft.aufirst=VB&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aristotle-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aristotle_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle (c. 350 BC). <i>Historia Animalium</i>. IX, 622a: 2–10. Cited in Borrelli, Luciana; Gherardi, Francesca; Fiorito, Graziano (2006). <i>A catalogue of body patterning in Cephalopoda</i>. Firenze University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8453-377-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8453-377-7">978-88-8453-377-7</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fupress.com/scheda.asp?IDV=487">Abstract</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206145302/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.9.ix.html">Archived</a> 6 February 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hooke-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hooke_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hooke_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke, Robert</a> (1665) <i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>. Ch. 36 ('Observ. XXXVI. <i>Of Peacoks, Ducks, and Other Feathers of Changeable Colours</i>.'). J. Martyn and J. Allestry, London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415093430/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hooke/robert/micrographia/index.html">Full text</a> .</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darwin-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Darwin_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Darwin_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1859). <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, Ch. 4. John Murray, London. 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Poulton (1890)"</a>. University College London<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=E.B.+Poulton+%281890%29&amp;rft.pub=University+College+London&amp;rft.aulast=Mallet&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Ftaxome%2Fjim%2FMim%2Fpoulton90.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllenClarke1984" class="citation journal cs1">Allen, J. A.; Clarke, B. C. (September 1984). "Frequency dependent selection: homage to E. B. Poulton". <i>Biological Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>23</b> (1): 15–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1984.tb00802.x">10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb00802.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biological+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&amp;rft.atitle=Frequency+dependent+selection%3A+homage+to+E.+B.+Poulton&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=15-18&amp;rft.date=1984-09&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1984.tb00802.x&amp;rft.aulast=Allen&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+A.&amp;rft.au=Clarke%2C+B.+C.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-poulton-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-poulton_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-poulton_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-poulton_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Poulton, Edward Bagnall</a> (1890). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Colours_of_Animals" title="The Colours of Animals">The Colours of Animals, their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects</a></i>. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. London. pp. 331–334</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Evers_Beddard" title="Frank Evers Beddard">Beddard, Frank Evers</a> (1892). <i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Coloration_(book)" title="Animal Coloration (book)">Animal Coloration, An Account of the Principal Facts and Theories Relating to the Colours and Markings of Animals</a></i>. Swan Sonnenschein, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYost" class="citation web cs1">Yost, Robinson M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.kirkwood.edu/ryost/poulton.htm">"Poulton: Colours"</a>. Kirkwood Community College<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Poulton%3A+Colours&amp;rft.pub=Kirkwood+Community+College&amp;rft.aulast=Yost&amp;rft.aufirst=Robinson+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.kirkwood.edu%2Fryost%2Fpoulton.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoulton1892" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bagnall_Poulton" title="Edward Bagnall Poulton">Poulton, Edward Bagnall</a> (6 October 1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1429347">"Book Review: Animal Coloration: an Account of the Principal Facts and Theories relating to the Colours and Markings of Animals"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>46</b> (1197): 533–537. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1892Natur..46..533P">1892Natur..46..533P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F046533a0">10.1038/046533a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3983153">3983153</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+Animal+Coloration%3A+an+Account+of+the+Principal+Facts+and+Theories+relating+to+the+Colours+and+Markings+of+Animals&amp;rft.volume=46&amp;rft.issue=1197&amp;rft.pages=533-537&amp;rft.date=1892-10-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3983153%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F046533a0&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1892Natur..46..533P&amp;rft.aulast=Poulton&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+Bagnall&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1429347&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Thayer, Abbott Handerson</a> and Thayer, Gerald H. 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"Revealing and concealing coloration in birds and mammals". <i>Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History</i>. <b>30</b> (Article 8): 119–231. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2246%2F470">2246/470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Museum+of+Natural+History&amp;rft.atitle=Revealing+and+concealing+coloration+in+birds+and+mammals&amp;rft.volume=30&amp;rft.issue=Article+8&amp;rft.pages=119-231&amp;rft.date=1911&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2246%2F470&amp;rft.aulast=Roosevelt&amp;rft.aufirst=Theodore&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cott, 1940.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cott, 1940. p. 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Larson" title="Edward J. Larson">Larson, Edward J.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars/page/121"><i>Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a>. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars/page/121">121–123, 152–157</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-64288-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-64288-9"><bdi>0-679-64288-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Remarkable+History+of+a+Scientific+Theory&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=121-123%2C+152-157&amp;rft.pub=Modern+Library&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=0-679-64288-9&amp;rft.aulast=Larson&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionremarka00lars%2Fpage%2F121&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallace-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wallace_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfred_Russel_Wallace2015" class="citation book cs1">Alfred Russel Wallace (2015) [1889]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VaV9CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT180"><i>Darwinism - An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection - With Some of Its Applications</i></a>. Read Books. p.&#160;180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4733-7510-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4733-7510-9"><bdi>978-1-4733-7510-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Darwinism+-+An+Exposition+of+the+Theory+of+Natural+Selection+-+With+Some+of+Its+Applications&amp;rft.pages=180&amp;rft.pub=Read+Books&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4733-7510-9&amp;rft.au=Alfred+Russel+Wallace&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVaV9CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT180&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevens2011-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stevens2011_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuthillSzékely2011" class="citation book cs1">Cuthill, I. C.; Székely, A. (2011). <a href="/wiki/Martin_Stevens_(biologist)" title="Martin Stevens (biologist)">Stevens, Martin</a>; Merilaita, Sami (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=10TCvK-9v70C&amp;pg=PA50"><i>Animal Camouflage: Mechanisms and Function</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49623-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49623-0"><bdi>978-1-139-49623-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Animal+Camouflage%3A+Mechanisms+and+Function&amp;rft.pages=50&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-139-49623-0&amp;rft.aulast=Cuthill&amp;rft.aufirst=I.+C.&amp;rft.au=Sz%C3%A9kely%2C+A.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D10TCvK-9v70C%26pg%3DPA50&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mallet2001-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mallet2001_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallet2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Mallet" title="James Mallet">Mallet, James</a> (July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC55348">"Mimicry: An interface between psychology and evolution"</a>. <i>PNAS</i>. <b>98</b> (16): 8928–8930. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...98.8928M">2001PNAS...98.8928M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.171326298">10.1073/pnas.171326298</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC55348">55348</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11481461">11481461</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PNAS&amp;rft.atitle=Mimicry%3A+An+interface+between+psychology+and+evolution&amp;rft.volume=98&amp;rft.issue=16&amp;rft.pages=8928-8930&amp;rft.date=2001-07&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC55348%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11481461&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.171326298&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...98.8928M&amp;rft.aulast=Mallet&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC55348&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-forbes50-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-forbes50_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-forbes50_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-forbes50_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-forbes50_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-forbes50_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-forbes50_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbes, 2009. pp. 50–51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cott-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cott_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cott, H. B. 1940</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-forbesthayer-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-forbesthayer_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbes, 2009. pp. 72–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_MortonJohn_Edward_Morton1983" class="citation book cs1">Brian Morton; John Edward Morton (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r79kKRbkzMwC&amp;pg=PA273">"The coral sub-littoral"</a>. <i>The Sea Shore Ecology of Hong Kong</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_Press" title="Hong Kong University Press">Hong Kong University Press</a>. pp.&#160;253–300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-027-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-027-9"><bdi>978-962-209-027-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+coral+sub-littoral&amp;rft.btitle=The+Sea+Shore+Ecology+of+Hong+Kong&amp;rft.pages=253-300&amp;rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.isbn=978-962-209-027-9&amp;rft.au=Brian+Morton&amp;rft.au=John+Edward+Morton&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr79kKRbkzMwC%26pg%3DPA273&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoss2002" class="citation book cs1">Voss, Gilbert L. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=scXKvA97b24C&amp;pg=PA84">"The crustaceans"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seashorelifeoffl00gilb/page/78"><i>Seashore Life of Florida and the Caribbean</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Courier_Dover_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Courier Dover Publications">Courier Dover Publications</a>. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seashorelifeoffl00gilb/page/78">78–123</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42068-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42068-4"><bdi>978-0-486-42068-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=The+crustaceans&amp;rft.btitle=Seashore+Life+of+Florida+and+the+Caribbean&amp;rft.pages=78-123&amp;rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-486-42068-4&amp;rft.aulast=Voss&amp;rft.aufirst=Gilbert+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DscXKvA97b24C%26pg%3DPA84&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSazimaGrossmanSazima2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sazima, Ivan; Grossman, Alice; Sazima, Cristina (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1676-06032004000100011">"Hawksbill turtles visit moustached barbers: Cleaning symbiosis between <i>Eretmochelys imbricata</i> and the shrimp <i>Stenopus hispidus</i>"</a>. <i>Biota Neotropica</i>. <b>4</b>: 1–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1676-06032004000100011">10.1590/S1676-06032004000100011</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11449%2F211785">11449/211785</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Biota+Neotropica&amp;rft.atitle=Hawksbill+turtles+visit+moustached+barbers%3A+Cleaning+symbiosis+between+Eretmochelys+imbricata+and+the+shrimp+Stenopus+hispidus&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.pages=1-6&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11449%2F211785&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2FS1676-06032004000100011&amp;rft.aulast=Sazima&amp;rft.aufirst=Ivan&amp;rft.au=Grossman%2C+Alice&amp;rft.au=Sazima%2C+Cristina&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252FS1676-06032004000100011&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1874). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="The Descent of Man">The Descent of Man</a></i>. Heinemann, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller, G. F. (2000). <i>The Mating Mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature</i>. Heinemann, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forbes52-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forbes52_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forbes52_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Forbes, 2009. p. 52 and plate 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cott, 1940. p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersBrownWheye1985" class="citation journal cs1">Bowers, M. Deane; Brown, Irene L.; Wheye, Darryl (1985). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Bioluminescence+spectra+of+shallow+and+deep-sea+gelatinous+zooplankton%3A+ctenophores%2C+medusae+and+siphonophores&amp;rft.volume=133&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=571-582&amp;rft.date=1999-04&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs002270050497&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14523078%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Haddock&amp;rft.aufirst=S.H.D.&amp;rft.au=Case%2C+J.F.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lifesci.ucsb.edu%2F~haddock%2Fabstracts%2Fhaddock_spectra.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abralia-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abralia_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWidder" class="citation web cs1">Widder, E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-photos/midwater-squid-abralia-veranyi">"Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi"</a>. <i>Smithsonian Ocean</i>. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Ocean&amp;rft.atitle=Midwater+Squid%2C+Abralia+veranyi&amp;rft.aulast=Widder&amp;rft.aufirst=E.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Focean.si.edu%2Focean-photos%2Fmidwater-squid-abralia-veranyi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+coloration" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ross_Piper" title="Ross Piper">Piper, Ross</a>. <i>Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals</i>. Greenwood Press, 2007.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Animals_by_color" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Animals by color">Animals by color</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Camouflage" class="extiw" title="commons:Camouflage"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Camouflage</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Cott, Hugh Bamford</a> (1940). <i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>. Methuen, London.</li> <li>Forbes, Peter (2009). <i><a href="/wiki/Dazzled_and_Deceived:_Mimicry_and_Camouflage" class="mw-redirect" title="Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage">Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage</a></i>. Yale, New Haven and London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300178964" title="Special:BookSources/0300178964">0300178964</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_coloration&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/372/1724">Theme issue 'Animal coloration: production, perception, function and application'</a> (Royal Society)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607143826/http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/nwep2.htm">NatureWorks: Coloration (for children and teachers)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animals.howstuffworks.com/animal-facts/animal-camouflage.htm">HowStuffWorks: How Animal Camouflage Works</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~otto/PopGen500/Discussion3/Overheads.html">University of British Columbia: Sexual Selection (a lecture for Zoology students)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioscience-explained.org/ENvol1_2/pdf/paletteEN.pdf">Nature's Palette: How animals, including humans, produce colours</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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vision">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equine_vision" title="Equine vision">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_anatomy#Vision" title="Dog anatomy">dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_senses#Sight" title="Cat senses">cats</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fish surveying its world"><img alt="Fish surveying its world" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg/140px-Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg/210px-Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, 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eye">human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusc_eye" title="Mollusc eye">Mollusc eye</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_eye" title="Cephalopod eye">cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastropod_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod eye">gastropod</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holochroal_eye" title="Holochroal eye">Holochroal eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_eye" title="Parietal eye">Parietal eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizochroal_eye" class="mw-redirect" title="Schizochroal eye">Schizochroal eye</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Evolution of the eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Evolution of color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Evolution of color vision in primates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coloration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">Albinism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatophore" title="Chromatophore">Chromatophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-illumination" title="Counter-illumination">Counter-illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countershading" title="Countershading">Countershading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_coloration" title="Disruptive coloration">Disruptive coloration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coincident_disruptive_coloration" title="Coincident disruptive coloration">coincident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_(mimicry)" title="Eyespot (mimicry)">Eyespot (mimicry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">Animal senses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness_in_animals" title="Blindness in animals">Blindness in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus" title="Eyespot apparatus">Eyespot apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feature_detection_(nervous_system)" title="Feature detection (nervous system)">Feature detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocular_deprivation" title="Monocular deprivation">Monocular deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ommatidium" title="Ommatidium">Ommatidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palpebral_(bone)" title="Palpebral (bone)">Palpebral (bone)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopupil" title="Pseudopupil">Pseudopupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhopalium" title="Rhopalium">Rhopalium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport&#39;s rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster&#39;s rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman&#39;s principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber&#39;s law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig&#39;s law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson&#39;s rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Colour_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Color_topics" title="Template:Color topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Color_topics" title="Template talk:Color topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Color_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Color topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Colour_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Colour</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_science" title="Color science">Colour science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Colour physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">Electromagnetic spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow" title="Rainbow">Rainbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">Spectral colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">Chromophore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_colouration" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural colouration">Structural colouration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_colouration" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal colouration">Animal colouration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_of_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour of chemicals">Colour of chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_power_distribution" title="Spectral power distribution">Spectral power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorimetry" title="Colorimetry">Colorimetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">Colour perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromesthesia" title="Chromesthesia">Chromesthesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonochromatism" title="Sonochromatism">Sonochromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour blindness">Colour blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_calibration" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour calibration">Colour calibration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_constancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour constancy">Colour constancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_task" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour task">Colour task</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour code">Colour code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour temperature">Colour temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_vision_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour vision test">Colour vision test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_colour_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of colour vision">Evolution of colour vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impossible_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Impossible colour">Impossible colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">Metamerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">Opponent process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unique_hues" title="Unique hues">Unique hues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_dress" title="The dress">The dress</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colour_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour psychology">Colour psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_symbolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour symbolism">Colour symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_preferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour preferences">Colour preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCscher_colour_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Lüscher colour test">Lüscher colour test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kruithof_curve" title="Kruithof curve">Kruithof curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_colour" title="Political colour">Political colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_colours" title="National colours">National colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophobia" title="Chromophobia">Chromophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colour_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour reproduction">Colour reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_photography" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour photography">Colour photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour balance">Colour balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_cast" title="Colour cast">Colour cast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour management">Colour management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour printing">Colour printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-primary_colour_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-primary colour display">Multi-primary colour display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattron" title="Quattron">Quattron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour model">Colour model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additive_color" title="Additive color">additive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RGB" class="mw-redirect" title="RGB">RGB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtractive_color" title="Subtractive color">subtractive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CMYK" class="mw-redirect" title="CMYK">CMYK</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour space">Colour space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour mapping">Colour mapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RGB_color_wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/100px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/150px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/200px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Colour<br />philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colour_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour scheme">Colour scheme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_picker" title="Color picker">Colour tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monochromatic_colours" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic colours">Monochromatic colours</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_colours" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary colours">Complementary colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogous_colours" class="mw-redirect" title="Analogous colours">Analogous colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Achromatic colours (Neutral)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">Polychromatic colours</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-on-dark_color_scheme" title="Light-on-dark color scheme">Light-on-dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colours" class="mw-redirect" title="Web colours">Web colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tincture_(heraldry)" title="Tincture (heraldry)">Tinctures in heraldry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colour_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour theory">Colour theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_mixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour mixing">Colour mixing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary colour">Primary colour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary colour">Secondary colour</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">Chromaticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_solid" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour solid">Colour solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour wheel">Colour wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour triangle">Colour triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour analysis">Colour analysis</a> (fashion)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_realism_(art_style)" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour realism (art style)">Colour realism (art style)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Vision_and_Colours" title="On Vision and Colours">On Vision and Colours</a></i> (Schopenhauer)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" title="Theory of Colours">Theory of Colours</a></i> (Goethe)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colour_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour term">Colour terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term#Basic_color_terms" title="Color term">Basic terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink" title="Pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White" title="White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown" title="Brown">Brown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Color_in_culture" title="Category:Color in culture">Cultural differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity_and_the_colour_naming_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate">Linguistic relativity and the colour naming debate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue%E2%80%93green_distinction_in_language" title="Blue–green distinction in language">Blue–green distinction in language</a></li></ul></li> <li>Colour history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_dualism" title="Black-and-white dualism">Black-and-white dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_in_culture" title="Blue in culture">Blue in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_in_Chinese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour in Chinese culture">Colour in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_colours_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional colours of Japan">Traditional colours of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin_colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skin colour">Human skin colour</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Colour dimensions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">Hue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dichromatism" title="Dichromatism">Dichromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colourfulness" class="mw-redirect" title="Colourfulness">Colourfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastel_(color)" title="Pastel (color)">Pastel colours</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">Luminance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">Lightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness" title="Darkness">Darkness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brightness" title="Brightness">Brightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridescence" title="Iridescence">Iridescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grayscale" title="Grayscale">Grayscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tint,_shade_and_tone" title="Tint, shade and tone">Tint, shade and tone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Colour<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantone" title="Pantone">Pantone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Marketing_Group" title="Color Marketing Group">Color Marketing Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Association_of_the_United_States" title="Color Association of the United States">Color Association of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Authority" title="International Colour Authority">International Colour Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Illumination" title="International Commission on Illumination">International Commission on Illumination</a> (CIE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Color_Consortium" title="International Color Consortium">International Colour Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Association" title="International Colour Association">International Colour Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_colors" title="Lists of colors">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colours:_A%E2%80%93F" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colours: A–F">List of colours: A–F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colours:_G%E2%80%93M" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colours: G–M">List of colours: G–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colours:_N%E2%80%93Z" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colours: N–Z">List of colours: N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colours_(compact)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colours (compact)">List of colours (compact)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colours_by_shade" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colours by shade">List of colours by shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colour_palettes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colour palettes">List of colour palettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses" title="List of color spaces and their uses">List of colour spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colours" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Crayola crayon colours">List of Crayola crayon colours</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crayola_crayons" title="History of Crayola crayons">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_chart" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour chart">Colour chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RAL_colours" title="List of RAL colours">List of RAL colours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">List of web colours</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">Shades of:</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_orange" title="Shades of orange">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_yellow" title="Shades of yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green" title="Shades of green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_cyan" title="Shades of cyan">Cyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet">Violet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_magenta" title="Shades of magenta">Magenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_pink" title="Shades of pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_brown" title="Shades of brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_white" title="Shades of white">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_gray" title="Shades of gray">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_black" title="Shades of black">Black</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">Contrast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">Lighting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Color" title="Category:Color">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.codfw.main‐f69cdc8f6‐szq4t Cached time: 20241122144621 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 1.104 seconds Real time usage: 1.372 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 5358/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 245611/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 57251/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 17/100 Expensive parser function count: 21/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 195956/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 0.581/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 6736317/52428800 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 1065.571 1 -total 44.86% 478.000 1 Template:Reflist 15.46% 164.693 1 Template:Navboxes 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