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id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Super-Chandrasekhar_mass_supernovas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Super-Chandrasekhar_mass_supernovas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Super-Chandrasekhar_mass_supernovas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff_limit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff_limit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff_limit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chandrasekhar limit</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar-limiet" title="Chandrasekhar-limiet – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chandrasekhar-limiet" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="حد تشاندراشيكار – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حد تشاندراشيكار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE" title="চন্দ্রশেখর সীমা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চন্দ্রশেখর সীমা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8F%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Мяжа Чандрасекара – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мяжа Чандрасекара" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Граница на Чандрасекар – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Граница на Чандрасекар" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADmit_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Límit de Chandrasekhar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Límit de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekharova_mez" title="Chandrasekharova mez – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chandrasekharova mez" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar-gr%C3%A6nsen" title="Chandrasekhar-grænsen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Chandrasekhar-grænsen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar-Grenze" title="Chandrasekhar-Grenze – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chandrasekhar-Grenze" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%81" title="Όριο Τσαντρασεκάρ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Όριο Τσαντρασεκάρ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADmite_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Límite de Chandrasekhar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Límite de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limigo_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Limigo de Chandrasekhar – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Limigo de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekharren_muga" title="Chandrasekharren muga – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Chandrasekharren muga" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%AF_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="حد چاندراسخار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حد چاندراسخار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masse_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Masse de Chandrasekhar – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Masse de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADmite_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Límite de Chandrasekhar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Límite de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B0%AC%EB%93%9C%EB%9D%BC%EC%84%B8%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4_%ED%95%9C%EA%B3%84" title="찬드라세카르 한계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="찬드라세카르 한계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE" title="चन्द्रशेखर सीमा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चन्द्रशेखर सीमा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batas_Chandrasekhar" title="Batas Chandrasekhar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Batas Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limite_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Limite de Chandrasekhar – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Limite de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limite_di_Chandrasekhar" title="Limite di Chandrasekhar – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Limite di Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%A6%27%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8" title="גבול צ'נדראסקאר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גבול צ'נדראסקאר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar-Grenz" title="Chandrasekhar-Grenz – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Chandrasekhar-Grenz" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Candrasekaro_riba" title="Čandrasekaro riba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Čandrasekaro riba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar-hat%C3%A1r" title="Chandrasekhar-határ – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Chandrasekhar-határ" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Чандрасекарова граница – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Чандрасекарова граница" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%96%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AE" title="ചന്ദ്രശേഖർ സീമ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചന്ദ്രശേഖർ സീമ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar-limiet" title="Chandrasekhar-limiet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chandrasekhar-limiet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%83%A3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%A9%E3%82%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E9%99%90%E7%95%8C" title="チャンドラセカール限界 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チャンドラセカール限界" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhars_grense" title="Chandrasekhars grense – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Chandrasekhars grense" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhargrensa" title="Chandrasekhargrensa – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Chandrasekhargrensa" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE" title="ਚੰਦਰਸ਼ੇਖਰ ਸੀਮਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੰਦਰਸ਼ੇਖਰ ਸੀਮਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granica_Chandrasekhara" title="Granica Chandrasekhara – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Granica Chandrasekhara" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limite_de_Chandrasekhar" title="Limite de Chandrasekhar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Limite de Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limita_Chandrasekhar" title="Limita Chandrasekhar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limita Chandrasekhar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Предел Чандрасекара – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Предел Чандрасекара" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Chandrasekhar limit – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chandrasekhar limit" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekharova_medza" title="Chandrasekharova medza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chandrasekharova medza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Чандрасекарова граница – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Чандрасекарова граница" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekharin_raja" title="Chandrasekharin raja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Chandrasekharin raja" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" 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href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the maximum mass of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium" title="Hydrostatic equilibrium">stable</a> <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a> <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a>. The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about 1.4 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass"><var>M</var><sub>☉</sub></a> (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7030276500000000000♠"></span>2.765<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>30</sup> kg</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The limit was named after <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>White dwarfs resist <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> primarily through <a href="/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure" title="Electron degeneracy pressure">electron degeneracy pressure</a>, compared to <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a> stars, which resist collapse through <a href="/wiki/Pressure#Pressure_of_an_ideal_gas" title="Pressure">thermal pressure</a>. The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction.<sup id="cite_ref-DarkMatter_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DarkMatter-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics">Physics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg/430px-WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="430" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg/645px-WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg/860px-WhiteDwarf_mass-radius_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="704" /></a><figcaption>Radius–mass relations for a model white dwarf. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid green;"> </span> Using the general pressure law for an ideal <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid navy;"> </span> Non-relativistic ideal Fermi gas</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-line mw-no-invert" style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: middle; width: 1.67em; height: 0; border-style: none; border-top: 2px dotted black;border-top:solid black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Ultrarelativistic_limit" title="Ultrarelativistic limit">Ultrarelativistic limit</a></div></figcaption></figure> <p>Normal stars fuse gravitationally compressed hydrogen into helium, generating vast amounts of heat. As the hydrogen is consumed, the stars' core compresses further allowing the helium and heavier nuclei to fuse ultimately resulting in stable iron nuclei, a process called <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a>. The next step depends upon the mass of the star. Stars below the Chandrasekhar limit become stable <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf_star" class="mw-redirect" title="White dwarf star">white dwarf stars</a>, remaining that way throughout the rest of the history of the universe (assuming the absence of external forces). Stars above the limit can become <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron stars</a> or <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Illari2019_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illari2019-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 74">: 74 </span></sup> </p><p>The Chandrasekhar limit is a consequence of competition between gravity and electron degeneracy pressure. Electron degeneracy pressure is a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum-mechanical</a> effect arising from the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>. Since <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> are <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermions</a>, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">band</a> of <a href="/wiki/Energy_levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy levels">energy levels</a>. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>, relieving the pressure. </p><p>In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a> of the form <span class="texhtml"><i>P</i> = <i>K</i><sub>1</sub><i>ρ</i><sup>5/3</sup></span>, where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">P</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ρ</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Mass_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass density">mass density</a>, and <span class="texhtml"><i>K</i><sub>1</sub></span> is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a <a href="/wiki/Polytrope" title="Polytrope">polytrope</a> of index <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">3</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">2</span></span>⁠</span> – and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass.<sup id="cite_ref-chandra3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form <span class="texhtml"><i>P</i> = <i>K</i><sub>2</sub><i>ρ</i><sup>4/3</sup></span>. This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i><sub>limit</sub></span>, depending only on <span class="texhtml"><i>K</i><sub>2</sub></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-chandra4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations <span class="texhtml"><i>P</i> = <i>K</i><sub>1</sub><i>ρ</i><sup>5/3</sup></span> for small <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ρ</span> and <span class="texhtml"><i>P</i> = <i>K</i><sub>2</sub><i>ρ</i><sup>4/3</sup></span> for large <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ρ</span>. When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i><sub>limit</sub></span>. This is the Chandrasekhar limit.<sup id="cite_ref-chandra2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph. They are colored blue and green, respectively. <span class="texhtml"><i>μ</i><sub>e</sub></span> has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii<sup id="cite_ref-stds_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stds-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses. </p><p>Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclear</a> composition of the mass.<sup id="cite_ref-timmes_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timmes-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chandrasekhar<sup id="cite_ref-chandra1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: eq. (36)">: eq. (36) </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chandra2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: eq. (58)">: eq. (58) </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chandranobel_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandranobel-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: eq. (43)">: eq. (43) </span></sup> gives the following expression, based on the <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a> for an ideal <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M_{\text{limit}}={\frac {\omega _{3}^{0}{\sqrt {3\pi }}}{2}}\left({\frac {\hbar c}{G}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {1}{(\mu _{\text{e}}m_{\text{H}})^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>limit</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>ω</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>3</mn> <mi>π</mi> </msqrt> </mrow> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mi>G</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>3</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>e</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>H</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M_{\text{limit}}={\frac {\omega _{3}^{0}{\sqrt {3\pi }}}{2}}\left({\frac {\hbar c}{G}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {1}{(\mu _{\text{e}}m_{\text{H}})^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5ef1b0e1cac3967ff054a2dcb8d2b7b915c354fa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:34.607ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M_{\text{limit}}={\frac {\omega _{3}^{0}{\sqrt {3\pi }}}{2}}\left({\frac {\hbar c}{G}}\right)^{\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {1}{(\mu _{\text{e}}m_{\text{H}})^{2}}}}"></span> where: </p> <ul><li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ħ</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced Planck constant">reduced Planck constant</a></li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a></li> <li><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">G</span> is the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_constant" title="Gravitational constant">gravitational constant</a></li> <li><span class="texhtml"><i>μ</i><sub>e</sub></span> is the average <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> per electron, which depends upon the chemical composition of the star</li> <li><span class="texhtml"><i>m</i><sub>H</sub></span> is the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atom</li> <li><span class="texhtml"><i>ω</i><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:0.9;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">0</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span> ≈ 2.018236</span> is a constant connected with the solution to the <a href="/wiki/Lane%E2%80%93Emden_equation" title="Lane–Emden equation">Lane–Emden equation</a></li></ul> <p>As <span class="texhtml"><span class="nowrap">√<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;"><i>ħc</i>/<i>G</i></span></span></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Planck_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Planck mass">Planck mass</a>, the limit is of the order of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{\text{Pl}}^{3}}{m_{\text{H}}^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msubsup> <mi>M</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Pl</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <msubsup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>H</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{\text{Pl}}^{3}}{m_{\text{H}}^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fd5713b615f2570e783edb6e43ac238d8c313795" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:4.899ex; height:7.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {M_{\text{Pl}}^{3}}{m_{\text{H}}^{2}}}}"></span> The limiting mass can be obtained formally from the <a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%27s_white_dwarf_equation" title="Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation">Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation</a> by taking the limit of large central density. </p><p>A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-timmes_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timmes-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lieb and Yau<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1926, the British <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Fowler" title="Ralph H. Fowler">Ralph H. Fowler</a> observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey <a href="/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics" title="Fermi–Dirac statistics">Fermi–Dirac statistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Fermi_gas" title="Fermi gas">Fermi gas</a> model was then used by the British physicist <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Clifton_Stoner" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Clifton Stoner">Edmund Clifton Stoner</a> in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Anderson" title="Wilhelm Anderson">Wilhelm Anderson</a> applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7030137000000000000♠"></span>1.37<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>30</sup> kg</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, Stoner derived the <a href="/wiki/Internal_energy" title="Internal energy">internal energy</a>–<a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a> for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7030219000000000000♠"></span>2.19<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>30</sup> kg</span> (for <span class="texhtml"><i>μ</i><sub>e</sub> = 2.5</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stoner went on to derive the <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a>–<a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> equation of state, which he published in 1932.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These equations of state were also previously published by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Frenkel" title="Yakov Frenkel">Yakov Frenkel</a> in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">degenerate matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas.<sup id="cite_ref-nasbio_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasbio-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic equation">hydrostatic equation</a> together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas <a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">equation of state</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-chandra3_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above.<sup id="cite_ref-chandra4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chandra2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chandra1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandra1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture.<sup id="cite_ref-chandranobel_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chandranobel-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The existence of a related limit, based on the conceptual breakthrough of combining relativity with Fermi degeneracy, was first established in separate papers published by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Anderson" title="Wilhelm Anderson">Wilhelm Anderson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Clifton_Stoner" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Clifton Stoner">E. C. Stoner</a> for a uniform density star in 1929. Eric G. Blackman wrote that the roles of Stoner and Anderson in the discovery of mass limits were overlooked when <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a> wrote a biography of Chandrasekhar.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michael Nauenberg claims that Stoner established the mass limit first.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The priority dispute has also been discussed at length by <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Trimble" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Trimble">Virginia Trimble</a> who writes that: "Chandrasekhar famously, perhaps even notoriously did his critical calculation on board ship in 1930, and ... was not aware of either Stoner's or Anderson's work at the time. His work was therefore independent, but, more to the point, he adopted Eddington's polytropes for his models which could, therefore, be in hydrostatic equilibrium, which constant density stars cannot, and real ones must be."<sup id="cite_ref-Trimble2011_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trimble2011-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chandrasekhar–Eddington_dispute"><span id="Chandrasekhar.E2.80.93Eddington_dispute"></span>Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%E2%80%93Eddington_dispute" title="Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute">Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute</a></div> <p>Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British <a href="/wiki/Astrophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysicist">astrophysicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>. Eddington was aware that the existence of <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black holes</a> was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The star has to go on radiating and radiating and contracting and contracting until, I suppose, it gets down to a few km radius, when gravity becomes strong enough to hold in the radiation, and the star can at last find peace. ... I think there should be a law of Nature to prevent a star from behaving in this absurd way!<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law <span class="texhtml"><i>P</i> = <i>K</i><sub>1</sub><i>ρ</i><sup>5/3</sup></span> universally applicable, even for large <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">ρ</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, Fowler, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar.<sup id="cite_ref-eos_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eos-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including his work on his <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Stanley_Eddington#Fundamental_theory_and_the_Eddington_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Stanley Eddington">fundamental theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of <i>Empire of the Stars</i>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_I._Miller" title="Arthur I. Miller">Arthur I. Miller</a>'s biography of Chandrasekhar.<sup id="cite_ref-eos_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eos-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Miller's view: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Chandra's discovery might well have transformed and accelerated developments in both physics and astrophysics in the 1930s. Instead, Eddington's heavy-handed intervention lent weighty support to the conservative community astrophysicists, who steadfastly refused even to consider the idea that stars might collapse to nothing. As a result, Chandra's work was almost forgotten.<sup id="cite_ref-eos_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eos-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 150">: 150 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, Chandrasekhar chose to move on, leaving the study of stellar structure to focus on stellar dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-Trimble2011_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trimble2011-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51">: 51 </span></sup> In 1983 in recognition for his work, Chandrasekhar shared a Nobel prize "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars" with <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William Alfred Fowler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nuclei</a> of lighter <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> into heavier ones. At various stages of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">stellar evolution</a>, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-evo2_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evo2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a>), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>, or, speculatively, a <a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">quark star</a>. (For very massive, low-<a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metallicity</a> stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.)<sup id="cite_ref-ifmr1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ifmr1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ifmr2_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ifmr2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-evo_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evo-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the collapse, <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> are formed by the capture of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> by <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> in the process of <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>, leading to the emission of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-evo2_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evo2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 1046–1047">: 1046–1047 </span></sup> The decrease in <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">gravitational potential energy</a> of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy on the order of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7046100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>46</sup> <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a></span> (100 <a href="/wiki/Foe_(unit)" title="Foe (unit)">foes</a>). Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos<sup id="cite_ref-physns_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physns-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process is believed responsible for <a href="/wiki/Core-collapse_supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="Core-collapse supernova">supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-evo2_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-evo2-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia supernovae</a> derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a>. This fate may befall <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>–<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion <a href="/wiki/Giant_star" title="Giant star">giant star</a>, leading to a steadily increasing mass. As the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Compression_(physical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compression (physical)">compressional</a> heating, its temperature also increases. This eventually ignites <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reactions, leading to an immediate <a href="/wiki/Carbon_detonation" title="Carbon detonation">carbon detonation</a>, which disrupts the star and causes the supernova.<sup id="cite_ref-sniamodels_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sniamodels-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: §5.1.2">: §5.1.2 </span></sup> </p><p>A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">absolute magnitudes</a> of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, <span class="texhtml"><i>M</i><sub>V</sub></span> is approximately −19.3, with a <a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviation</a> of no more than 0.3.<sup id="cite_ref-sniamodels_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sniamodels-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: eq. (1)">: eq. (1) </span></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">1-sigma interval</a> therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity. This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Super-Chandrasekhar_mass_supernovas">Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Super-Chandrasekhar mass supernovas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/SN_2003fg" title="SN 2003fg">Champagne Supernova</a></div> <p>In April 2003, the <a href="/wiki/Supernova_Legacy_Survey" title="Supernova Legacy Survey">Supernova Legacy Survey</a> observed a type Ia supernova, designated <a href="/wiki/SNLS-03D3bb" class="mw-redirect" title="SNLS-03D3bb">SNLS-03D3bb</a>, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion <a href="/wiki/Light_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Light year">light years</a> away. According to a group of astronomers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf that had grown to twice the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> before exploding. They believe that the star, dubbed the "<a href="/wiki/SN_2003fg" title="SN 2003fg">Champagne Supernova</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-journal-nature_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-journal-nature-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as <a href="/wiki/Standard_candles" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard candles">standard candles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, several more <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">type Ia supernovae</a> have been observed that are very bright, and thought to have originated from <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarfs</a> whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include <a href="/w/index.php?title=SN_2006gz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SN 2006gz (page does not exist)">SN 2006gz</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=SN_2007if&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SN 2007if (page does not exist)">SN 2007if</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=SN_2009dc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SN 2009dc (page does not exist)">SN 2009dc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Machisu_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machisu-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Machisu_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machisu-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of <a href="/w/index.php?title=SN_2009dc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SN 2009dc (page does not exist)">SN 2009dc</a> showed it had a <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a> smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-Machisu_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Machisu-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff_limit"><span id="Tolman.E2.80.93Oppenheimer.E2.80.93Volkoff_limit"></span>Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stars sufficiently massive to pass the Chandrasekhar limit provided by electron degeneracy pressure do not become white dwarf stars. Instead they explode as <a href="/wiki/Supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernovae">supernovae</a>. If the final mass is below the <a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Neutron_degeneracy_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron degeneracy pressure">neutron degeneracy pressure</a> contributes to the balance against gravity and the result will be a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a>; but if the total mass is above the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkhoff limit, the result will be a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Illari2019_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Illari2019-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 74">: 74 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bekenstein_bound" title="Bekenstein bound">Bekenstein bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar%27s_white_dwarf_equation" title="Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation">Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nberg%E2%80%93Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit">Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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"A single degenerate progenitor model for type Ia supernovae highly exceeding the Chandrasekhar mass limit". <i>The Astrophysical Journal</i>. <b>744</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">76–</span>79. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1106.3510">1106.3510</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ApJ...744...69H">2012ApJ...744...69H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F744%2F1%2F69">10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/69</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119264873">119264873</a>. Article 69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=A+single+degenerate+progenitor+model+for+type+Ia+supernovae+highly+exceeding+the+Chandrasekhar+mass+limit&rft.volume=744&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E76-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1106.3510&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119264873%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F744%2F1%2F69&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012ApJ...744...69H&rft.aulast=Hachisu&rft.aufirst=Izumi&rft.au=Kato%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChandrasekhar+limit" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandrasekhar_limit&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/chandrasekhar-lecture.pdf"><i>On Stars, Their Evolution and Their Stability</i></a>, Nobel Prize lecture, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, December 8, 1983.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.davegentile.com/thesis/white_dwarfs.html"><i>White dwarf stars and the Chandrasekhar limit</i></a>, Masters' thesis, Dave Gentile, <a href="/wiki/DePaul_University" title="DePaul University">DePaul University</a>, 1995.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencebits.com/StellarEquipartition">Estimating Stellar Parameters from Energy Equipartition</a>, sciencebits.com. Discusses how to find mass-radius relations and mass limits for white dwarfs using simple energy arguments.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:White_dwarf" title="Template:White dwarf"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:White_dwarf" title="Template talk:White dwarf"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:White_dwarf" title="Special:EditPage/Template:White dwarf"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="White_dwarf298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chandrasekhar limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mira_variable" title="Mira variable">Mira variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PG_1159_star" title="PG 1159 star">PG 1159 star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Stellar evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_dwarf" title="Black dwarf">Black dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_candidates" title="List of supernova candidates">Candidates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Neutron_star" title="Template:Neutron star">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_holes" title="Template:Black holes">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_helium_star" title="Extreme helium star">Extreme helium star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_B_star" title="Subdwarf B star">Subdwarf B star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In binary<br />systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_remnant" title="Nova remnant">Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_novae" class="mw-redirect" title="List of novae">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_nova" title="Dwarf nova">Dwarf nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_nova" title="Symbiotic nova">Symbiotic nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_variable_star" title="Cataclysmic variable star">Cataclysmic variable star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM_CVn_star" class="mw-redirect" title="AM CVn star">AM CVn star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_(cataclysmic_variable)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar (cataclysmic variable)">Polar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_polar" title="Intermediate polar">Intermediate polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Super_soft_X-ray_source" title="Super soft X-ray source">Super soft X-ray source</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">Helium flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_detonation" title="Carbon detonation">Carbon detonation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulsating_white_dwarf" title="Pulsating white dwarf">Pulsating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter#Electron_degeneracy" title="Degenerate matter">Electron-degenerate matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-periodic_oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi-periodic oscillations">Quasi-periodic oscillations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf_cooling_anomaly" title="White dwarf cooling anomaly">White dwarf cooling anomaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">Planetary nebula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planetary_nebulae" title="List of planetary nebulae">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robust_associations_of_massive_baryonic_objects" title="Robust associations of massive baryonic objects">RAMBOs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf_luminosity_function" class="mw-redirect" title="White dwarf luminosity function">White dwarf luminosity function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_white_dwarfs" title="List of white dwarfs">List</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:White_dwarfs" title="Category:White dwarfs">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neutron_star343" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neutron_star" title="Template:Neutron star"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neutron_star" title="Template talk:Neutron star"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neutron_star" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neutron star"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neutron_star343" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron star</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio-quiet_neutron_star" title="Radio-quiet neutron star">Radio-quiet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Single pulsars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">Soft gamma repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_X-ray_pulsar" title="Anomalous X-ray pulsar">Anomalous X-ray</a></li> <li>Ultra-long period</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_radio_transient" title="Rotating radio transient">Rotating radio transient</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Binary pulsars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar" title="X-ray pulsar">X-ray pulsar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_burster" title="X-ray burster">X-ray burster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_X-ray_pulsars" title="List of X-ray pulsars">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millisecond_pulsar" title="Millisecond pulsar">Millisecond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be/X-ray_binary" title="Be/X-ray binary">Be/X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_spin-up" title="Neutron star spin-up">Spin-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulse%E2%80%93Taylor_pulsar" title="Hulse–Taylor pulsar">Hulse–Taylor pulsar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blitzar" title="Blitzar">Blitzar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_radio_burst" title="Fast radio burst">Fast radio burst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bondi_accretion" title="Bondi accretion">Bondi accretion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chandrasekhar limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glitch_(astronomy)" title="Glitch (astronomy)">Glitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron matter">Neutron matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron-star_oscillation" title="Neutron-star oscillation">Neutron-star oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_pulsar" title="Optical pulsar">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_kick" title="Pulsar kick">Pulsar kick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-periodic_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi-periodic oscillation">Quasi-periodic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_star" title="Relativistic star">Relativistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">Rp-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starquake_(astrophysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Starquake (astrophysics)">Starquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar#Precise_clocks" title="Pulsar">Timing noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst_progenitors" title="Gamma-ray burst progenitors">Gamma-ray burst progenitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Supernova remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Supernovae" title="Template:Supernovae">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilonova" title="Kilonova">Kilonova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microquasar" title="Microquasar">Microquasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_merger" title="Neutron star merger">Neutron star merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark-nova" title="Quark-nova">Quark-nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:White_dwarf" title="Template:White dwarf">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_holes" title="Template:Black holes">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_star" title="Radio star">Radio star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_planet" title="Pulsar planet">Pulsar planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_wind_nebula" title="Pulsar wind nebula">Pulsar wind nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorne%E2%80%93%C5%BBytkow_object" title="Thorne–Żytkow object">Thorne–Żytkow object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discovery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PSR_B1919%2B21" title="PSR B1919+21">LGM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centaurus_X-3" title="Centaurus X-3">Centaurus X-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellite<br />investigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rossi_X-ray_Timing_Explorer" title="Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer">Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory" title="Compton Gamma Ray Observatory">Compton Gamma Ray Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory" title="Chandra X-ray Observatory">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar-based_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray pulsar-based navigation">X-ray pulsar-based navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Magnificent_Seven_(neutron_stars)" title="The Magnificent Seven (neutron stars)">The Magnificent Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars" title="List of neutron stars">List of neutron stars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_neutron_stars" title="List of most massive neutron stars">Most massive neutron stars</a></li></ul></li> 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