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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambush"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Ambush </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambush-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballistic_interception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballistic_interception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Ballistic interception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballistic_interception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pursuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pursuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Pursuit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pursuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Handling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Handling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Handling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Handling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solitary_versus_social_predation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solitary_versus_social_predation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Solitary versus social predation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solitary_versus_social_predation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Specialization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Specialization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Specialization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Specialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physical_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Physical adaptations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet_and_behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet_and_behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Diet and behaviour </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet_and_behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camouflage_and_mimicry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camouflage_and_mimicry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Camouflage and mimicry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camouflage_and_mimicry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Venom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electric_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Electric fields </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Physiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antipredator_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antipredator_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Antipredator adaptations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antipredator_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Coevolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Role in ecosystems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Role_in_ecosystems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Role in ecosystems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Role_in_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trophic_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Trophic level </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophic_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trophic_transfer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_transfer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Trophic transfer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophic_transfer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_maintained_by_apex_predation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_maintained_by_apex_predation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Biodiversity maintained by apex predation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_maintained_by_apex_predation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Population dynamics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Evolutionary history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_human_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_human_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 In human society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_human_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle In human society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-In_human_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Practical_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Practical uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practical_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolic_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolic_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Symbolic uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolic_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Predation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" > 70 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predasie" title="Predasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Predasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="افتراس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="افتراس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depredaci%C3%B3n" title="Depredación – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Depredación" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depredaci%C3%B3n" title="Depredación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Depredación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C4%B1rt%C4%B1c%C4%B1l%C4%B1q" title="Yırtıcılıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yırtıcılıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Драпежніцтва – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Драпежніцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Хищничество – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хищничество" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predacija" title="Predacija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Predacija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depredaci%C3%B3" title="Depredació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Depredació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%83%D1%82%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Çăткăнлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çăткăнлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A6dation" title="Prædation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Prædation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A4dation" title="Prädation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Prädation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisklus" title="Kisklus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kisklus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depredaci%C3%B3n" title="Depredación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Depredación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predado" title="Predado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Predado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harraparitza" title="Harraparitza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Harraparitza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="شکارگری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شکارگری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predati%C3%B3n" title="Predatión – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Predatión" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9dation" title="Prédation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Prédation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predaasje" title="Predaasje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Predaasje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depredaci%C3%B3n" title="Depredación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Depredación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%8B%9D" title="포식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիշատչություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիշատչություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="परभक्षण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परभक्षण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predato" title="Predato – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Predato" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemangsaan" title="Pemangsaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemangsaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-Predator" title="I-Predator – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-Predator" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afr%C3%A1n" title="Afrán – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Afrán" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predazione" title="Predazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Predazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%94" title="טריפה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טריפה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%95" title="ಭಕ್ಷಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಭಕ್ಷಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მტაცებლობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მტაცებლობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praedatio_(biologia)" title="Praedatio (biologia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Praedatio (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C4%93son%C4%ABba" title="Plēsonība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Plēsonība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okugajambula(Predation)" title="Okugajambula(Predation) – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Okugajambula(Predation)" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragadoz%C3%B3_%C3%A9letm%C3%B3d" title="Ragadozó életmód – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ragadozó életmód" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Грабливост – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Грабливост" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemangsaan" title="Pemangsaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pemangsaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatie" title="Predatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Predatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8D%95%E9%A3%9F" title="捕食 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="捕食" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predasjon" title="Predasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Predasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predasjon" title="Predasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Predasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamsoo" title="Adamsoo – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Adamsoo" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yirtqichlik" title="Yirtqichlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yirtqichlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80" title="ਸ਼ਿਕਾਰਖ਼ੋਰੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸ਼ਿਕਾਰਖ਼ੋਰੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drapie%C5%BCnictwo" title="Drapieżnictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Drapieżnictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preda%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Predação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Predação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Хищничество – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хищничество" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatorizmi_(prer%C3%ABmbimi)" title="Predatorizmi (prerëmbimi) – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Predatorizmi (prerëmbimi)" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation" title="Predation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Predation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plenilstvo" title="Plenilstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Plenilstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahal" title="Bahal – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Bahal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8E%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نێچیرگری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نێچیرگری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predacija" title="Predacija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Predacija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predacija" title="Predacija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Predacija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saalistus" title="Saalistus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Saalistus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation" title="Predation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Predation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandaragit" title="Pandaragit – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pandaragit" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8C%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இரைகௌவல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இரைகௌவல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagemra" title="Tagemra – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tagemra" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Ерткычлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ерткычлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD" title="การล่าเหยื่อ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การล่าเหยื่อ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C4%B1rt%C4%B1c%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Yırtıcılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yırtıcılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%87%D0%B8" title="Шүүргедекчи – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Шүүргедекчи" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Хижацтво – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хижацтво" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%83n_m%E1%BB%93i" title="Săn mồi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Săn mồi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8D%95%E9%A3%9F" title="捕食 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="捕食" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8D%95%E9%A3%9F" title="捕食 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="捕食" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seydwan" title="Seydwan – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Seydwan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8D%95%E9%A3%9F" title="捕食 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="捕食" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q170430#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biological interaction</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Predator" and "Prey" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Predator_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Predator (disambiguation)">Predator (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prey_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Prey (disambiguation)">Prey (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polar_bear_(Ursus_maritimus)_with_its_prey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Polar_bear_%28Ursus_maritimus%29_with_its_prey.jpg/330px-Polar_bear_%28Ursus_maritimus%29_with_its_prey.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Polar_bear_%28Ursus_maritimus%29_with_its_prey.jpg/495px-Polar_bear_%28Ursus_maritimus%29_with_its_prey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Polar_bear_%28Ursus_maritimus%29_with_its_prey.jpg/660px-Polar_bear_%28Ursus_maritimus%29_with_its_prey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2745" data-file-height="1544" /></a><figcaption>Solitary predator: a <a href="/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">polar bear</a> feeds on a <a href="/wiki/Bearded_seal" title="Bearded seal">bearded seal</a> it has killed.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ants_eating_cicada,_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ants_eating_cicada%2C_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg/330px-Ants_eating_cicada%2C_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ants_eating_cicada%2C_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg/495px-Ants_eating_cicada%2C_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Ants_eating_cicada%2C_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg/660px-Ants_eating_cicada%2C_jjron_22.11.2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Social_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Social predator">Social predators</a>: <a href="/wiki/Meat_ant" title="Meat ant">meat ants</a> cooperate to feed on a <a href="/wiki/Cicada" title="Cicada">cicada</a> far larger than themselves.</figcaption></figure> Predation is a <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interaction</a> where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common <a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">feeding behaviours</a> that includes <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Micropredation" class="mw-redirect" title="Micropredation">micropredation</a> (which usually do not kill the <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoidism</a> (which always does, eventually). It is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">scavenging</a> on dead prey, though many predators also <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">scavenge</a>; it overlaps with <a href="/wiki/Herbivory" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivory">herbivory</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Seed_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed predator">seed predators</a> and destructive <a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">frugivores</a> are predators. Predators may actively search for or pursue prey or wait for it, often concealed. When prey is detected, the predator assesses whether to attack it. This may involve <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambush predation">ambush</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predation" title="Pursuit predation">pursuit predation</a>, sometimes after stalking the prey. If the attack is successful, the predator kills the prey, removes any inedible parts like the shell or spines, and eats it. Predators are adapted and often highly specialized for hunting, with acute senses such as <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a>. Many predatory <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, both <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</a>, have sharp <a href="/wiki/Claw" title="Claw">claws</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a> to grip, kill, and cut up their prey. Other adaptations include stealth and <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">aggressive mimicry</a> that improve hunting efficiency. Predation has a powerful <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selective effect</a> on prey, and the prey develop <a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">antipredator adaptations</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Warning_coloration" class="mw-redirect" title="Warning coloration">warning coloration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alarm_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarm call">alarm calls</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a> of well-defended species, and defensive spines and chemicals. Sometimes predator and prey find themselves in an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a>, a cycle of adaptations and counter-adaptations. Predation has been a major driver of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> since at least the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndianSpiderWasp.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/IndianSpiderWasp.JPG/170px-IndianSpiderWasp.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/IndianSpiderWasp.JPG/255px-IndianSpiderWasp.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/IndianSpiderWasp.JPG/340px-IndianSpiderWasp.JPG 2x" data-file-width="917" data-file-height="1149" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pompilidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompilidae">Spider wasps</a> paralyse and eventually kill their hosts, but are considered <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoids</a>, not predators.</figcaption></figure> At the most basic level, predators kill and eat other organisms. However, the concept of predation is broad, defined differently in different contexts, and includes a wide variety of feeding methods; moreover, some relationships that result in the prey's death are not necessarily called predation. A <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoid</a>, such as an <a href="/wiki/Ichneumon_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichneumon wasp">ichneumon wasp</a>, lays its eggs in or on its host; the eggs hatch into larvae, which eat the host, and it inevitably dies. Zoologists generally call this a form of <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitism</a>, though conventionally parasites are thought not to kill their hosts. A predator can be defined to differ from a parasitoid in that it has many prey, captured over its lifetime, where a parasitoid's larva has just one, or at least has its food supply provisioned for it on just one occasion.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg/330px-Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg/495px-Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg/660px-Predation%27s_Boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="617" /></a><figcaption>Relation of predation to other feeding strategies</figcaption></figure> There are other difficult and borderline cases. <a href="/wiki/Micropredator" class="mw-redirect" title="Micropredator">Micropredators</a> are small animals that, like predators, feed entirely on other organisms; they include <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a> that consume blood from living animals, and <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphids</a> that consume sap from living plants. However, since they typically do not kill their hosts, they are now often thought of as parasites.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-4">[4]</a> Animals that <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">graze</a> on <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> or mats of microbes are predators, as they consume and kill their food organisms, while herbivores that browse leaves are not, as their food plants usually survive the assault.<a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a> When animals eat seeds (<a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">seed predation</a> or granivory) or eggs (<a href="/wiki/Egg_predation" title="Egg predation">egg predation</a>), they are consuming entire living organisms, which by definition makes them predators.<a href="#cite_note-Janzen-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-NilssonBjörkman1985-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-HulmeBenkman2002-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">Scavengers</a>, organisms that only eat organisms found already dead, are not predators, but many predators such as the <a href="/wiki/Jackal" title="Jackal">jackal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hyena" title="Hyena">hyena</a> scavenge when the opportunity arises.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a> Among invertebrates, <a href="/wiki/Social_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Social wasp">social wasps</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Yellowjacket" title="Yellowjacket">yellowjackets</a> are both hunters and scavengers of other insects.<a href="#cite_note-Schmidt2009-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomic_range">Taxonomic range</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Taxonomic range">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">Carnivorous plant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematophagous_fungus" title="Nematophagous fungus">Nematophagous fungus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egg_predation" title="Egg predation">Egg predation</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:295px;max-width:295px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG/110px-Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG" decoding="async" width="110" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG/165px-Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG/220px-Drosera_capensis_bend.JPG 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="1067" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">Carnivorous plant</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sundew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sundew">sundew</a> engulfing an insect</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:179px;max-width:179px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg/177px-Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg/266px-Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg/354px-Mouse_eating_seeds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1626" data-file-height="1367" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a>: <a href="/wiki/African_pygmy_mouse" title="African pygmy mouse">mouse</a> eating seeds</div></div></div></div></div> While examples of predators among mammals and birds are well known,<a href="#cite_note-Stevens2010-12">[12]</a> predators can be found in a broad range of taxa including arthropods. They are common among insects, including mantids, <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonflies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroptera" title="Neuroptera">lacewings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mecoptera" title="Mecoptera">scorpionflies</a>. In some species such as the <a href="/wiki/Alderfly" title="Alderfly">alderfly</a>, only the larvae are predatory (the adults do not eat). Spiders are predatory, as well as other terrestrial invertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Scorpion" title="Scorpion">scorpions</a>; <a href="/wiki/Centipede" title="Centipede">centipedes</a>; some <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slug" title="Slug">slugs</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Planarian" title="Planarian">planarian worms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In marine environments, most <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroid_(zoology)" title="Hydroid (zoology)">hydroids</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">ctenophora</a> (comb jellies), <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Sea_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea stars">sea stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand_dollar" title="Sand dollar">sand dollars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_cucumber" title="Sea cucumber">sea cucumbers</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworms</a> are predatory.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Among <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobsters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a> are predators,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> and in turn crustaceans are preyed on by nearly all <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopuses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">cuttlefish</a>).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8!.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%21.gif/220px-%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%21.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D1%83%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%21.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paramecium" title="Paramecium">Paramecium</a>, a predatory <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a>, feeding on <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></figcaption></figure> Seed predation is restricted to mammals, birds, and insects but is found in almost all terrestrial ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-HulmeBenkman2002-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Janzen-6">[6]</a> Egg predation includes both specialist egg predators such as some <a href="/wiki/Colubrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Colubrid">colubrid</a> <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a> and generalists such as foxes and badgers that opportunistically take eggs when they find them.<a href="#cite_note-HanssenErikstad2012-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pike_Clark_Manica_Tseng_p.-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Some plants, like the <a href="/wiki/Pitcher_plant" title="Pitcher plant">pitcher plant</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Venus_fly_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Venus fly trap">Venus fly trap</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sundew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sundew">sundew</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous and consume insects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stevens2010-12">[12]</a> Methods of predation by plants varies greatly but often involves a food trap, mechanical stimulation, and electrical impulses to eventually catch and consume its prey.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Nematophagous_fungus" title="Nematophagous fungus">carnivorous fungi</a> catch <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> using either active traps in the form of constricting rings, or passive traps with adhesive structures.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Many species of <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>) prey on other microorganisms; the feeding mode is evidently ancient, and evolved many times in both groups.<a href="#cite_note-VelicerMendes-Soares2007-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stevens2010-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-JurkevitchDavidov2006-23">[23]</a> Among freshwater and marine <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, whether single-celled or multi-cellular, predatory grazing on <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and smaller zooplankton is common, and found in many species of <a href="/wiki/Nanoflagellate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoflagellate">nanoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a>, a diverse range of <a href="/wiki/Meroplankton" title="Meroplankton">meroplankton</a> animal larvae, and two groups of crustaceans, namely <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cladocera" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladocera">cladocerans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HansenBjørnsenHansen1997-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foraging">Foraging</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Foraging">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foraging_Sequence.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Foraging_Sequence.svg/400px-Foraging_Sequence.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Foraging_Sequence.svg/600px-Foraging_Sequence.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Foraging_Sequence.svg/800px-Foraging_Sequence.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>A basic <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a> cycle for a predator, with some variations indicated<a href="#cite_note-Kramer2001-25">[25]</a></figcaption></figure> To feed, a predator must search for, pursue and kill its prey. These actions form a <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a> cycle.<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-WetzelLikens2000-27">[27]</a> The predator must decide where to look for prey based on its geographical distribution; and once it has located prey, it must assess whether to pursue it or to wait for a better choice. If it chooses pursuit, its physical capabilities determine the mode of pursuit (e.g., ambush or chase).<a href="#cite_note-Pianka-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Having captured the prey, it may also need to expend energy handling it (e.g., killing it, removing any shell or spines, and ingesting it).<a href="#cite_note-Kramer2001-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Griffiths-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Search">Search</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Search">edit</a>]</div> Predators have a choice of search modes ranging from sit-and-wait to active or widely foraging.<a href="#cite_note-Bell4-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kramer2001-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The sit-and-wait method is most suitable if the prey are dense and mobile, and the predator has low energy requirements.<a href="#cite_note-Bell4-30">[30]</a> Wide foraging expends more energy, and is used when prey is sedentary or sparsely distributed.<a href="#cite_note-Pianka-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bell4-30">[30]</a> There is a continuum of search modes with intervals between periods of movement ranging from seconds to months. Sharks, <a href="/wiki/Molidae" title="Molidae">sunfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insectivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Insectivorous">Insectivorous</a> birds and <a href="/wiki/Shrew" title="Shrew">shrews</a> are almost always moving while web-building spiders, aquatic invertebrates, praying mantises and <a href="/wiki/Kestrel" title="Kestrel">kestrels</a> rarely move. In between, <a href="/wiki/Plover" title="Plover">plovers</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Shorebirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Shorebirds">shorebirds</a>, freshwater fish including <a href="/wiki/Crappie" title="Crappie">crappies</a>, and the larvae of <a href="/wiki/Coccinellidae" title="Coccinellidae">coccinellid beetles (ladybirds)</a>, alternate between actively searching and scanning the environment.<a href="#cite_note-Bell4-30">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg/220px-Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg/330px-Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg/440px-Thalassarche_melanophrys_in_flight_2_-_SE_Tasmania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3334" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Black-browed_albatross" title="Black-browed albatross">black-browed albatross</a> regularly flies hundreds of kilometres across the nearly empty ocean to find patches of food.</figcaption></figure> Prey distributions are often clumped, and predators respond by looking for patches where prey is dense and then searching within patches.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer2001-25">[25]</a> Where food is found in patches, such as rare shoals of fish in a nearly empty ocean, the search stage requires the predator to travel for a substantial time, and to expend a significant amount of energy, to locate each food patch.<a href="#cite_note-Bell2012-33">[33]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Black-browed_albatross" title="Black-browed albatross">black-browed albatross</a> regularly makes foraging flights to a range of around 700 kilometres (430 miles), up to a maximum foraging range of 3,000 kilometres (1,860 miles) for breeding birds gathering food for their young.<a href="#cite_note-34">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gremillet2000-35">[34]</a> With static prey, some predators can learn suitable patch locations and return to them at intervals to feed.<a href="#cite_note-Bell2012-33">[33]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">optimal foraging</a> strategy for search has been modelled using the <a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">marginal value theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Charnov1976-36">[35]</a> Search patterns often appear random. One such is the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9vy_flight" title="Lévy flight">Lévy walk</a>, that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. It is a <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9vy_flight_foraging_hypothesis" title="Lévy flight foraging hypothesis">good fit to the behaviour</a> of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter-gatherers.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assessment">Assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Assessment">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ladybug_aphids.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ladybug_aphids.JPG/220px-Ladybug_aphids.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ladybug_aphids.JPG/330px-Ladybug_aphids.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ladybug_aphids.JPG/440px-Ladybug_aphids.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seven-spot_ladybird" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven-spot ladybird">Seven-spot ladybirds</a> select plants of good quality for their <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphid</a> prey.</figcaption></figure> Having found prey, a predator must decide whether to pursue it or keep searching. The decision depends on the costs and benefits involved. A bird foraging for insects spends a lot of time searching but capturing and eating them is quick and easy, so the efficient strategy for the bird is to eat every palatable insect it finds. By contrast, a predator such as a lion or falcon finds its prey easily but capturing it requires a lot of effort. In that case, the predator is more selective.<a href="#cite_note-Pianka-28">[28]</a> One of the factors to consider is size. Prey that is too small may not be worth the trouble for the amount of energy it provides. Too large, and it may be too difficult to capture. For example, a mantid captures prey with its forelegs and they are optimized for grabbing prey of a certain size. Mantids are reluctant to attack prey that is far from that size. There is a positive correlation between the size of a predator and its prey.<a href="#cite_note-Pianka-28">[28]</a> A predator may assess a patch and decide whether to spend time searching for prey in it.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer2001-25">[25]</a> This may involve some knowledge of the preferences of the prey; for example, <a href="/wiki/Ladybird" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladybird">ladybirds</a> can choose a patch of vegetation suitable for their <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphid</a> prey.<a href="#cite_note-WilliamsFlaxman2012-39">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capture">Capture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Capture">edit</a>]</div> To capture prey, predators have a spectrum of pursuit modes that range from overt chase (<a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predation" title="Pursuit predation">pursuit predation</a>) to a sudden strike on nearby prey (<a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">ambush predation</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Kramer2001-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stevens2010-12">[12]</a> Another strategy in between ambush and pursuit is ballistic interception, where a predator observes and predicts a prey's motion and then launches its attack accordingly.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ambush">Ambush</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ambush">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambush predation">Ambush predation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:363px;max-width:363px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Green_Lizard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Western_Green_Lizard.jpg/200px-Western_Green_Lizard.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Western_Green_Lizard.jpg/300px-Western_Green_Lizard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Western_Green_Lizard.jpg/400px-Western_Green_Lizard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Western_green_lizard" title="Western green lizard">Western green lizard</a> <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">ambushes</a> its <a href="/wiki/Grasshopper" title="Grasshopper">grasshopper</a> prey.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:157px;max-width:157px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg/155px-Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg/233px-Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg/310px-Sydney-brown-trapdoor-spider_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="812" data-file-height="692" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Trapdoor_spider" class="mw-redirect" title="Trapdoor spider">trapdoor spider</a> waiting in its burrow to ambush its prey</div></div></div></div></div> Ambush or sit-and-wait predators are carnivorous animals that capture prey by stealth or surprise. In animals, ambush predation is characterized by the predator's scanning the environment from a concealed position until a prey is spotted, and then rapidly executing a fixed surprise attack.<a href="#cite_note-deVries-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> Vertebrate ambush predators include frogs, fish such as the <a href="/wiki/Angel_shark" class="mw-redirect" title="Angel shark">angel shark</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_pike" title="Northern pike">northern pike</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_frogfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern frogfish">eastern frogfish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-WhosWho-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-fishes-45">[44]</a> Among the many invertebrate ambush predators are <a href="/wiki/Trapdoor_spider" class="mw-redirect" title="Trapdoor spider">trapdoor spiders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomisus_spectabilis" title="Thomisus spectabilis">Australian Crab spiders</a> on land and <a href="/wiki/Mantis_shrimp" title="Mantis shrimp">mantis shrimps</a> in the sea.<a href="#cite_note-deVries-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> Ambush predators often construct a burrow in which to hide, improving concealment at the cost of reducing their field of vision. Some ambush predators also use lures to attract prey within striking range.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> The capturing movement has to be rapid to trap the prey, given that the attack is not modifiable once launched.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ballistic_interception">Ballistic interception</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ballistic interception">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chameleon_gab_fbi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chameleon_gab_fbi.png/220px-Chameleon_gab_fbi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chameleon_gab_fbi.png/330px-Chameleon_gab_fbi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Chameleon_gab_fbi.png/440px-Chameleon_gab_fbi.png 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleon</a> attacks prey by shooting out its tongue.</figcaption></figure> Ballistic interception is the strategy where a predator observes the movement of a prey, predicts its motion, works out an interception path, and then attacks the prey on that path. This differs from ambush predation in that the predator adjusts its attack according to how the prey is moving.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> Ballistic interception involves a brief period for planning, giving the prey an opportunity to escape. Some frogs wait until snakes have begun their strike before jumping, reducing the time available to the snake to recalibrate its attack, and maximising the angular adjustment that the snake would need to make to intercept the frog in real time.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> Ballistic predators include insects such as dragonflies, and vertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Archerfish" title="Archerfish">archerfish</a> (attacking with a jet of water), <a href="/wiki/Chameleon" title="Chameleon">chameleons</a> (attacking with their tongues), and some <a href="/wiki/Colubridae" title="Colubridae">colubrid snakes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pursuit">Pursuit</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pursuit">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predation" title="Pursuit predation">Pursuit predation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:396px;max-width:396px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg/200px-Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg/300px-Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg/400px-Whales_Bubble_Net_Feeding-edit1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="1319" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Humpback_whale" title="Humpback whale">Humpback whales</a> are lunge feeders, filtering thousands of <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a> from seawater and swallowing them alive.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg/188px-Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg/282px-Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg/376px-Gomphus_vulgatissimus_with_a_prey_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="1080" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">Dragonflies</a>, like this <a href="/wiki/Gomphus_vulgatissimus" title="Gomphus vulgatissimus">common clubtail</a> with captured prey, are invertebrate <a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predation" title="Pursuit predation">pursuit predators</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> In pursuit predation, predators chase fleeing prey. If the prey flees in a straight line, capture depends only on the predator's being faster than the prey.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> If the prey manoeuvres by turning as it flees, the predator must react in real time to calculate and follow a new intercept path, such as by <a href="/wiki/Parallel_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel navigation">parallel navigation</a>, as it closes on the prey.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> Many pursuit predators use camouflage to approach the prey as close as possible unobserved (stalking) before starting the pursuit.<a href="#cite_note-MooreBiewener2015-41">[40]</a> Pursuit predators include terrestrial mammals such as humans, African wild dogs, spotted hyenas and wolves; marine predators such as dolphins, orcas and many predatory fishes, such as tuna;<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> predatory birds (raptors) such as falcons; and insects such as <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonflies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Combes-50">[49]</a> An extreme form of pursuit is <a href="/wiki/Persistence_hunting" title="Persistence hunting">endurance or persistence hunting</a>, in which the predator tires out the prey by following it over a long distance, sometimes for hours at a time. The method is used by human <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Canidae" title="Canidae">canids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/African_wild_dog" title="African wild dog">African wild dogs</a> and domestic hounds. The African wild dog is an extreme persistence predator, tiring out individual prey by following them for many miles at relatively low speed.<a href="#cite_note-HubelMyattJordanDewhirst2016-51">[50]</a> A specialised form of pursuit predation is the <a href="/wiki/Lunge_feed" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunge feed">lunge feeding</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baleen_whale" title="Baleen whale">baleen whales</a>. These very large marine predators feed on <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a>, diving and actively swimming into concentrations of plankton, and then taking a huge gulp of water and <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filtering</a> it through their feathery <a href="/wiki/Baleen" title="Baleen">baleen</a> plates.<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> Pursuit predators may be <a href="/wiki/Social_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Social predator">social</a>, like the lion and wolf that hunt in groups, or solitary.<a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Handling">Handling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Handling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:398px;max-width:398px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bluecat5A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Bluecat5A.jpg/225px-Bluecat5A.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Bluecat5A.jpg/338px-Bluecat5A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Bluecat5A.jpg/450px-Bluecat5A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="238" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Catfish" title="Catfish">Catfish</a> has sharp <a href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">dorsal and pectoral spines</a> which it holds erect to discourage predators such as <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a> which swallow prey whole.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg/165px-Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg/248px-Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg/330px-Osprey_eating_a_fish.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1282" data-file-height="855" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Osprey" title="Osprey">Osprey</a> tears its fish prey apart, avoiding dangers such as sharp spines.</div></div></div></div></div> Once the predator has captured the prey, it has to handle it: very carefully if the prey is dangerous to eat, such as if it possesses sharp or poisonous spines, as in many prey fish. Some <a href="/wiki/Catfish" title="Catfish">catfish</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Ictaluridae" title="Ictaluridae">Ictaluridae</a> have <a href="/wiki/Fish_fin" title="Fish fin">spines on the back (dorsal) and belly (pectoral)</a> which lock in the erect position; as the catfish thrashes about when captured, these could pierce the predator's mouth, possibly fatally. Some fish-eating birds like the <a href="/wiki/Osprey" title="Osprey">osprey</a> avoid the danger of spines by tearing up their prey before eating it.<a href="#cite_note-Forbes1989-54">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solitary_versus_social_predation">Solitary versus social predation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Solitary versus social predation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_hunting" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative hunting">Cooperative hunting</a></div> In social predation, a group of predators cooperates to kill prey. This makes it possible to kill creatures larger than those they could overpower singly; for example, <a href="/wiki/Hyena" title="Hyena">hyenas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolves</a> collaborate to catch and kill herbivores as large as buffalo, and lions even hunt elephants.<a href="#cite_note-LangFarine2017-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacNulty2014-56">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[56]</a> It can also make prey more readily available through strategies like flushing of prey and herding it into a smaller area. For example, when mixed flocks of birds forage, the birds in front flush out insects that are caught by the birds behind. <a href="/wiki/Spinner_dolphin" title="Spinner dolphin">Spinner dolphins</a> form a circle around a school of fish and move inwards, concentrating the fish by a factor of 200.<a href="#cite_note-Beauchamp2012-58">[57]</a> By hunting socially <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> can catch <a href="/wiki/Colobus_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Colobus monkey">colobus monkeys</a> that would readily escape an individual hunter, while cooperating <a href="/wiki/Harris_hawk" class="mw-redirect" title="Harris hawk">Harris hawks</a> can trap rabbits.<a href="#cite_note-LangFarine2017-55">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dawson1988-59">[58]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png/510px-Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png" decoding="async" width="510" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png/765px-Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png/1020px-Journal.pone.0112884.g001_a.png 2x" data-file-width="1969" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">Wolves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Social predator">social predators</a>, cooperate to hunt and kill <a href="/wiki/Bison" title="Bison">bison</a>.</figcaption></figure> Predators of different species sometimes cooperate to catch prey. In <a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs">coral reefs</a>, when fish such as the <a href="/wiki/Grouper" title="Grouper">grouper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral_trout" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral trout">coral trout</a> spot prey that is inaccessible to them, they signal to <a href="/wiki/Giant_moray" title="Giant moray">giant moray eels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humphead_wrasse" title="Humphead wrasse">Napoleon wrasses</a> or <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopuses</a>. These predators are able to access small crevices and flush out the prey.<a href="#cite_note-Vail2013-60">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Killer_whale" class="mw-redirect" title="Killer whale">Killer whales</a> have been known to help whalers hunt <a href="/wiki/Baleen_whale" title="Baleen whale">baleen whales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eden-62">[61]</a> Social hunting allows predators to tackle a wider range of prey, but at the risk of competition for the captured food. Solitary predators have more chance of eating what they catch, at the price of increased expenditure of energy to catch it, and increased risk that the prey will escape.<a href="#cite_note-BryceWilmers2017-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-MajerHolm2018-64">[63]</a> Ambush predators are often solitary to reduce the risk of becoming prey themselves.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> Of 245 terrestrial members of the <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">Carnivora</a> (the group that includes the cats, dogs, and bears), 177 are solitary; and 35 of the 37 <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">wild cats</a> are solitary,<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> including the cougar and cheetah.<a href="#cite_note-BryceWilmers2017-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-2">[2]</a> However, the solitary cougar does allow other cougars to share in a kill,<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyote</a> can be either solitary or social.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> Other solitary predators include the northern pike,<a href="#cite_note-StowNyqvist2012-69">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolf_spider" title="Wolf spider">wolf spiders</a> and all the thousands of species of <a href="/wiki/Solitary_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Solitary wasp">solitary wasps</a> among arthropods,<a href="#cite_note-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-WeselohHare2009-71">[70]</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>.<a href="#cite_note-VelicerMendes-Soares2007-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specialization">Specialization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Specialization">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_adaptations">Physical adaptations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Physical adaptations">edit</a>]</div> Under the pressure of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, predators have evolved a variety of physical <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptations</a> for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. These include speed, agility, stealth, sharp senses, claws, teeth, filters, and suitable digestive systems.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Prey_detection" title="Prey detection">detecting prey</a>, predators have well-developed <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">smell</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stevens2010-12">[12]</a> Predators as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">owls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jumping_spider" title="Jumping spider">jumping spiders</a> have forward-facing eyes, providing accurate <a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">binocular vision</a> over a relatively narrow field of view, whereas prey animals often have less acute all-round vision. Animals such as foxes can smell their prey even when it is concealed under 2 feet (60 cm) of snow or earth. Many predators have acute hearing, and some such as <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocating</a> <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> hunt exclusively by active or passive use of sound.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2012-74">[73]</a> Predators including <a href="/wiki/Big_cat" title="Big cat">big cats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">birds of prey</a>, and ants share powerful jaws, sharp teeth, or claws which they use to seize and kill their prey. Some predators such as <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a> and fish-eating birds like <a href="/wiki/Herons" class="mw-redirect" title="Herons">herons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cormorants" class="mw-redirect" title="Cormorants">cormorants</a> swallow their prey whole; some snakes can unhinge their jaws to allow them to swallow large prey, while fish-eating birds have long spear-like beaks that they use to stab and grip fast-moving and slippery prey.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2012-74">[73]</a> Fish and other predators have developed the ability to crush or open the armoured shells of molluscs.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> Many predators are powerfully built and can catch and kill animals larger than themselves; this applies as much to small predators such as <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shrew" title="Shrew">shrews</a> as to big and visibly muscular carnivores like the <a href="/wiki/Cougar" title="Cougar">cougar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RSM2012-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Getz2011-76">[75]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 165.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 163.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Skull of brown bear has large pointed canines for killing prey, and self-sharpening carnassial teeth at rear for cutting flesh with a scissor-like action"><img alt="Skull of brown bear has large pointed canines for killing prey, and self-sharpening carnassial teeth at rear for cutting flesh with a scissor-like action" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_%28cropped%29.JPG/245px-Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="164" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_%28cropped%29.JPG/368px-Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_%28cropped%29.JPG/490px-Ursus_arctos_01_MWNH_145_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3407" data-file-height="2503" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Skull of <a href="/wiki/Brown_bear" title="Brown bear">brown bear</a> has large pointed <a href="/wiki/Canine_tooth" title="Canine tooth">canines</a> for killing prey, and self-sharpening <a href="/wiki/Carnassial" title="Carnassial">carnassial</a> teeth at rear for cutting flesh with a scissor-like action</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 118.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 116.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Large compound eyes, sensitive antennae, and powerful jaws (mandibles) of jack jumper ant"><img alt="Large compound eyes, sensitive antennae, and powerful jaws (mandibles) of jack jumper ant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg/175px-Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg/263px-Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg/350px-Myrmecia_pilosula_specimen_mandibles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="808" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Large <a href="/wiki/Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">compound eyes</a>, sensitive <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(biology)" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>, and powerful jaws (<a href="/wiki/Mandible_(insect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandible (insect)">mandibles</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Myrmecia_pilosula" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmecia pilosula">jack jumper ant</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 151.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 149.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crab spider, an ambush predator with forward-facing eyes, catching another predator, a field digger wasp"><img alt="Crab spider, an ambush predator with forward-facing eyes, catching another predator, a field digger wasp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg/224px-Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg/336px-Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg/448px-Crab_spider_seizes_field_digger_wasp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2409" data-file-height="1938" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Crab_spider" class="mw-redirect" title="Crab spider">Crab spider</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">ambush predator</a> with forward-facing eyes, catching another predator, a <a href="/wiki/Mellinus_arvensis" title="Mellinus arvensis">field digger wasp</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 197.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 195.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hawk_eating_prey_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red-tailed hawk uses sharp hooked claws and beak to kill and tear up its prey"><img alt="Red-tailed hawk uses sharp hooked claws and beak to kill and tear up its prey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Hawk_eating_prey_%28cropped%29.jpg/293px-Hawk_eating_prey_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="196" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Hawk_eating_prey_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Hawk_eating_prey_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Hawk_eating_prey_%28cropped%29.jpg/586px-Hawk_eating_prey_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1155" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Red-tailed_hawk" title="Red-tailed hawk">Red-tailed hawk</a> uses sharp hooked claws and beak to kill and tear up its prey</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 154px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 152px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Specialist: a great blue heron with a speared fish"><img alt="Specialist: a great blue heron with a speared fish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG/228px-GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG" decoding="async" width="152" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG/342px-GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG/455px-GreatBlueHeronTampaFL.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3136" data-file-height="2480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Specialist: a <a href="/wiki/Great_blue_heron" title="Great blue heron">great blue heron</a> with a speared fish</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian python unhinges its jaw to swallow large prey like this chital"><img alt="Indian python unhinges its jaw to swallow large prey like this chital" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg/257px-MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg/385px-MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg/513px-MNP_Python_at_Moyer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="695" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Python_molurus" class="mw-redirect" title="Python molurus">Indian python</a> unhinges its jaw to swallow large prey like this <a href="/wiki/Chital" title="Chital">chital</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet_and_behaviour">Diet and behaviour</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Diet and behaviour">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:420px;max-width:420px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png/200px-Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png/300px-Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png/400px-Peerj-297-fig-5_Platydemus_manokwari.png 2x" data-file-width="1667" data-file-height="1174" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Platydemus_manokwari" title="Platydemus manokwari">Platydemus manokwari</a>, a specialist <a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworm</a> predator of <a href="/wiki/Land_snail" title="Land snail">land snails</a>, attacking a snail</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:214px;max-width:214px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_%28cropped%29.jpg/212px-Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="212" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_%28cropped%29.jpg/318px-Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_%28cropped%29.jpg/424px-Lioness_vs_Cape_Buffalo_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="549" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Size-selective predation: a <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lioness</a> attacking a <a href="/wiki/Cape_buffalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape buffalo">Cape buffalo</a>, over twice her weight. Lions can attack much larger prey, including elephants, but do so much less often.</div></div></div></div></div> Predators are often highly specialized in their diet and hunting behaviour; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_lynx" title="Eurasian lynx">Eurasian lynx</a> only hunts small <a href="/wiki/Ungulate" title="Ungulate">ungulates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sidorovich2011-77">[76]</a> Others such as <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopards</a> are more opportunistic generalists, preying on at least 100 species.<a href="#cite_note-Angelici2015-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hayward2006-79">[78]</a> The specialists may be highly adapted to capturing their preferred prey, whereas generalists may be better able to switch to other prey when a preferred target is scarce. When prey have a clumped (uneven) distribution, the optimal strategy for the predator is predicted to be more specialized as the prey are more conspicuous and can be found more quickly;<a href="#cite_note-Pulliam1974-80">[79]</a> this appears to be correct for predators of immobile prey, but is doubtful with mobile prey.<a href="#cite_note-SihChristensen2001-81">[80]</a> In size-selective predation, predators select prey of a certain size.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> Large prey may prove troublesome for a predator, while small prey might prove hard to find and in any case provide less of a reward. This has led to a correlation between the size of predators and their prey. Size may also act as a <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(ecology)" title="Refuge (ecology)">refuge</a> for large prey. For example, adult elephants are relatively safe from predation by lions, but juveniles are vulnerable.<a href="#cite_note-Owen-SmithMills2008-83">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camouflage_and_mimicry">Camouflage and mimicry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Camouflage and mimicry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">Aggressive mimicry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:385px;max-width:385px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh(_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh%28_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay%29.jpg/165px-Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh%28_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh%28_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay%29.jpg/248px-Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh%28_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh%28_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay%29.jpg/330px-Snow_Leopard_in_Ladakh%28_Photo_by_Tashi_Lonchay%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="480" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflaged</a> predator: <a href="/wiki/Snow_leopard" title="Snow leopard">snow leopard</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ladakh" title="Ladakh">Ladakh</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:214px;max-width:214px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Striped_anglerfish_(_Antennarius_striatus_).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Striped_anglerfish_%28_Antennarius_striatus_%29.jpg/212px-Striped_anglerfish_%28_Antennarius_striatus_%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="212" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Striped_anglerfish_%28_Antennarius_striatus_%29.jpg/318px-Striped_anglerfish_%28_Antennarius_striatus_%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Striped_anglerfish_%28_Antennarius_striatus_%29.jpg/424px-Striped_anglerfish_%28_Antennarius_striatus_%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2197" data-file-height="1282" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Striated_frogfish" title="Striated frogfish">Striated frogfish</a> uses camouflage and <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">aggressive mimicry</a> in the form of a fishing rod-like <a href="/wiki/Fin_ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Fin ray">lure</a> on its head to attract prey.</div></div></div></div></div> Members of the <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">cat family</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Snow_leopard" title="Snow leopard">snow leopard</a> (treeless highlands), <a href="/wiki/Tiger" title="Tiger">tiger</a> (grassy plains, reed swamps), <a href="/wiki/Ocelot" title="Ocelot">ocelot</a> (forest), <a href="/wiki/Fishing_cat" title="Fishing cat">fishing cat</a> (waterside thickets), and <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lion</a> (open plains) are camouflaged with coloration and <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Disruptive pattern">disruptive patterns</a> suiting their habitats.<a href="#cite_note-Cott12-84">[83]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Aggressive_mimicry" title="Aggressive mimicry">aggressive mimicry</a>, certain predators, including insects and fishes, make use of coloration and behaviour to attract prey. Female <a href="/wiki/Photuris_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Photuris (genus)">Photuris</a> <a href="/wiki/Firefly" title="Firefly">fireflies</a>, for example, copy the light signals of other species, thereby attracting male fireflies, which they capture and eat.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Flower_mantis" title="Flower mantis">Flower mantises</a> are ambush predators; camouflaged as flowers, such as <a href="/wiki/Orchid" title="Orchid">orchids</a>, they attract prey and seize it when it is close enough.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frogfish" title="Frogfish">Frogfishes</a> are extremely well camouflaged, and actively lure their prey to approach using an <a href="/wiki/Fin_ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Fin ray">esca</a>, a bait on the end of a rod-like appendage on the head, which they wave gently to mimic a small animal, gulping the prey in an extremely rapid movement when it is within range.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venom">Venom</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Venom">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">Venom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Evolution of snake venom</a></div> Many smaller predators such as the <a href="/wiki/Box_jellyfish" title="Box jellyfish">box jellyfish</a> use <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venom</a> to subdue their prey,<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> and venom can also aid in digestion (as is the case for <a href="/wiki/Rattlesnake" title="Rattlesnake">rattlesnakes</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Spider" title="Spider">spiders</a>).<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barceloux2008-90">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Marbled_sea_snake" class="mw-redirect" title="Marbled sea snake">marbled sea snake</a> that has adapted to egg predation has atrophied venom glands, and the gene for its three finger toxin contains a <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> (the deletion of two <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>) that inactives it. These changes are explained by the fact that its prey does not need to be subdued.<a href="#cite_note-Li_Fry_Kini_2005_pp._81–89-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_fields">Electric fields</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Electric fields">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elektroplax_Rochen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Elektroplax_Rochen.png/220px-Elektroplax_Rochen.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Elektroplax_Rochen.png/330px-Elektroplax_Rochen.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Elektroplax_Rochen.png/440px-Elektroplax_Rochen.png 2x" data-file-width="523" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Electric_ray" title="Electric ray">electric ray</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torpediniformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Torpediniformes">Torpediniformes</a>) showing location of electric organ and electrocytes stacked within it</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Electroreception_and_electrogenesis" title="Electroreception and electrogenesis">Electroreception and electrogenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_organ_(fish)" title="Electric organ (fish)">Electric organ (fish)</a></div> Several groups of predatory fish have the ability to detect, track, and sometimes, as in the <a href="/wiki/Electric_ray" title="Electric ray">electric ray</a>, to incapacitate their prey by <a href="/wiki/Electroreception_and_electrogenesis" title="Electroreception and electrogenesis">sensing and generating electric fields</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Feulner,_P._G.,_M._Plath,_J._Engelmann,_F._Kirschbaum,_R._Tiedemann_2009_225–228-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Catania2015-94">[93]</a> The electric organ is derived from modified nerve or muscle tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer1996-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physiology">Physiology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Physiology">edit</a>]</div> Physiological adaptations to predation include the ability of predatory bacteria to digest the complex <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> polymer from the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a> of the bacteria that they prey upon.<a href="#cite_note-JurkevitchDavidov2006-23">[23]</a> Carnivorous vertebrates of all five major classes (fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) have lower relative rates of sugar to <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> transport than either herbivores or omnivores, presumably because they acquire plenty of amino acids from the animal <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> in their diet.<a href="#cite_note-KarasovDiamond1988-96">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antipredator_adaptations">Antipredator adaptations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Antipredator adaptations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">Antipredator adaptation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:355px;max-width:355px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg/190px-Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg/285px-Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg/380px-Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1367" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Dead_leaf_mantis" title="Dead leaf mantis">Dead leaf mantis</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a> makes it less visible to both predators and prey.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:159px;max-width:159px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg/157px-Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg/236px-Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg/314px-Syrphid_hoverfly_wasp_mimic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1027" data-file-height="869" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Syrphidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrphidae">Syrphid hoverfly</a> misdirects predators by <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicking</a> a <a href="/wiki/Wasp" title="Wasp">wasp</a>, but has no <a href="/wiki/Stinger" title="Stinger">sting</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> To counter predation, prey have evolved defences for use at each stage of an attack.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stevens2010-12">[12]</a> They can try to avoid detection,<a href="#cite_note-CaroCh3-98">[97]</a> such as by using <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimicry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merilaita_Scott-Samuel_Cuthill_p=20160341-99">[98]</a> They can detect predators<a href="#cite_note-Caro13-100">[99]</a> and warn others of their presence.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> If detected, they can try to avoid being the target of an attack, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">signalling that they are toxic or unpalatable</a>,<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bowers1985-104">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berenbaum1995-105">[104]</a> by signalling that a chase would be unprofitable,<a href="#cite_note-Ruxton70-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Caro1986-107">[106]</a> or by forming groups.<a href="#cite_note-BeauchampCh3-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> If they become a target, they can try to fend off the attack with defences such as armour, <a href="/wiki/Spine_(zoology)" title="Spine (zoology)">quills</a>, unpalatability, or mobbing;<a href="#cite_note-RuxtonSherrattSpeed2004-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dominey-111">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brodie2009-112">[111]</a> and they can often escape an attack in progress by <a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">startling</a> the predator,<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Merilaita2011-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Springer-115">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thanatosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanatosis">playing dead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autotomy" title="Autotomy">shedding body parts</a> such as tails, or simply fleeing.<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-CaroCh12-117">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coevolution">Coevolution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Coevolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/220px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/330px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg/440px-Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="617" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Bats use <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a> to hunt moths at night.</figcaption></figure> Predators and prey are natural enemies, and many of their adaptations seem designed to counter each other. For example, bats have sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a> systems to detect insects and other prey, and insects have developed a variety of defences including the ability to hear the echolocation calls.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> Many pursuit predators that run on land, such as wolves, have evolved long limbs in response to the increased speed of their prey.<a href="#cite_note-Janis-120">[119]</a> Their adaptations have been characterized as an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a>, an example of the <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> of two species.<a href="#cite_note-DawKrebs-121">[120]</a> In a <a href="/wiki/Gene_centered_view_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene centered view of evolution">gene centered view of evolution</a>, the genes of predator and prey can be thought of as <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competing</a> for the prey's body.<a href="#cite_note-DawKrebs-121">[120]</a> However, the "life-dinner" principle of Dawkins and Krebs predicts that this arms race is asymmetric: if a predator fails to catch its prey, it loses its dinner, while if it succeeds, the prey loses its life.<a href="#cite_note-DawKrebs-121">[120]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/150px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/225px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg/300px-Micrurus_fulviusHolbrookV3P10AA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="1446" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Micrurus_fulvius" title="Micrurus fulvius">Eastern coral snake</a>, itself a predator, is venomous enough to kill predators that attack it, so when they avoid it, this behaviour must be inherited, not learnt.</figcaption></figure> The metaphor of an arms race implies ever-escalating advances in attack and defence. However, these adaptations come with a cost; for instance, longer legs have an increased risk of breaking,<a href="#cite_note-Abrams-122">[121]</a> while the specialized tongue of the chameleon, with its ability to act like a projectile, is useless for lapping water, so the chameleon must drink dew off vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-Brodie-123">[122]</a> The "life-dinner" principle has been criticized on multiple grounds. The extent of the asymmetry in natural selection depends in part on the heritability of the adaptive traits.<a href="#cite_note-Brodie-123">[122]</a> Also, if a predator loses enough dinners, it too will lose its life.<a href="#cite_note-Abrams-122">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brodie-123">[122]</a> On the other hand, the fitness cost of a given lost dinner is unpredictable, as the predator may quickly find better prey. In addition, most predators are generalists, which reduces the impact of a given prey adaption on a predator. Since specialization is caused by predator-prey coevolution, the rarity of specialists may imply that predator-prey arms races are rare.<a href="#cite_note-Brodie-123">[122]</a> It is difficult to determine whether given adaptations are truly the result of coevolution, where a prey adaptation gives rise to a predator adaptation that is countered by further adaptation in the prey. An alternative explanation is escalation, where predators are adapting to competitors, their own predators or dangerous prey.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> Apparent adaptations to predation may also have arisen for other reasons and then been co-opted for attack or defence. In some of the insects preyed on by bats, hearing evolved before bats appeared and was used to hear signals used for territorial defence and mating.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> Their hearing evolved in response to bat predation, but the only clear example of reciprocal adaptation in bats is stealth echolocation.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> A more symmetric arms race may occur when the prey are dangerous, having spines, quills, toxins or venom that can harm the predator. The predator can respond with avoidance, which in turn drives the evolution of mimicry. Avoidance is not necessarily an evolutionary response as it is generally learned from bad experiences with prey. However, when the prey is capable of killing the predator (as can a <a href="/wiki/Coral_snake" title="Coral snake">coral snake</a> with its venom), there is no opportunity for learning and avoidance must be inherited. Predators can also respond to dangerous prey with counter-adaptations. In western North America, the <a href="/wiki/Common_garter_snake" title="Common garter snake">common garter snake</a> has developed a resistance to the toxin in the skin of the <a href="/wiki/Rough-skinned_newt" title="Rough-skinned newt">rough-skinned newt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brodie-123">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_in_ecosystems">Role in ecosystems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Role in ecosystems">edit</a>]</div> Predators affect their ecosystems not only directly by eating their own prey, but by indirect means such as reducing predation by other species, or altering the foraging behaviour of a herbivore, as with the biodiversity effect of wolves on riverside vegetation or sea otters on kelp forests. This may explain population dynamics effects such as the cycles observed in lynx and snowshoe hares.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Preisser_Bolnick_2005-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-classics-129">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trophic_level">Trophic level</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Trophic level">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></div> One way of classifying predators is by <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic level</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a> that feed on <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> are secondary consumers; their predators are tertiary consumers, and so forth.<a href="#cite_note-Lindeman1942-130">[129]</a> At the top of this <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> are <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predators</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OrdizBischofSwenson2013-131">[130]</a> Many predators however eat from multiple levels of the food chain; a carnivore may eat both secondary and tertiary consumers.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> This means that many predators must contend with <a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">intraguild predation</a>, where other predators kill and eat them. For example, <a href="/wiki/Coyote" title="Coyote">coyotes</a> compete with and sometimes kill <a href="/wiki/Gray_fox" title="Gray fox">gray foxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bobcat" title="Bobcat">bobcats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trophic_transfer">Trophic transfer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Trophic transfer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow (ecology)</a></div> Trophic transfer within an ecosystem refers to the transport of energy and <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> as a result of predation. Energy passes from one <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic level</a> to the next as predators consume <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a> from another <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a>'s body. Within each transfer, while there are uses of energy, there are also losses of energy. Marine trophic levels vary depending on locality and the size of the <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary producers</a>. There are generally up to six trophic levels in the open ocean, four over continental shelves, and around  three in upwelling zones.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> For example, a marine habitat with five trophic levels could be represented as follows: <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a> (feed primarily on <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>); <a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a> (feed primarily on other <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>/animals); <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a> (feed primarily on dead organic matter/<a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">detritus</a>; <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a> (feed on a mixed diet of phyto- and zooplankton and detritus); and <a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a> which combine <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophy</a> (using light energy to grow without intake of any additional organic compounds or nutrients) with <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophy</a> (feeding on other plants and animals for energy and nutrients—herbivores, omnivores and carnivores, and detritivores). Trophic transfer efficiency measures how effectively energy is transferred or passed up through higher trophic levels of the marine <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a>. As energy moves up the trophic levels, it decreases due to heat, waste, and the natural <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolic processes</a> that occur as predators consume their prey. The result is that only about 10% of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level. This is often referred to as "the 10% rule" which limits the number of trophic levels that an individual ecosystem is capable of supporting.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity_maintained_by_apex_predation">Biodiversity maintained by apex predation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Biodiversity maintained by apex predation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></div> Predators may increase the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of communities by preventing a single species from becoming dominant. Such predators are known as <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> and may have a profound influence on the balance of organisms in a particular <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bond2012-136">[135]</a> Introduction or removal of this predator, or changes in its population density, can have drastic cascading effects on the equilibrium of many other populations in the ecosystem. For example, grazers of a grassland may prevent a single dominant species from taking over.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_(26485120926)_horiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_%2826485120926%29_horiz.jpg/620px-Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_%2826485120926%29_horiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="620" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_%2826485120926%29_horiz.jpg/930px-Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_%2826485120926%29_horiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_%2826485120926%29_horiz.jpg/1240px-Fig._1_-Riparian_willow_recovery_%2826485120926%29_horiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4795" data-file-height="1215" /></a><figcaption>Riparian willow recovery at Blacktail Creek, <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>, after reintroduction of wolves, the local <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ripple2004-138">[137]</a> Left, in 2002; right, in 2015</figcaption></figure> The elimination of wolves from <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> had profound impacts on the <a href="/wiki/Trophic_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic pyramid">trophic pyramid</a>. In that area, wolves are both keystone species and apex predators. Without predation, herbivores began to over-graze many woody browse species, affecting the area's plant populations. In addition, wolves often kept animals from grazing near streams, protecting the <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beavers</a>' food sources. The removal of wolves had a direct effect on the beaver population, as their habitat became territory for grazing. Increased browsing on <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> along Blacktail Creek due to a lack of predation caused channel incision because the reduced beaver population was no longer able to slow the water down and keep the soil in place. The predators were thus demonstrated to be of vital importance in the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-Ripple2004-138">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_dynamics">Population dynamics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Population dynamics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Lotka–Volterra equations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A line graph of the number of Canada lynx furs sold to the Hudson's Bay Company on the vertical axis against the numbers of snowshoe hare on the horizontal axis for the period 1845 to 1935" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg/330px-Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg/495px-Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg/660px-Milliers_fourrures_vendues_en_environ_90_ans_odum_1953_en.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1254" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Numbers of <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe_hare" title="Snowshoe hare">snowshoe hare</a> (Lepus americanus) (yellow background) and Canada lynx (black line, foreground) furs sold to the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> from 1845 to 1935</figcaption></figure> In the absence of predators, the population of a species can grow exponentially until it approaches the <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a> of the environment.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> Predators limit the growth of prey both by consuming them and by changing their behavior.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> Increases or decreases in the prey population can also lead to increases or decreases in the number of predators, for example, through an increase in the number of young they bear. Cyclical fluctuations have been seen in populations of predator and prey, often with offsets between the predator and prey cycles. A well-known example is that of the <a href="/wiki/Snowshoe_hare" title="Snowshoe hare">snowshoe hare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lynx" title="Lynx">lynx</a>. Over a broad span of <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forest">boreal forests</a> in Alaska and Canada, the hare populations fluctuate in near synchrony with a 10-year period, and the lynx populations fluctuate in response. This was first seen in historical records of animals caught by <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur hunters</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> over more than a century.<a href="#cite_note-Krebs-141">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-classics-129">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Snowshoe_Hare_10-year_Cycle_–_A_Cautionary_Tale-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC_Bitesize_-_Predators_and_their_prey-143">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lotka-Volterra_model_(1.1,_0.4,_0.4,_0.1).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lotka-Volterra_model_%281.1%2C_0.4%2C_0.4%2C_0.1%29.png/300px-Lotka-Volterra_model_%281.1%2C_0.4%2C_0.4%2C_0.1%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lotka-Volterra_model_%281.1%2C_0.4%2C_0.4%2C_0.1%29.png/450px-Lotka-Volterra_model_%281.1%2C_0.4%2C_0.4%2C_0.1%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lotka-Volterra_model_%281.1%2C_0.4%2C_0.4%2C_0.1%29.png/600px-Lotka-Volterra_model_%281.1%2C_0.4%2C_0.4%2C_0.1%29.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">Predator</a>-prey population cycles in a <a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Lotka–Volterra model</a></figcaption></figure> A simple model of a system with one species each of predator and prey, the <a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Lotka–Volterra equations</a>, predicts population cycles.<a href="#cite_note-Goel1971-144">[143]</a> However, attempts to reproduce the predictions of this model in the laboratory have often failed; for example, when the protozoan <a href="/wiki/Didinium#Didinium_nasutum" title="Didinium">Didinium nasutum</a> is added to a culture containing its prey, <a href="/wiki/Paramecium_caudatum" title="Paramecium caudatum">Paramecium caudatum</a>, the latter is often driven to extinction.<a href="#cite_note-Princeton-145">[144]</a> The Lotka–Volterra equations rely on several simplifying assumptions, and they are <a href="/wiki/Structural_stability" title="Structural stability">structurally unstable</a>, meaning that any change in the equations can stabilize or destabilize the dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-Murdoch-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> For example, one assumption is that predators have a linear <a href="/wiki/Functional_response" title="Functional response">functional response</a> to prey: the rate of kills increases in proportion to the rate of encounters. If this rate is limited by time spent handling each catch, then prey populations can reach densities above which predators cannot control them.<a href="#cite_note-Princeton-145">[144]</a> Another assumption is that all prey individuals are identical. In reality, predators tend to select young, weak, and ill individuals, leaving prey populations able to regrow.<a href="#cite_note-Genovart2010-148">[147]</a> Many factors can stabilize predator and prey populations.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> One example is the presence of multiple predators, particularly generalists that are attracted to a given prey species if it is abundant and look elsewhere if it is not.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> As a result, population cycles tend to be found in northern temperate and <a href="/wiki/Subarctic" title="Subarctic">subarctic</a> ecosystems because the food webs are simpler.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a> The snowshoe hare-lynx system is subarctic, but even this involves other predators, including coyotes, <a href="/wiki/Goshawk" title="Goshawk">goshawks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_horned_owl" title="Great horned owl">great horned owls</a>, and the cycle is reinforced by variations in the food available to the hares.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> A range of mathematical models have been developed by relaxing the assumptions made in the Lotka–Volterra model; these variously allow animals to have <a href="/wiki/Spatial_distribution" title="Spatial distribution">geographic distributions</a>, or to <a href="/wiki/Animal_migration" title="Animal migration">migrate</a>; to have differences between individuals, such as <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexes</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Age_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Age structure">age structure</a>, so that only some individuals reproduce; to live in a varying environment, such as with changing <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasons</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Cushing2005-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> and analysing the interactions of more than just two species at once. Such models predict widely differing and often <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaotic</a> predator-prey population dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-Cushing2005-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-KozlovVakulenko2013-155">[154]</a> The presence of <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(ecology)" title="Refuge (ecology)">refuge areas</a>, where prey are safe from predators, may enable prey to maintain larger populations but may also destabilize the dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-BerrymanHawkins2006-158">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_history">Evolutionary history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Evolutionary history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></div> Predation dates from before the rise of commonly recognized carnivores by hundreds of millions (perhaps billions) of years. Predation has evolved repeatedly in different groups of organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> The rise of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells at around 2.7 Gya, the rise of multicellular organisms at about 2 Gya, and the rise of mobile predators (around 600 Mya - 2 Gya, probably around 1 Gya) have all been attributed to early predatory behavior, and many very early remains show evidence of boreholes or other markings attributed to small predator species.<a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a> It likely triggered major evolutionary transitions including the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multicellularity" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellularity">multicellularity</a>, increased size, mobility (including <a href="/wiki/Insect_flight" title="Insect flight">insect flight</a><a href="#cite_note-GrimaldiEngel2005-161">[160]</a>) and armoured shells and exoskeletons.<a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a> The earliest predators were microbial organisms, which engulfed or grazed on others. Because the fossil record is poor, these first predators could date back anywhere between 1 and over 2.7 Gya (billion years ago).<a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a> Predation visibly became important shortly before the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period—around <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=550">550</a> million years ago—as evidenced by the almost simultaneous development of <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a> in animals and algae,<a href="#cite_note-Grant1991-162">[161]</a> and predation-avoiding <a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">burrowing</a>. However, predators had been grazing on micro-organisms since at least <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=1,000">1,000</a> million years ago,<a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2002-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Awramik1971-163">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2008-164">[163]</a> with evidence of selective (rather than random) predation from a similar time.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> <a href="/wiki/Auroralumina_attenboroughii" class="mw-redirect" title="Auroralumina attenboroughii">Auroralumina attenboroughii</a> is an Ediacaran crown-group <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarian</a> (557–562 mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from <a href="/wiki/Charnwood_Forest" title="Charnwood Forest">Charnwood Forest</a>, England. It is thought to be one of the earliest predatory animals, catching small prey with its <a href="/wiki/Nematocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocyst">nematocysts</a> as modern cnidarians do.<a href="#cite_note-Dunn_Kenchington_Parry_Clark_2022-166">[165]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> demonstrates a long history of interactions between predators and their prey from the Cambrian period onwards, showing for example that some predators drilled through the shells of <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropod</a> molluscs, while others ate these organisms by breaking their shells.<a href="#cite_note-Kelley-167">[166]</a> Among the Cambrian predators were invertebrates like the <a href="/wiki/Anomalocaridid" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomalocaridid">anomalocaridids</a> with appendages suitable for grabbing prey, large compound eyes and jaws made of a hard material like that in the <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> of an insect.<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> Some of the first <a href="/wiki/Jawed_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed fish">fish to have jaws</a> were the armoured and mainly predatory <a href="/wiki/Placoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Placoderms">placoderms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> to <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> periods, one of which, the 6 m (20 ft) <a href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</a>, is considered the world's first <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> "superpredator", preying upon other predators.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson&Westneat2009-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr2010-170">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">Insects</a> developed the ability to fly in the Early <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> or Late Devonian, enabling them among other things to escape from predators.<a href="#cite_note-GrimaldiEngel2005-161">[160]</a> Among the largest predators that have ever lived were the <a href="/wiki/Theropod_dinosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod dinosaur">theropod dinosaurs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period. They preyed upon herbivorous dinosaurs such as <a href="/wiki/Hadrosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadrosaur">hadrosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceratopsia" title="Ceratopsia">ceratopsians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ankylosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankylosaur">ankylosaurs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Auroralumina attenboroughii, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya). It was a stem-group cnidarian, catching prey with its nematocysts.[165]"><img alt="Auroralumina attenboroughii, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya). It was a stem-group cnidarian, catching prey with its nematocysts.[165]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg/157px-Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg/235px-Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg/314px-Auroralumina_attenboroughii_reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="969" data-file-height="1112" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Auroralumina_attenboroughii" class="mw-redirect" title="Auroralumina attenboroughii">Auroralumina attenboroughii</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> predator (c. 560 mya). It was a stem-group <a href="/wiki/Cnidarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarian">cnidarian</a>, catching prey with its <a href="/wiki/Nematocyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematocyst">nematocysts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dunn_Kenchington_Parry_Clark_2022-166">[165]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cambrian_substrate_revolution_02.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Cambrian substrate revolution saw life on the sea floor change from minimal burrowing (left) to a diverse burrowing fauna (right), probably to avoid new Cambrian predators."><img alt="The Cambrian substrate revolution saw life on the sea floor change from minimal burrowing (left) to a diverse burrowing fauna (right), probably to avoid new Cambrian predators." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cambrian_substrate_revolution_02.png/210px-Cambrian_substrate_revolution_02.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Cambrian_substrate_revolution_02.png/315px-Cambrian_substrate_revolution_02.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Cambrian_substrate_revolution_02.png 2x" data-file-width="364" data-file-height="265" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_substrate_revolution" title="Cambrian substrate revolution">Cambrian substrate revolution</a> saw life on the <a href="/wiki/Sea_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea floor">sea floor</a> change from minimal burrowing (left) to a diverse burrowing fauna (right), probably to avoid new <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> predators.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The anomalocaridid Peytoia, a Cambrian invertebrate, probably an apex predator"><img alt="The anomalocaridid Peytoia, a Cambrian invertebrate, probably an apex predator" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png/210px-20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png/315px-20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png/420px-20191021_Peytoia_nathorsti_Laggania_cambria.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="950" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Anomalocaridid" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomalocaridid">anomalocaridid</a> <a href="/wiki/Peytoia" title="Peytoia">Peytoia</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> invertebrate, probably an apex predator</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Meganeura monyi, a predatory Carboniferous insect related to dragonflies, could fly to escape terrestrial predators. Its large size, with a wingspan of 65 cm (30 in), may reflect the lack of vertebrate aerial predators at that time."><img alt="Meganeura monyi, a predatory Carboniferous insect related to dragonflies, could fly to escape terrestrial predators. Its large size, with a wingspan of 65 cm (30 in), may reflect the lack of vertebrate aerial predators at that time." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg/210px-Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg/315px-Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg/420px-Meganeura_monyi_au_Museum_de_Toulouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7357" data-file-height="4626" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Meganeura_monyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Meganeura monyi">Meganeura monyi</a>, a predatory <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> related to <a href="/wiki/Dragonfly" title="Dragonfly">dragonflies</a>, could fly to escape terrestrial predators. Its large size, with a wingspan of 65 cm (30 in), may reflect the lack of vertebrate aerial predators at that time.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tyrannosaurus, a large theropod dinosaur of the Cretaceous, reconstruction"><img alt="Tyrannosaurus, a large theropod dinosaur of the Cretaceous, reconstruction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg/210px-Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg/315px-Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg/420px-Tyrannosaurus_rex_Reconstruction_by_Nobu_Tamura.jpg 2x" data-file-width="977" data-file-height="395" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Theropod_dinosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod dinosaur">theropod dinosaur</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, reconstruction</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 215px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunkleosteus_terrelli_(2024).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Dunkleosteus terrelli, a Devonian placoderm, perhaps the world's first vertebrate superpredator, reconstruction"><img alt="Dunkleosteus terrelli, a Devonian placoderm, perhaps the world's first vertebrate superpredator, reconstruction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dunkleosteus_terrelli_%282024%29.png/210px-Dunkleosteus_terrelli_%282024%29.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dunkleosteus_terrelli_%282024%29.png/315px-Dunkleosteus_terrelli_%282024%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Dunkleosteus_terrelli_%282024%29.png/420px-Dunkleosteus_terrelli_%282024%29.png 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="393" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus terrelli</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Placoderm" title="Placoderm">placoderm</a>, perhaps the world's first vertebrate <a href="/wiki/Super-predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-predator">superpredator</a>, reconstruction</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_human_society">In human society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In human society">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_uses_of_animals" title="Human uses of animals">Human uses of animals</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bushmen_hunters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Bushmen_hunters.jpg/170px-Bushmen_hunters.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Bushmen_hunters.jpg/255px-Bushmen_hunters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Bushmen_hunters.jpg/340px-Bushmen_hunters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6016" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> hunter, Botswana</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practical_uses">Practical uses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Practical uses">edit</a>]</div> Humans, as <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivores</a>, are to some extent predatory,<a href="#cite_note-DarimontFoxBryanReimchen2015-172">[171]</a> using weapons and tools to <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_trapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal trapping">trap</a> animals.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> They also use other predatory species such as <a href="/wiki/Hunting_dog" title="Hunting dog">dogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Falcon" title="Falcon">falcons</a> to catch prey for food or for sport.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> Two mid-sized predators, dogs and cats, are the animals most often kept as <a href="/wiki/Pet" title="Pet">pets</a> in western societies.<a href="#cite_note-Aegerter_Fouracre_Smith_p=e0174709-177">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> Human hunters, including the <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> of southern Africa, use <a href="/wiki/Persistence_hunting" title="Persistence hunting">persistence hunting</a>, a form of pursuit predation where the pursuer may be slower than prey such as a <a href="/wiki/Kudu" title="Kudu">kudu</a> antelope over short distances, but follows it in the midday heat until it is exhausted, a pursuit that can take up to five hours.<a href="#cite_note-Liebenberg20089-179">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">biological pest control</a>, predators (and parasitoids) from a pest's natural range are introduced to control populations, at the risk of causing unforeseen problems. Natural predators, provided they do no harm to non-pest species, are an environmentally friendly and sustainable way of reducing damage to crops and an alternative to the use of chemical agents such as <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolic_uses">Symbolic uses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Symbolic uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/220px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/330px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg/440px-Capitoline_she-wolf_Musei_Capitolini_MC1181.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Wolf" title="Capitoline Wolf">Capitoline Wolf</a> suckling <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a>, the mythical founders of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></figcaption></figure> In film, the idea of the predator as a dangerous if <a href="/wiki/Humanoid" title="Humanoid">humanoid</a> enemy is used in the 1987 <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> <a href="/wiki/Horror_film" title="Horror film">horror</a> <a href="/wiki/Action_film" title="Action film">action film</a> <a href="/wiki/Predator_(film)" title="Predator (film)">Predator</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predator_(franchise)" title="Predator (franchise)">its three sequels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> A terrifying predator, a gigantic <a href="/wiki/Man-eating_animal" title="Man-eating animal">Man-eater|man-eating</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_white_shark" title="Great white shark">great white shark</a>, is central, too, to <a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a>'s 1974 thriller <a href="/wiki/Jaws_(film)" title="Jaws (film)">Jaws</a>.<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a> Among poetry on the theme of predation, a predator's consciousness might be explored, such as in <a href="/wiki/Ted_Hughes" title="Ted Hughes">Ted Hughes</a>'s Pike.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> The phrase "Nature, red in tooth and claw" from <a href="/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson" title="Alfred, Lord Tennyson">Alfred, Lord Tennyson</a>'s 1849 poem "<a href="/wiki/In_Memoriam_A.H.H." title="In Memoriam A.H.H.">In Memoriam A.H.H.</a>" has been interpreted as referring to the struggle between predators and prey.<a href="#cite_note-Gould_1995-186">[185]</a> In mythology and folk fable, predators such as the fox and wolf have mixed reputations.<a href="#cite_note-Wallner1998-187">[186]</a> The fox was a symbol of fertility in ancient Greece, but a weather demon in northern Europe, and a creature of the devil in early Christianity; the fox is presented as sly, greedy, and cunning in fables from <a href="/wiki/Aesop%27s_Fables" title="Aesop's Fables">Aesop</a> onwards.<a href="#cite_note-Wallner1998-187">[186]</a> The big bad wolf is known to children in tales such as <a href="/wiki/Little_Red_Riding_Hood" title="Little Red Riding Hood">Little Red Riding Hood</a>, but is a demonic figure in the Icelandic <a href="/wiki/Edda" title="Edda">Edda</a> sagas, where the wolf <a href="/wiki/Fenrir" title="Fenrir">Fenrir</a> appears in the apocalyptic <a href="/wiki/Ragnarok" class="mw-redirect" title="Ragnarok">ending of the world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wallner1998-187">[186]</a> In the Middle Ages, belief spread in <a href="/wiki/Werewolf" title="Werewolf">werewolves</a>, men transformed into wolves.<a href="#cite_note-Wallner1998-187">[186]</a> In ancient Rome, and in ancient Egypt, the wolf was worshipped, the she-wolf appearing in the founding myth of Rome, suckling <a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wallner1998-187">[186]</a> More recently, in <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>'s 1894 <a href="/wiki/The_Jungle_Book" title="The Jungle Book">The Jungle Book</a>, Mowgli is raised by the wolf pack.<a href="#cite_note-Wallner1998-187">[186]</a> Attitudes to large predators in North America, such as wolf, <a href="/wiki/Grizzly_bear" title="Grizzly bear">grizzly bear</a> and cougar, have shifted from hostility or ambivalence, accompanied by active persecution, towards positive and protective in the second half of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-KellertBlackRushBath1996-188">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_fear_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecology of fear (concept)">Ecology of fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator%E2%80%93prey_reversal" title="Predator–prey reversal">Predator–prey reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_naivet%C3%A9" title="Prey naiveté">Prey naiveté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wa-Tor" title="Wa-Tor">Wa-Tor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannibalism" title="Cannibalism">Cannibalism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> A range of 3000 kilometres means a flight distance of at least 6000 kilometres out and back. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output 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Cell. 19 (2): R55–R56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2008.10.043">10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.043</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19174136">19174136</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5432036">5432036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Bacterial+predators&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=R55-R56&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5432036%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19174136&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2008.10.043&rft.aulast=Velicer&rft.aufirst=Gregory+J.&rft.au=Mendes-Soares%2C+Helena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2008.10.043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JurkevitchDavidov2006-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JurkevitchDavidov2006_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JurkevitchDavidov2006_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJurkevitchDavidov2006" class="citation book cs1">Jurkevitch, Edouard; Davidov, Yaacov (2006). 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Springer. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/predatoryprokary00jurk/page/n17">11</a>–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F7171_052">10.1007/7171_052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-38577-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-38577-6"><bdi>978-3-540-38577-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phylogenetic+Diversity+and+Evolution+of+Predatory+Prokaryotes&rft.btitle=Predatory+Prokaryotes&rft.pages=11-56&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F7171_052&rft.isbn=978-3-540-38577-6&rft.aulast=Jurkevitch&rft.aufirst=Edouard&rft.au=Davidov%2C+Yaacov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpredatoryprokary00jurk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HansenBjørnsenHansen1997-24"><a href="#cite_ref-HansenBjørnsenHansen1997_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansenBjørnsenHansen1997" class="citation journal cs1">Hansen, Per Juel; Bjørnsen, Peter Koefoed; Hansen, Benni Winding (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4319%2Flo.1997.42.4.0687">"Zooplankton grazing and growth: Scaling within the 2-2,-μm body size range"</a>. 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Batsford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0713484076" title="Special:BookSources/978-0713484076"><bdi>978-0713484076</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Falconry+and+Hawking&rft.pub=Batsford&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0713484076&rft.aulast=Glasier&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aegerter_Fouracre_Smith_p=e0174709-177"><a href="#cite_ref-Aegerter_Fouracre_Smith_p=e0174709_177-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAegerterFouracreSmith2017" class="citation journal cs1">Aegerter, James; Fouracre, David; Smith, Graham C. (2017). Olsson, I Anna S (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389805">"A first estimate of the structure and density of the populations of pet cats and dogs across Great Britain"</a>. PLOS ONE. 12 (4): e0174709. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017PLoSO..1274709A">2017PLoSO..1274709A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0174709">10.1371/journal.pone.0174709</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389805">5389805</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28403172">28403172</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+first+estimate+of+the+structure+and+density+of+the+populations+of+pet+cats+and+dogs+across+Great+Britain&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0174709&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5389805%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28403172&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0174709&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017PLoSO..1274709A&rft.aulast=Aegerter&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Fouracre%2C+David&rft.au=Smith%2C+Graham+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5389805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Humane_Society_of_the_United_States" class="citation web cs1">The Humane Society of the United States. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html">"U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics"</a>. Retrieved 27 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Pet+Ownership+Statistics&rft.au=The+Humane+Society+of+the+United+States&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanesociety.org%2Fissues%2Fpet_overpopulation%2Ffacts%2Fpet_ownership_statistics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Liebenberg20089-179"><a href="#cite_ref-Liebenberg20089_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebenberg2008" class="citation journal cs1">Liebenberg, Louis (2008). "The relevance of persistence hunting to human evolution". Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (6): 1156–1159. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JHumE..55.1156L">2008JHumE..55.1156L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2008.07.004">10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18760825">18760825</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+relevance+of+persistence+hunting+to+human+evolution&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1156-1159&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18760825&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2008.07.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008JHumE..55.1156L&rft.aulast=Liebenberg&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2002/10_october/31/progs6-10_mammalspack.pdf">"Food For Thought"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Mammals" title="The Life of Mammals">The Life of Mammals</a>. <a href="/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="British Broadcasting Corporation">British Broadcasting Corporation</a>. 31 October 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Life+of+Mammals&rft.atitle=Food+For+Thought&rft.date=2002-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fpressoffice%2Fpressreleases%2Fstories%2F2002%2F10_october%2F31%2Fprogs6-10_mammalspack.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlintDreistadt1998" class="citation book cs1">Flint, Mary Louise; Dreistadt, Steve H. (1998). Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21801-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21801-7"><bdi>978-0-520-21801-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Enemies+Handbook%3A+The+Illustrated+Guide+to+Biological+Pest+Control&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-21801-7&rft.aulast=Flint&rft.aufirst=Mary+Louise&rft.au=Dreistadt%2C+Steve+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston2013" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, Keith M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yUAfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">Science Fiction Film: A Critical Introduction</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berg_Publishers" title="Berg Publishers">Berg Publishers</a>. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857850560" title="Special:BookSources/9780857850560"><bdi>9780857850560</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+Fiction+Film%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Berg+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780857850560&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Keith+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyUAfAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewby2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Newby, Richard (13 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/predator-is-poised-be-franchises-first-good-sequel-1111354">"Is 'Predator' Finally Getting a Worthy Sequel?"</a>. Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 7 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hollywood+Reporter&rft.atitle=Is+%27Predator%27+Finally+Getting+a+Worthy+Sequel%3F&rft.date=2018-05-13&rft.aulast=Newby&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hollywoodreporter.com%2Fheat-vision%2Fpredator-is-poised-be-franchises-first-good-sequel-1111354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchatz" class="citation book cs1">Schatz, Thomas. "The New Hollywood". Movie Blockbusters. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Q-OAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA25&dq=%22jaws+was+essentially+an+action+film+and+a+thriller%22">25</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Hollywood&rft.btitle=Movie+Blockbusters&rft.pages=25&rft.aulast=Schatz&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> In: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStringer2003" class="citation book cs1">Stringer, Julian (2003). Movie Blockbusters. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 15–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25608-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25608-7"><bdi>978-0-415-25608-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Movie+Blockbusters&rft.pages=15-44&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25608-7&rft.aulast=Stringer&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavison2002" class="citation news cs1">Davison, Peter (1 December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/01/books/predators-and-prey.html">"Predators and Prey | Selected Poems, 1957–1994 by Ted Hughes"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved 5 October 2018. <q>Hughes's earliest books contained a bewildering profusion of poems between their covers: ... fish and fowl, beasts of the field and forest, vigorous embodiments of predators and prey. Hughes as a student had taken up anthropology, not literature, and he chose to meditate his way into trancelike states of preconsciousness before committing poems to paper. His poems, early or late, enter into the relations of living creatures; they move in close to animal consciousness: The Thought-Fox, Esther's Tomcat, Pike.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Predators+and+Prey+%7C+Selected+Poems%2C+1957%E2%80%931994+by+Ted+Hughes&rft.date=2002-12-01&rft.aulast=Davison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F12%2F01%2Fbooks%2Fpredators-and-prey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould_1995-186"><a href="#cite_ref-Gould_1995_186-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Gould, Stephen Jay</a> (1995). "The Tooth and Claw Centennial". Dinosaur in a Haystack. Harmony Books. pp. 63–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0517703939" title="Special:BookSources/978-0517703939"><bdi>978-0517703939</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Tooth+and+Claw+Centennial&rft.btitle=Dinosaur+in+a+Haystack&rft.pages=63-75&rft.pub=Harmony+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0517703939&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallner1998-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wallner1998_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallner1998_187-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallner1998_187-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallner1998_187-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallner1998_187-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallner1998_187-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallner2005" class="citation web cs1">Wallner, Astrid (18 July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181005154029/https://www.waldwissen.net/wald/tiere/saeuger/wsl_raubtiere_mythologie/index_EN">"The role of predators in Mythology"</a>. WaldWissen Information for Forest Management. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.waldwissen.net/wald/tiere/saeuger/wsl_raubtiere_mythologie/index_EN">the original</a> on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+role+of+predators+in+Mythology&rft.pub=WaldWissen+Information+for+Forest+Management&rft.date=2005-07-18&rft.aulast=Wallner&rft.aufirst=Astrid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.waldwissen.net%2Fwald%2Ftiere%2Fsaeuger%2Fwsl_raubtiere_mythologie%2Findex_EN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> translated from Wallner, A. (1998) Die Bedeutung der Raubtiere in der Mythologie: Ergebnisse einer Literaturstudie. – Inf.bl. Forsch.bereiches Landsch.ökol. 39: 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-KellertBlackRushBath1996-188"><a href="#cite_ref-KellertBlackRushBath1996_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKellertBlackRushBath1996" class="citation journal cs1">Kellert, Stephen R.; Black, Matthew; Rush, Colleen Reid; Bath, Alistair J. (1996). "Human Culture and Large Carnivore Conservation in North America". Conservation Biology. 10 (4): 977–990. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996ConBi..10..977K">1996ConBi..10..977K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1996.10040977.x">10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10040977.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Biology&rft.atitle=Human+Culture+and+Large+Carnivore+Conservation+in+North+America&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=977-990&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.1996.10040977.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996ConBi..10..977K&rft.aulast=Kellert&rft.aufirst=Stephen+R.&rft.au=Black%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Rush%2C+Colleen+Reid&rft.au=Bath%2C+Alistair+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeauchamp2012" class="citation book cs1">Beauchamp, Guy (2012). Social predation : how group living benefits predators and prey. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780124076549" title="Special:BookSources/9780124076549"><bdi>9780124076549</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+predation+%3A+how+group+living+benefits+predators+and+prey&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780124076549&rft.aulast=Beauchamp&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2012" class="citation book cs1">Bell, W. J. (2012). Searching Behaviour : the behavioural ecology of finding resources. Springer Netherlands. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401130981" title="Special:BookSources/9789401130981"><bdi>9789401130981</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Searching+Behaviour+%3A+the+behavioural+ecology+of+finding+resources&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789401130981&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=W.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaro2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Caro" title="Tim Caro">Caro, Tim</a> (2005). Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-09436-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-09436-6"><bdi>978-0-226-09436-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antipredator+Defenses+in+Birds+and+Mammals&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-226-09436-6&rft.aulast=Caro&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCott1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Cott, Hugh B.</a> (1940). <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a>. Methuen. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/974070031">974070031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptive+Coloration+in+Animals&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F974070031&rft.aulast=Cott&rft.aufirst=Hugh+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsBastian2017" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, David Steve; Bastian, Anna (2017). Predator-prey interactions : co-evolution between bats and their prey. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319324920" title="Special:BookSources/9783319324920"><bdi>9783319324920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Predator-prey+interactions+%3A+co-evolution+between+bats+and+their+prey&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319324920&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=David+Steve&rft.au=Bastian%2C+Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRockwood2009" class="citation book cs1">Rockwood, Larry L. (2009). Introduction to population ecology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444309102" title="Special:BookSources/9781444309102"><bdi>9781444309102</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+population+ecology&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781444309102&rft.aulast=Rockwood&rft.aufirst=Larry+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuxtonSherrattSpeed2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graeme_Ruxton" title="Graeme Ruxton">Ruxton, Graeme D.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_N._Sherratt" title="Thomas N. Sherratt">Sherratt, Tom N.</a>; Speed, Michael P. (2004). Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals, and mimicry. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198528593" title="Special:BookSources/9780198528593"><bdi>9780198528593</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avoiding+attack%3A+the+evolutionary+ecology+of+crypsis%2C+warning+signals%2C+and+mimicry&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780198528593&rft.aulast=Ruxton&rft.aufirst=Graeme+D.&rft.au=Sherratt%2C+Tom+N.&rft.au=Speed%2C+Michael+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Predation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Predation" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Predation">Predation</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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aria-labelledby="Feeding_behaviours" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feeding_behaviours" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding behaviours</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">adult</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avivore" title="Avivore">Avivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_predation" title="Egg predation">Egg predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">Hematophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepidophagy" title="Lepidophagy">Lepidophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-eating_animal" title="Man-eating animal">Man-eating animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molluscivore" title="Molluscivore">Molluscivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucophagy" title="Mucophagy">Mucophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmecophagy" title="Myrmecophagy">Myrmecophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiophagy" title="Ophiophagy">Ophiophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piscivore" title="Piscivore">Piscivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spongivore" title="Spongivore">Spongivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermivore" title="Vermivore">Vermivore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">reproductive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oophagy" title="Oophagy">Oophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paedophagy" title="Paedophagy">Paedophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placentophagy" title="Placentophagy">Placentophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">cannibalistic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannibalism_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannibalism (zoology)">Animal cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Human cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cannibalism" title="Self-cannibalism">Self-cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">Sexual cannibalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/160px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/240px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/320px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1300" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folivore" title="Folivore">Folivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florivore" title="Florivore">Florivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">Frugivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graminivore" title="Graminivore">Graminivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectarivore" title="Nectarivore">Nectarivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellivory" title="Mellivory">Mellivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynivore" title="Palynivore">Palynivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">Xylophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteophagy" title="Osteophagy">Osteophagy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cellular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myzocytosis" title="Myzocytosis">Myzocytosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbivory" title="Microbivory">Microbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungivore" title="Fungivore">Fungivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprophagia" title="Coprophagia">Coprophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophagia" title="Geophagia">Geophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saprophagy" title="Saprophagy">Saprophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophagy" title="Xenophagy">Xenophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastivore" title="Plastivore">Plastivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pica_(disorder)" title="Pica (disorder)">Pica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">Ambush predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg predator">Egg predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraguild predator">Intraguild predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pursuit predator">Pursuit predator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Aquatic predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Lunge_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Lunge feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Pivot_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Pivot feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Ram_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Ram feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Suction_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Suction feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">Bait balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">Filter feeder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browsing_(herbivory)" title="Browsing (herbivory)">Browsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_feeding" title="Cattle feeding">Cattle feeding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">Fodder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">Forage</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercarnivore" title="Hypercarnivore">Hypercarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocarnivore" title="Hypocarnivore">Hypocarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesocarnivore" title="Mesocarnivore">Mesocarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">Scavenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_killing" title="Surplus killing">Surplus killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophallaxis" title="Trophallaxis">Trophallaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">Antipredator adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">Carnivorous plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_fungus" title="Carnivorous fungus">Carnivorous fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_protist" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous protist">Carnivorous protist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eating_behaviors" title="Category:Eating behaviors">Category:Eating behaviors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template talk:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inter-species <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interactions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Amensalism" title="Biological interaction">Amensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquilinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inquilinism">Inquilinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Neutralism" title="Biological interaction">Neutralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Competition" title="Biological interaction">Synnecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasite" title="Behavior-altering parasite">Behavior-altering parasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperparasite" title="Hyperparasite">Hyperparasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">Parasitic castration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">Cleaning symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">Mycorrhiza</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense, counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" 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[\"CITEREFDunnKenchingtonParryClark2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEastmanThiel2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElbrochQuigley2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedrianiFullerSauvajotYork2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeulner,_P._G.M._PlathJ._EngelmannF._Kirschbaum2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlintDreistadt1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlores2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbes2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabrielvon_Brandt,_Andres2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGazdaConnorEdgarCox2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGenovartNegreTavecchiaBistuer2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGetty2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGetz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlasier1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoelMaitraMontroll1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldbogenCalambokidisShadwickOleson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant,_S._W._F.Knoll,_A._H.Germs,_G._J._B.1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGremilletWilsonWanlessChater2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffiths1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimaldiEngel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGurrWrattenSnyder2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansenBjørnsenHansen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanssenErikstad2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywardHenschelO\u0026#039;BrienHofmeyr2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHedrichFukushima2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubelMyattJordanDewhirst2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHulmeBenkman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobsBastian2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanisWilhelm1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanzen1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnston2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJurkevitchDavidov2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaneHealyGuillermeRuxton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarasovDiamond1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellertBlackRushBath1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing,_Richard_J.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKozlovVakulenko2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrauseRuxton2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebsBoonstraBoutinSinclair2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebsMyers2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruuk1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaffertyKuris2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLalliParsons1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangFarine2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinCarpenterGodfrayKinzig2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiFryKini2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiebenberg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindeman1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd_J._E.1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoronRainbirdTurnerWilder_Greenman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacArthur1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacNultyTallianStahlerSmith2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajerHolmLubinBilde2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNair1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerilaitaScott-SamuelCuthill2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerilaitaVallinKodandaramaiah,_UllasaDimitrova,_Marina2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreBiewener2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurdochBriggsNisbet2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeal2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelsonMatthewsRosenheim2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewby2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNilssonBjörkmanForslundHöglund1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNowakMay2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrdizBischofSwenson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen-SmithMills2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeckarskyAbramsBolnickDill2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerry1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhelan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPianka2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPikeClarkManicaTseng2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPimmLawton1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulinRandhawa2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowerShem_Compion2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPramer,_D.1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPreisserBolnickBenard2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPulliam1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuenqua2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRippleBeschta2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRockwood2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuppertFoxBarnes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuxtonSherrattSpeed2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampsonLoewen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandersBeichmanRomanScott2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScharfNulmanOvadiaBouskila2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchatz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheriffPeacorHawlenaThaker2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSidorovich2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSih1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSihChristensen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSprules1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley,_Steven_M.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevens,_Alison_N._P.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStowNyqvistGozlanCucherousset2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStringer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Humane_Society_of_the_United_States\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThieme2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyus2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVailManicaBshary2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVelicerMendes-Soares2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVermeij1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVermeij1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVillanuevaPerriconeFiorito2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatanabe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeselohHare2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWetzelLikens2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsFlaxman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYong2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFdeVries,_M._S.Murphy,_E._A._K.Patek_S._N.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"Size-selective_predation\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Biological interaction-footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 94,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 18,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Feeding\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 12,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 22,\n [\"Ma\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Modelling ecosystems\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 7,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Pn\"] = 2,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote-inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 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