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vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Areal_and_dialectal_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areal_and_dialectal_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Areal and dialectal divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Areal_and_dialectal_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution_and_separation_from_Vulgar_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_and_separation_from_Vulgar_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Evolution and separation from Vulgar Latin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_and_separation_from_Vulgar_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Latin_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Latin_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Non-Latin influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Latin_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gaulish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaulish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Gaulish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaulish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frankish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frankish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Frankish </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frankish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earliest_written_Old_French" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_written_Old_French"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Earliest written Old French </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_written_Old_French-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_to_Middle_French" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_to_Middle_French"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Transition to Middle French </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_to_Middle_French-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monophthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monophthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Monophthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monophthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diphthongs_and_triphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs_and_triphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Diphthongs and triphthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs_and_triphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hiatus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hiatus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Hiatus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hiatus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb_alternations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_alternations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Verb alternations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_alternations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_of_regular_-er_verb:_durer_(to_last)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_of_regular_-er_verb:_durer_(to_last)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Example of regular -er verb: durer (to last) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_of_regular_-er_verb:_durer_(to_last)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_of_regular_-ir_verb:_fenir_(to_end)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_of_regular_-ir_verb:_fenir_(to_end)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Example of regular -ir verb: fenir (to end) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_of_regular_-ir_verb:_fenir_(to_end)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_of_regular_-re_verb:_corre_(to_run)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_of_regular_-re_verb:_corre_(to_run)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Example of regular -re verb: corre (to run) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_of_regular_-re_verb:_corre_(to_run)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_auxiliary_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_auxiliary_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5 Examples of auxiliary verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_auxiliary_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-avoir_(to_have)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#avoir_(to_have)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5.1 avoir (to have) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-avoir_(to_have)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-estre_(to_be)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#estre_(to_be)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.5.2 estre (to be) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-estre_(to_be)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_parts_of_speech" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_parts_of_speech"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Other parts of speech </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_parts_of_speech-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 General sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Old French</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" > 56 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altfranz%C3%B6sische_Sprache" title="Altfranzösische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altfranzösische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="اللغة الفرنسية القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الفرنسية القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_franc%C3%A9s_antigo" title="Idioma francés antigo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma francés antigo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%A9s_antiguu" title="Francés antiguu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Francés antiguu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3%CD%98_Hoat-g%C3%AD" title="Kó͘ Hoat-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kó͘ Hoat-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%A8s_antic" title="Francès antic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Francès antic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starofrancouz%C5%A1tina" title="Starofrancouzština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starofrancouzština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen_Ffrangeg" title="Hen Ffrangeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hen Ffrangeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldfransk" title="Oldfransk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oldfransk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altfranz%C3%B6sische_Sprache" title="Altfranzösische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altfranzösische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaprantsuse_keel" title="Vanaprantsuse keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vanaprantsuse keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%AC_%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Παλαιά γαλλική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παλαιά γαλλική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franc%C3%A9s_antiguo" title="Francés antiguo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Francés antiguo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnovfranca_lingvo" title="Malnovfranca lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malnovfranca lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinako_frantses" title="Antzinako frantses – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinako frantses" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فرانسوی باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرانسوی باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancien_fran%C3%A7ais" title="Ancien français – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ancien français" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldfr%C3%A2nsk" title="Aldfrânsk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Aldfrânsk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80_%ED%94%84%EB%9E%91%EC%8A%A4%EC%96%B4" title="고대 프랑스어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대 프랑스어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starofrancuski_jezik" title="Starofrancuski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Starofrancuski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anciena_Franciana" title="Anciena Franciana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Anciena Franciana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daan_a_Pranses" title="Daan a Pranses – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Daan a Pranses" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Prancis_Kuno" title="Bahasa Prancis Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Prancis Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornfranska" title="Fornfranska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornfranska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_francese_antica" title="Lingua francese antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua francese antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B6_%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B7_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Важ франсуз кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Важ франсуз кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Francogallica_antiqua" title="Lingua Francogallica antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Francogallica antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senfran%C4%8Du_valoda" title="Senfranču valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senfranču valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aajdfrans" title="Aajdfrans – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aajdfrans" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93francia_nyelv" title="Ófrancia nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ófrancia nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Старофранцуски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Старофранцуски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perancis_Lama" title="Perancis Lama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perancis Lama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oudfrans" title="Oudfrans – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oudfrans" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E8%AA%9E" title="古フランス語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古フランス語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammelfransk" title="Gammelfransk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gammelfransk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vieur_fran%C3%A7ais" title="Vieur français – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Vieur français" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viu_francho%C3%A9s" title="Viu franchoés – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Viu franchoés" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Gallo-Romance dialect continuum</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Old French</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Ancien Français</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Franceis, François, Romanz</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[fɾãnˈt͡sɛjs]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[fɾãnˈt͡sɔjs]</a>, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ruˈmãnt͡s]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Northern <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Scotland" title="Languages of Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman England">England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Kingdom of Cyprus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Evolved into <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> by the mid-14th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Western_languages" title="Italo-Western languages">Italo-Western</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Romance_languages" title="Western Romance languages">Western Romance</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Gallo-Iberian<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Gallo-Rhaetian?<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Arpitan</a>–<a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Oïl</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Oïl</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Old French</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Romance_language" title="Proto-Romance language">Proto-Romance</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gallo-Romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Gallo-Romance">Old Gallo-Romance</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=147">fro</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/fro" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:fro">fro</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oldf1239">oldf1239</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Old French (franceis, françois, romanz; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: ancien français) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th<a href="#cite_note-French_first_attested-2">[2]</a> and the mid-14th century. Rather than a unified <a href="/wiki/Dialect#Dialect_or_language" title="Dialect">language</a>, Old French was a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect cluster">group</a> of <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a> yet <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">diverse</a>. These dialects came to be collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">langues d'oïl</a>, contrasting with the langues d'oc, the emerging <a href="/wiki/Occitano-Romance_languages" title="Occitano-Romance languages">Occitano-Romance languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Occitania" title="Occitania">Occitania</a>, now the south of France. The mid-14th century witnessed the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a>, the language of the <a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">French Renaissance</a> in the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a> region; this dialect was a predecessor to <a href="/wiki/French_language#Modern_French" title="French language">Modern French</a>. Other dialects of Old French evolved themselves into modern forms (<a href="/wiki/Poitevin-Saintongeais" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevin-Saintongeais">Poitevin-Saintongeais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a>, etc.), each with its linguistic features and history. The region where Old French was spoken natively roughly extended to the northern half of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> and its vassals (including parts of the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin Empire</a>), and the duchies of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Lorraine">Upper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Lower Lorraine</a> to the east (corresponding to modern north-eastern <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and Belgian <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a>), but the influence of Old French was much wider, as it was carried to <a href="/wiki/Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman England">England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> as the language of a feudal elite and commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinoshita20063-3">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areal_and_dialectal_divisions">Areal and dialectal divisions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Areal and dialectal divisions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langues d'oïl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_France_1180-fr.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Map_France_1180-fr.svg/300px-Map_France_1180-fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Map_France_1180-fr.svg/450px-Map_France_1180-fr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Map_France_1180-fr.svg/600px-Map_France_1180-fr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Map of France in 1180, at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal system</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Crown_lands_of_France" title="Crown lands of France">crown lands of France</a> are in light blue, vassals to the French king in green, <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a> possessions in red. Shown in white is the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> to the east, the western fringes of which, including <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burgundy" title="Upper Burgundy">Upper Burgundy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Lorraine</a>, were also part of the Old French area.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Areal_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Areal linguistics">area</a> of Old French in contemporary terms corresponded to the northern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> (including <a href="/wiki/County_of_Anjou" title="County of Anjou">Anjou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Normandy</a>, which in the 12th century were ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Plantagenet kings of England</a>), <a href="/wiki/Upper_Burgundy" title="Upper Burgundy">Upper Burgundy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Duchy of Lorraine</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Norman dialect</a> was also spread to <a href="/wiki/Norman_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Ireland">Ireland</a>, and during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, Old French was also spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Outremer" class="mw-redirect" title="Outremer">Levant</a>. As part of the emerging <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance</a> dialect continuum, the langues d'oïl were contrasted with the langues d'oc, at the time also called "Provençal", adjacent to the Old French area in the southwest, and with the <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_languages" title="Gallo-Italic languages">Gallo-Italic</a> group to the southeast. The <a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Provençal language">Franco-Provençal</a> group developed in Upper Burgundy, sharing features with both French and Provençal; it may have begun to diverge from the langue d'oïl as early as the <a href="/wiki/9th_century" title="9th century">9th century</a> and is attested as a distinct Gallo-Romance variety by the 12th century. Dialects or variants of Old French include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Burgundian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a>, then an independent <a href="/wiki/Duchy" title="Duchy">duchy</a> whose capital was at <a href="/wiki/Dijon" title="Dijon">Dijon</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Picardy" title="Picardy">Picardy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romance_Flanders" title="Romance Flanders">Romance Flanders</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amiens" title="Amiens">Amiens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arras" title="Arras">Arras</a> as some of the more prominent cities. It was said that the Picard language began at the east door of <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris">Notre-Dame de Paris</a>, so far-reaching was its influence. It would also spread northwards in the area of <a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne-sur-Mer</a> that had a strong presence of <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a>;<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, whose principal cities were <a href="/wiki/Caen" title="Caen">Caen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rouen" title="Rouen">Rouen</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a> of England brought many Norman-speaking aristocrats into <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a>. Most of the older Norman (sometimes called "French") words in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> reflect its influence, which became a conduit for the introduction into the Anglo-Norman realm, as did Anglo-Norman control of Anjou and Gascony and other continental possessions. <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> was a language that reflected a shared culture on both sides of the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lusignan-5">[5]</a> Ultimately, the language declined and fell, becoming <a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a>, a jargon spoken by lawyers that was used in <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Charles_II_of_England" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a>; however, Norman varieties still survive in Normandy and the <a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> as regional languages: <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a>, around <a href="/wiki/Namur" title="Namur">Namur</a>, now in <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brittany" title="Duchy of Brittany">Duchy of Brittany</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorrain_language" title="Lorrain language">Lorrain</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Lorraine" title="Duchy of Lorraine">Duchy of Lorraine</a>.</li></ul> Some modern languages are derived from Old French dialects other than Classical French, which is based on the Île-de-France dialect. They include <a href="/wiki/Angevin_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angevin (language)">Angevin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berrichon" class="mw-redirect" title="Berrichon">Berrichon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Bourguignon-Morvandiau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Champenois" class="mw-redirect" title="Champenois">Champenois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frainc-Comtou_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Frainc-Comtou dialect">Franc-Comtois</a>, Gallo, Lorrain, <a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a>, Picard, <a href="/wiki/Poitevin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevin language">Poitevin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saintongeais" class="mw-redirect" title="Saintongeais">Saintongeais</a>, and Walloon. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_and_separation_from_Vulgar_Latin">Evolution and separation from Vulgar Latin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Evolution and separation from Vulgar Latin">edit</a>]</div> Beginning with <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>' time (254–184 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>b.c.), one can see phonological changes between <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> and what is called <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, the common spoken language of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>. Vulgar Latin differed from Classical Latin in <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> as well as exhibiting lexical differences; however, they were mutually intelligible until the 7th century when Classical Latin 'died' as a daily spoken language, and had to be learned as a second language (though it was long thought of as the formal version of the spoken language).<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>: 109–115  Vulgar Latin was the ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, including Old French.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> By the late 8th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a> began, native speakers of Romance idioms continued to use Romance <a href="/wiki/Orthoepy" title="Orthoepy">orthoepy</a> rules while speaking and reading Latin. When the most prominent scholar of Western Europe at the time, English deacon <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a>, was tasked by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> with improving the standards of Latin writing in France, not being a native Romance speaker himself, he prescribed a pronunciation based on a fairly literal interpretation of Latin spelling. For example, in a radical break from the traditional system, a word such as ⟨viridiarium⟩ '<a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">orchard</a>' now had to be read aloud precisely as it was spelled rather than */verdʒjær/ (later spelled as <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> 'vergier').<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Such a radical change had the effect of rendering Latin <a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">sermons</a> completely unintelligible to the general Romance-speaking public, which prompted officials a few years later, at the <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Tours" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Council of Tours">Third Council of Tours</a>, to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way, in rusticam romanam linguam or 'plain Roman[ce] speech'.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> As there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as Latin or Romance, various attempts were made in France to devise a new orthography for the latter; among the earliest examples are parts of the <a href="/wiki/Oaths_of_Strasbourg" title="Oaths of Strasbourg">Oaths of Strasbourg</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sequence_of_Saint_Eulalia" title="Sequence of Saint Eulalia">Sequence of Saint Eulalia</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Latin_influences">Non-Latin influences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Non-Latin influences">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gaulish">Gaulish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gaulish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Gaulish_origin" title="List of French words of Gaulish origin">List of French words of Gaulish origin</a></div> Some <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a> words influenced Vulgar Latin and, through this, other Romance languages. For example, classical Latin <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/equus" class="extiw" title="wikt:equus">equus</a> was uniformly replaced in Vulgar Latin by <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caballus" class="extiw" title="wikt:caballus">caballus</a> 'nag, work horse', derived from Gaulish caballos (cf. <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> ceffyl, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> kefel),<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>: 96  yielding <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cheval" class="extiw" title="wikt:cheval">cheval</a>, Occitan caval (chaval), Catalan <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavall" class="extiw" title="wikt:cavall">cavall</a>, Spanish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caballo" class="extiw" title="wikt:caballo">caballo</a>, Portuguese <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavalo" class="extiw" title="wikt:cavalo">cavalo</a>, Italian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavallo" class="extiw" title="wikt:cavallo">cavallo</a>, Romanian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cal" class="extiw" title="wikt:cal">cal</a>, and, by extension, English <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavalry" class="extiw" title="wikt:cavalry">cavalry</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chivalrie#Etymology" class="extiw" title="wikt:chivalrie">chivalry</a> (both via different forms of [Old] French: <a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francien" class="mw-redirect" title="Francien">Francien</a>). An estimated 200 words of Gaulish etymology survive in Modern French, for example <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ch%C3%AAne" class="extiw" title="wikt:chêne">chêne</a>, 'oak tree', and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/charrue" class="extiw" title="wikt:charrue">charrue</a>, 'plough'.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Within historical phonology and studies of <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a>, various phonological changes have been posited as caused by a Gaulish substrate, although there is some debate. One of these is considered certain, because this fact is clearly attested in the Gaulish-language <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a> on the pottery found at <a href="/wiki/La_Graufesenque" title="La Graufesenque">la Graufesenque</a> (A.D. 1st century). There, the Greek word paropsid-es (written in Latin)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] appears as paraxsid-i.<a href="#cite_note-Lambert-16">[16]</a> The consonant clusters /ps/ and /pt/ shifted to /xs/ and /xt/, e.g. <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> capsa > *kaxsa > caisse (<abbr title="unlike">≠</abbr> Italian cassa) or captīvus > *kaxtivus > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> chaitif<a href="#cite_note-Lambert-16">[16]</a> (mod. chétif; cf. Irish cacht 'servant'; ≠ Italian cattiv-ità, Portuguese cativo, Spanish cautivo). This phonetic evolution is common in its later stages with the shift of the Latin cluster /kt/ in Old French (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> factum > fait, ≠ Italian fatto, Portuguese feito, Spanish hecho; or lactem* > lait, ≠ Italian latte, Portuguese leite, Spanish leche). This means that both /pt/ and /kt/ must have first merged into /kt/ in the history of Old French, after which this /kt/ shifted to /xt/. In parallel, /ps/ and /ks/ merged into /ks/ before shifting to /xs/, apparently under Gaulish influence. The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish language</a> is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable cultural Romanization.<a href="#cite_note-Helix-17">[17]</a> Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> (including oui,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> the word for "yes"),<a href="#cite_note-Savignac-19">[19]</a> sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> and influences in conjugation and word order.<a href="#cite_note-Savignac-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Matas-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams-23">[23]</a> A computational study from 2003 suggests that early gender shifts may have been motivated by the gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Frankish">Frankish</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Frankish">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Germanic_origin" title="List of French words of Germanic origin">List of French words of Germanic origin</a></div> The pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax of the Vulgar Latin spoken in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a> in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> were modified by the <a href="/wiki/Old_Frankish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Frankish language">Old Frankish language</a>, spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> who settled in Gaul from the 5th century and conquered the future Old French-speaking area by the 530s. The name français itself is derived from the name of the Franks. The Old Frankish language had a definitive influence on the development of Old French, which partly explains why the earliest attested Old French documents are older than the earliest attestations in other Romance languages (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg_Oath" class="mw-redirect" title="Strasbourg Oath">Strasbourg Oaths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sequence_of_Saint_Eulalia" title="Sequence of Saint Eulalia">Sequence of Saint Eulalia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> It is the result of an earlier gap created between Classical Latin and its evolved forms, which slowly reduced and eventually severed the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> between the two. The <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Low Franconian</a> influence is also believed to be responsible for the differences between the langue d'oïl and the <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">langue d'oc</a> (Occitan), being that various parts of Northern France remained bilingual between Latin and Germanic for some time,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> and these areas correspond precisely to where the first documents in Old French were written. This Germanic language shaped the popular Latin spoken here and gave it a very distinctive identity compared to the other future Romance languages. The first noticeable influence is the substitution of the Latin melodic accent[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] with a Germanic stress<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> and its result was <a href="/wiki/Diphthongization" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongization">diphthongization</a>, differentiation between long and short vowels, the fall of the unaccented syllable and of the final vowels: <ul><li><abbr title="Latin">L</abbr> decimus, -a 'tenth' > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> disme > French dîme 'tithe' (> English dime; Italian decimo, Spanish diezmo)</li> <li><abbr title="Vulgar Latin">VL</abbr> dignitate > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> deintié (> English dainty; Italian dignità, Romanian demnitate)</li> <li><abbr title="Vulgar Latin">VL</abbr> catena > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> chaeine (> English chain; Italian catena, Spanish cadena, Occitan cadena, Portuguese cadeia)</li></ul> Additionally, two phonemes that had long since died out in Vulgar Latin were reintroduced: [h] and [w] (> <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> g(u)-, <abbr title="Old Norman French??">ONF</abbr> w- cf. <a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a> w-): <ul><li><abbr title="Vulgar Latin">VL</abbr> altu > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> halt 'high' (influenced by Old Low Frankish [<abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr>] *hōh ; ≠ Italian, Portuguese alto, Catalan alt, Old Occitan aut)</li> <li><abbr title="Latin">L</abbr> vespa > <abbr title="Old Norman French??">ONF</abbr> wespe, <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> guespe, French guêpe, Picard wèpe, Wallon wèsse, all 'wasp' (influenced by <abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr> *wapsa; ≠ Occitan vèspa, Italian vespa, Spanish avispa)</li> <li><abbr title="Latin">L</abbr> viscus > French gui 'mistletoe' (influenced by <abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr> *wīhsila 'morello' with analogous fruits, when they are not ripe; ≠ Occitan vesc, Italian vischio)</li> <li><abbr title="Late Latin">LL</abbr> vulpiculu 'fox kit' (from L vulpes 'fox') > <abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr> golpilz, Picard woupil 'fox' (influenced by <abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr> *wulf 'wolf'; ≠ Occitan volpìlh, Old Italian volpiglio, Spanish vulpeja 'vixen')</li></ul> In contrast, the Italian, Portuguese and Spanish words of Germanic origin borrowed from French or directly from Germanic retain /gw/ ~ /g/, e.g. Italian, Spanish guerra 'war', alongside /g/ in French guerre). These examples show a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words. One example of a Latin word influencing an <abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr> loan is framboise 'raspberry', from <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> frambeise, from <abbr title="Old Low Frankish">OLF</abbr> *brāmbesi 'blackberry' (cf. Dutch braambes, braambezie; akin to German Brombeere, English dial. bramberry) blended with LL fraga or <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> fraie 'strawberry', which explains the replacement [b] > [f] and in turn the final -se of framboise added to <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> fraie to make freise, modern fraise (≠ Wallon frève, Occitan fraga, Romanian fragă, Italian fragola, fravola 'strawberry').<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mildred_Pope" class="mw-redirect" title="Mildred Pope">Mildred Pope</a> estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of Modern French derives from Germanic sources. This proportion was larger in Old French, because <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> borrowed heavily from Latin and Italian.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_written_Old_French">Earliest written Old French</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Earliest written Old French">edit</a>]</div> The earliest documents said to be written in the Gallo-Romance that prefigures French – after the <a href="/wiki/Reichenau_Glosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichenau Glosses">Reichenau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kassel_glosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Kassel glosses">Kassel glosses</a> (8th and 9th centuries) – are the <a href="/wiki/Oaths_of_Strasbourg" title="Oaths of Strasbourg">Oaths of Strasbourg</a> (treaties and charters into which King <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bald" title="Charles the Bald">Charles the Bald</a> entered in 842): <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> Pro Deo amur et pro Christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in aiudha et in cadhuna cosa ... (For the love of God and for the Christian people, and our common salvation, from this day forward, as God will give me the knowledge and the power, I will defend my brother Karlo with my help in everything ...) </div></blockquote> The second-oldest document in Old French is the <a href="/wiki/Eulalia_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulalia sequence">Eulalia sequence</a>, which is important for linguistic reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling. The royal <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">House of Capet</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Capet" title="Hugh Capet">Hugh Capet</a> in 987, inaugurated the development of northern French culture in and around <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a>, which slowly but firmly asserted its ascendency over the more southerly areas of <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> and Tolosa (<a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a>); however, the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_dynasty" title="Capetian dynasty">Capetians</a>' <a href="/wiki/Langue_d%27o%C3%AFl" class="mw-redirect" title="Langue d'oïl">langue d'oïl</a>, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France until after the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_to_Middle_French">Transition to Middle French</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Transition to Middle French">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a></div> In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinct langues d'oïl, among which <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> proper was the dialect of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a> region. During the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early Modern period</a>, French was established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, including the langue d'oc-speaking territories in the south. It was only in the 17th to 18th centuries – with the development especially of popular literature of the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_bleue" title="Bibliothèque bleue">Bibliothèque bleue</a> – that a standardized <a href="/wiki/Classical_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical French">Classical French</a> spread throughout France alongside the regional dialects. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_French_literature" title="Medieval French literature">Medieval French literature</a></div> The material and cultural conditions in <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_France" title="Territorial evolution of France">France and associated territories</a> around the year 1100 triggered what <a href="/wiki/Charles_Homer_Haskins" title="Charles Homer Haskins">Charles Homer Haskins</a> termed the "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>", resulting in a profusion of creative works in a variety of genres. Old French gave way to <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> in the mid-14th century, paving the way for early <a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance_literature" title="French Renaissance literature">French Renaissance literature</a> of the 15th century. The earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French were <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">saints' lives</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sequence_of_Saint_Eulalia" title="Sequence of Saint Eulalia">Canticle of Saint Eulalie</a>, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. At the beginning of the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodel" title="Jean Bodel">Jean Bodel</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_Saisnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chanson de Saisnes">Chanson de Saisnes</a>, divided medieval French narrative literature into three subject areas: the <a href="/wiki/Matter_of_France" title="Matter of France">Matter of France</a> or Matter of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Rome" title="Matter of Rome">Matter of Rome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romances</a> in an ancient setting); and the <a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Matter of Britain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arthurian_romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthurian romance">Arthurian romances</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breton_lai" title="Breton lai">Breton lais</a>). The first of these is the subject area of the <a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chansons de geste</a> ("songs of exploits" or "songs of (heroic) deeds"), <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poems</a> typically composed in <a href="/wiki/Decasyllable" title="Decasyllable">ten-syllable</a> <a href="/wiki/Assonance" title="Assonance">assonanced</a> (occasionally <a href="/wiki/Rhyme" title="Rhyme">rhymed</a>) <a href="/wiki/Laisse" title="Laisse">laisses</a>. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in around three hundred manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> The oldest and most celebrated of the chansons de geste is <a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Roland" class="mw-redirect" title="The Song of Roland">The Song of Roland</a> (earliest version composed in the late 11th century). <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_de_Bar-sur-Aube" title="Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube">Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Girart_de_Vienne" title="Girart de Vienne">Girart de Vienne</a> set out a grouping of the chansons de geste into three <a href="/wiki/Literature_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature cycle">cycles</a>: the Geste du roi centering on Charlemagne, the <a href="/wiki/Geste_de_Garin_de_Monglane" class="mw-redirect" title="Geste de Garin de Monglane">Geste de Garin de Monglane</a> (whose central character was <a href="/wiki/William_of_Gellone" title="William of Gellone">William of Orange</a>), and the Geste de <a href="/wiki/Doon_de_Mayence" title="Doon de Mayence">Doon de Mayence</a> or the "rebel vassal cycle", the most famous characters of which were <a href="/wiki/Renaud_de_Montauban" title="Renaud de Montauban">Renaud de Montauban</a> and <a href="/wiki/Girart_de_Roussillon" title="Girart de Roussillon">Girart de Roussillon</a>. A fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is the <a href="/wiki/Crusade_cycle" title="Crusade cycle">Crusade cycle</a>, dealing with the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> and its immediate aftermath. <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodel" title="Jean Bodel">Jean Bodel</a>'s other two categories—the "Matter of Rome" and the "Matter of Britain"—concern the French <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romance</a> or roman. Around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose (many of the earlier verse romances were adapted into prose versions), although new verse romances continued to be written to the end of the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> The most important romance of the 13th century is the <a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Rose" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance of the Rose">Romance of the Rose</a>, which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story. Medieval French <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric poetry</a> was indebted to the poetic and cultural traditions in <a href="/wiki/Southern_France" title="Southern France">Southern France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provence</a>—including <a href="/wiki/Toulouse" title="Toulouse">Toulouse</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aquitaine" title="Aquitaine">Aquitaine</a> region—where langue d'oc was spoken (<a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan language</a>); in their turn, the Provençal poets were greatly influenced by poetic traditions from the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Spain">Hispano-Arab world</a>. Lyric poets in Old French are called <a href="/wiki/Trouv%C3%A8res" class="mw-redirect" title="Trouvères">trouvères</a> – etymologically the same word as the <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadours</a> of <a href="/wiki/Old_Occitan" title="Old Occitan">Provençal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Langue_d%27oc" class="mw-redirect" title="Langue d'oc">langue d'oc</a> (from the verb trobar "to find, to invent"). By the late 13th century, the poetic tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets, both in content and in the use of certain fixed forms. The new poetic (as well as musical: some of the earliest medieval music has lyrics composed in Old French by the earliest composers known by name) tendencies are apparent in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_de_Fauvel" title="Roman de Fauvel">Roman de Fauvel</a> in 1310 and 1314, a satire on abuses in the medieval church, filled with medieval <a href="/wiki/Motet" title="Motet">motets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lai_(poetic_form)" title="Lai (poetic form)">lais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rondeau_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rondeau (music)">rondeaux</a> and other new secular forms of poetry and music (mostly anonymous, but with several pieces by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Vitry" title="Philippe de Vitry">Philippe de Vitry</a>, who would coin the expression <a href="/wiki/Ars_nova" title="Ars nova">ars nova</a> to distinguish the new musical practice from the music of the immediately preceding age). The best-known poet and composer of ars nova secular music and chansons of the incipient <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> period was <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut" title="Guillaume de Machaut">Guillaume de Machaut</a>. Discussions about the origins of non-religious theater (théâtre profane)—both drama and farce—in the Middle Ages remain controversial, but the idea of a continuous popular tradition stemming from Latin comedy and tragedy to the 9th century seems unlikely. Most historians place the origin of medieval drama in the church's liturgical dialogues and "tropes". <a href="/wiki/Mystery_play" title="Mystery play">Mystery plays</a> were eventually transferred from the monastery church to the chapter house or refectory hall and finally to the open air, and the vernacular was substituted for Latin. In the 12th century one finds the earliest extant passages in French appearing as refrains inserted into <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_drama" title="Liturgical drama">liturgical dramas</a> in Latin, such as a <a href="/wiki/Saint_Nicholas" title="Saint Nicholas">Saint Nicholas</a> (patron saint of the student clercs) play and a <a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Saint Stephen</a> play. An early French dramatic play is <a href="/wiki/Le_Jeu_d%27Adam" title="Le Jeu d'Adam">Le Jeu d'Adam</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1150) written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets with Latin stage directions (implying that it was written by Latin-speaking clerics for a lay public). A large body of <a href="/wiki/Fable" title="Fable">fables</a> survive in Old French; these include (mostly anonymous) literature dealing with the recurring trickster character of <a href="/wiki/Reynard" class="mw-redirect" title="Reynard">Reynard</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fox" title="Fox">Fox</a>. Marie de France was also active in this genre, producing the <a href="/wiki/Ysopet" title="Ysopet">Ysopet</a> (Little <a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a>) series of fables in verse. Related to the fable was the more bawdy <a href="/wiki/Fabliau" title="Fabliau">fabliau</a>, which covered topics such as cuckolding and corrupt clergy. These fabliaux would be an important source for <a href="/wiki/Chaucer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaucer">Chaucer</a> and for the Renaissance short story (conte or nouvelle). Among the earliest works of <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> to appear in Old French were the translations of <a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>' De topicis differentiis by <a href="/wiki/John_of_Antioch_(translator)" title="John of Antioch (translator)">John of Antioch</a> in 1282. In northern Italy, authors developed <a href="/wiki/Franco-Italian" title="Franco-Italian">Franco-Italian</a>, a mixed language of Old French and <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a> used in literary works in the 13th and 14th centuries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_French" title="Phonological history of French">Phonological history of French</a></div> Old French was constantly changing and evolving; however, the form in the late 12th century, as attested in a great deal of mostly poetic writings, can be considered standard. The writing system at this time was more phonetic than that used in most subsequent centuries. In particular, all written consonants (including final ones) were pronounced, except for s preceding non-<a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop consonants</a> and t in et, and final e was pronounced [<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]. The phonological system can be summarised as follows:<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Old French consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> <a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_lateral_approximant" title="Voiced palatal lateral approximant">ʎ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <ul><li>All <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> (plosives, fricatives and affricates) were subject to <a href="/wiki/Word-final_devoicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Word-final devoicing">word-final devoicing</a>, which was usually indicated in the orthography.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a> /ts/, /dz/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/ became <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> ([s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ]) in <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a>. <ul><li>/ts/ had three spellings – c before e or i, ç before other vowels, or z at the end of a word – as seen in cent, chançon, priz ("a hundred, song, price").</li> <li>/dz/ was written as z, as in doze "twelve", and occurred only in the middle of the word.</li></ul></li> <li>/ʎ/ (l <a href="/wiki/Mouill%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouillé">mouillé</a>), as in conseil, travaillier ("advice, to work"), became /j/ in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">Modern French</a>.</li> <li>/ɲ/ appeared not only in the middle of a word but also at the end, as in poing "fist". At the end of a word, /ɲ/ was later lost, leaving a <a href="/wiki/Nasalized_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasalized vowel">nasalized vowel</a>.</li> <li>/h/ was found only in Germanic loanwords or words influenced by Germanic (cf. haut, hurler). It was later lost as a consonant, though it was <a href="/wiki/Transphonologization" title="Transphonologization">transphonologized</a> as the so-called <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_h" title="Aspirated h">aspirated h</a> that blocks <a href="/wiki/Liaison_(French)" title="Liaison (French)">liaison</a>. In native Latin words, /h/ had been lost early on, as in om, uem, from <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> homō.</li> <li>Intervocalic /d/ from both Latin /t/ and /d/ was <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">lenited</a> to [ð] in the early period (cf. contemporary Spanish: amado [aˈmaðo]). At the end of words, it was also devoiced to [θ]. In some texts it was sometimes written as dh or th (aiudha, cadhuna, Ludher, vithe). By 1100 it disappeared altogether.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> In Old French, the nasal vowels were not separate phonemes but only <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> of the oral vowels before a nasal consonant. The nasal consonant was fully pronounced; bon was pronounced [bõn] (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> [bɔ̃]). Nasal vowels were present even in <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllables</a> before nasals where Modern French has oral vowels, as in bone [bõnə] (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> bonne [bɔn]). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monophthongs">Monophthongs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Monophthongs">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Old French vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <th>oral </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>   <a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></td> <td rowspan="2"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>nasal </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ĩ</a>   <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ỹ</a></td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <th>oral </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></td> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <th>nasal </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ẽ</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">õ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <th>oral </th> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>nasal </th> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ã</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <ul><li>/o/ had formerly existed but then closed to /u/; the original Western Romance /u/ having previously been fronted to /y/ across most of what is now France and northern Italy. <ul><li>/o/ would later appear again when /aw/ <a href="/wiki/Monophthongize" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophthongize">monophthongized</a> and also when /ɔ/ closed in certain positions (such as when it was followed by original /s/ or /z/ but not by /ts/, which later became /s/).</li> <li>/õ/ may have similarly become closed to /ũ/, in at least in some dialects, since it was borrowed into <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> as /uːn/ > /aʊn/ (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> computāre > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> conter > English count; <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> rotundum > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> ront > English round; <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> bonitātem > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> bonté > English bounty). In any case, traces of such a change were erased in later stages of French, when the close nasal vowels /ĩ ỹ õ~ũ/ were opened to become /ɛ̃ œ̃ ɔ̃/.</li></ul></li> <li>/ə̃/ may have existed in the unstressed third-person plural verb ending -ent, but it may have already passed to /ə/, which is known to have happened no later than the Middle French period.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diphthongs_and_triphthongs">Diphthongs and triphthongs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Diphthongs and triphthongs">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Late Old French <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Triphthong" title="Triphthong">triphthongs</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>IPA</th> <th>Example</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">falling </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Oral_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral vowel">Oral</a> </th> <td>/aw/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chevaus#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:chevaus">chevaus</a></td> <td>horse </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ɔj/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/toit#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:toit">toit</a></td> <td>roof </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ɔw/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coup#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:coup">coup</a></td> <td>blow, hit </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ew/ ~ /øw/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cieus#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:cieus">cieus</a></td> <td>heavens </td></tr> <tr> <td>/iw/ ~ /iɥ/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tiule#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:tiule">tiule</a></td> <td>tile </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">Nasal</a> </th> <td>/ẽj/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plein#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:plein">plein</a></td> <td>full </td></tr> <tr> <td>/õj/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loing#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:loing">loing</a></td> <td>far </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">rising </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Oral_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral vowel">Oral</a> </th> <td>/je/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pi%C3%A9#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:pié">pié</a></td> <td>foot </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ɥi/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fruit#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:fruit">fruit</a></td> <td>fruit </td></tr> <tr> <td>/we/ ~ /wø/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cuer#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:cuer">cuer</a></td> <td>heart </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">Nasal</a> </th> <td>/jẽ/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bien#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:bien">bien</a></td> <td>well </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ɥĩ/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/juin#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:juin">juin</a></td> <td>June </td></tr> <tr> <td>/wẽ/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cuens" class="extiw" title="wikt:cuens">cuens</a></td> <td>count (<abbr title="nominative singular">nom. sg.</abbr>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">triphthongs stress always falls on middle vowel </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Oral_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral vowel">Oral</a> </th> <td>/e̯aw/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/beaus#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:beaus">beaus</a></td> <td>beautiful </td></tr> <tr> <td>/jew/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Dieu#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:Dieu">Dieu</a></td> <td>God </td></tr> <tr> <td>/wew/ ~ /wøw/</td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jueu#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:jueu">jueu</a></td> <td>Jew </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <ul><li>In Early Old French (up to about the mid-12th century), the spelling ⟨ai⟩ represented a diphthong /aj/ instead of the later <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthong</a> /ɛ/,<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> and ⟨ei⟩ represented the diphthong /ej/, which merged with /oj/ in Late Old French (except when it was nasalized).</li> <li>In Early Old French, the diphthongs described above as "rising" may have been falling diphthongs (/ie̯/, /yj/, /ue̯/). In earlier works with vowel <a href="/wiki/Assonance" title="Assonance">assonance</a>, the diphthong written ⟨ie⟩ did not assonate with any pure vowels, which suggests that it cannot have simply been /je/.</li> <li>The pronunciation of the vowels written ⟨ue⟩ and ⟨eu⟩ is debated. In the first records of Early Old French, they represented and were written as /uo/, /ou/, and by <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a>, they had both merged as /ø ~ œ/, but the transitional pronunciations are unclear.</li> <li>Early Old French had additional triphthongs /iej/ and /uoj/ (equivalent to diphthongs followed by /j/); these soon merged into /i/ and /ɥi/ respectively.</li> <li>The diphthong ⟨iu⟩ was rare and had merged into ⟨ui⟩ by Middle French (<abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> tiule > <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> tuile 'tile'; <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> siure > Late <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> suire > <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> suivre 'follow').</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hiatus">Hiatus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hiatus">edit</a>]</div> In addition to diphthongs, Old French had many instances of <a href="/wiki/Hiatus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus (linguistics)">hiatus</a> between adjacent vowels because of the loss of an intervening consonant. Manuscripts generally do not distinguish hiatus from true diphthongs, but modern scholarly transcription indicates it with a <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(diacritic)" title="Diaeresis (diacritic)">diaeresis</a>, as in Modern French: <ul><li><abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> audīre > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/o%C3%AFr#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:oïr">oïr</a> /uˈir/ 'hear' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> ouïr)</li> <li><abbr title="Vulgar Latin">VL</abbr> *vidūta > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ve%C3%BCe#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:veüe">veüe</a> /vəˈy.ə/ 'seen' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> vue)</li> <li><abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> rēgīnam > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/re%C3%AFne#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:reïne">reïne</a>, /rəˈinə/ 'queen' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> reine)</li> <li><abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> pāgēnsem > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pa%C3%AFs#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:païs">païs</a> /paˈis/ 'country' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> pays)</li> <li><abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> augustum > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aoust#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:aoust">aoust</a> /aˈu(s)t/ 'August' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> août)</li> <li><abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> patellam > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paelle#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:paelle">paelle</a> /paˈɛlə/ 'pan' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> poêle)</li> <li><abbr title="Late Latin">LL</abbr> quaternum > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qua%C3%AFer#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:quaïer">quaïer</a> /kwaˈjer/ 'booklet, quire' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> cahier)</li> <li><abbr title="Late Latin">LL</abbr> aetāticum > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aage#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:aage">aage</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eage#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:eage">eage</a> /aˈad͡ʒə/ ~ /əˈad͡ʒə/ 'age' (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> âge)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sample text">edit</a>]</div> Presented below is the first <a href="/wiki/Laisse" title="Laisse">laisse</a> of The Song of Roland along with a <a href="/wiki/Broad_transcription" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad transcription">broad transcription</a> reflecting reconstructed pronunciation <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1050.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Text </th> <th>Transcription </th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td><div class="poem"> Charles li reis, nostre emperedre magnes, Set anz toz pleins at estét en Espaigne. Tres qu'en la mer conquist la tere altaigne, Chastel n'i at ki devant lui remaignet. Murs ne citét n'i est remés a fraindre, Fors Sarragoce qu'est en une montaigne; Li reis Marsilies la tient, ki Deu nen aimet, Mahomet sert ed Apolin reclaimet: Ne·s poet guarder que mals ne l'i ataignet!<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> </div> </td> <td><div class="poem"> ˈt͡ʃarləs li ˈre͜is, ˈnɔstr‿empəˈræðrə ˈmaɲəs ˈsɛt ˈant͡s ˈtot͡s ˈple͜ins ˈað esˈtæθ en esˈpaɲə ˈtræs k‿en la ˈmɛr konˈkist la ˈtɛr alˈta͜iɲə t͡ʃasˈtɛl ni ˈaθ ki dəˈvant ˈly͜i rəˈma͜iɲəθ ˈmyrs nə t͡siˈtæθ n‿i ˈɛst rəˈmæs a ˈfra͜indrə ˈfɔrs saraˈgot͡sə k‿ˈɛst en ˈynə monˈtaɲə li ˈre͜is marˈsiʎəs la ˈti͜ɛnt, ki ˈdɛ͜u nən ˈa͜iməθ mahoˈmɛt ˈsɛrt eð apoˈlin rəˈkla͜iməθ nə‿s ˈpu͜ɛt gwarˈdær kə ˈmals nə l‿i aˈta͜iɲəθ </div> </td> <td><div class="poem"> Charles the king, our great emperor, Has been in Spain for seven full years: He has conquered the lofty land up to the sea. No castle remains standing before him; No wall or city is left to destroy Other than Saragossa, which lies atop a mountain. King Marsilie is its master, he who loves not God, He serves Mohammed and worships Apollo: [Still] he cannot prevent harm from reaching him. </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> Old French maintained a two-case system, with a <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique case</a>, for longer than some other Romance languages as <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> did. Case distinctions, at least in the masculine <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a>, were marked on both the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> and the noun itself. Thus, the masculine noun li veisins 'the neighbour'<a href="#cite_note-40">[ii]</a> was declined as follows: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Evolution of the nominal masculine inflection from Classical Latin to Old French </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Number</th> <th>Latin</th> <th>Early Proto-<a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">GR</a></th> <th>Old French </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Singular</th> <th>nominative </th> <td>ille vīcīnus</td> <td>*[li βeˈdzʲinos]</td> <td>li veisins </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique (Latin accusative) </th> <td>illum vīcīnum</td> <td>*[lo βeˈdzʲino]</td> <td>le veisin </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Plural</th> <th>nominative </th> <td>illī vīcīnī</td> <td>*[li βeˈdzʲini]</td> <td>li veisin </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique (Latin accusative) </th> <td>illōs vīcīnōs</td> <td>*[los βeˈdzʲinos]</td> <td>les veisins </td></tr></tbody></table> In later Old French, the distinctions had become moribund. As in most other Romance languages, it was the <a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique case</a> form that usually survived to become the Modern French form: l'enfant "the child" represents the old oblique (Latin accusative īnfantem); the <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> nominative was li enfes (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> īnfāns). There are some cases with significant differences between nominative and oblique forms (derived from Latin nouns with a stress shift between the nominative and other cases) in which either it is the nominative form that survives or both forms survive with different meanings: <ul><li>Both <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> li sire, le sieur (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> seiior, seiiōrem) and le seignor (nom. †sendre;<a href="#cite_note-41">[iii]</a> <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> senior, seniōrem) survive in the vocabulary of later French (sire, sieur, seigneur) as different ways to refer to a feudal <a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">lord</a>.</li> <li><abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/s%C5%93ur" class="extiw" title="wikt:sœur">sœur</a> "sister" is the nominative form (<abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/suer" class="extiw" title="wikt:suer">suer</a> < Latin nominative soror); the <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> oblique form seror (< Latin accusative sorōrem) no longer survives.</li> <li><abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pr%C3%AAtre" class="extiw" title="wikt:prêtre">prêtre</a> "priest" is the nominative form (<abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prestre" class="extiw" title="wikt:prestre">prestre</a> < presbyter); the <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> oblique form <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prevoire" class="extiw" title="wikt:prevoire">prevoire</a>, later <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/provoire" class="extiw" title="wikt:provoire">provoire</a> (< presbyterem) survives only in the Paris street name Rue des Prouvaires.</li> <li><abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> indefinite pronoun <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/on" class="extiw" title="wikt:on">on</a> "one" continues Old French nominative <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hom" class="extiw" title="wikt:hom">hom</a> "man" (< homō); <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homme" class="extiw" title="wikt:homme">homme</a> "man" continues the oblique form (<abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/home" class="extiw" title="wikt:home">home</a> < hominem).</li></ul> In a few cases in which the only distinction between forms was the nominative -s ending, the -s was preserved. An example is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fils" class="extiw" title="wikt:fils">fils</a> "son" (< Latin nominative fīlius). It is irregular that the -s in the word is still pronounced today; but this has to do with later developments — namely the <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> and Early Modern French system of <a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausal</a> pronunciations. As in Spanish and Italian, the neuter gender was eliminated, and most old neuter nouns became masculine. Some Latin neuter plurals, which ended in -a, were reanalysed as feminine singulars: <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> gaudium was more widely used in the plural form gaudia, which was taken for a singular in Vulgar Latin and ultimately led to <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> la joie, "joy" (feminine singular). Nouns were declined in the following <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declensions</a>: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Number </th> <th colspan="3">Class I (feminine) </th> <th colspan="3">Class II (masculine) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Class I normal </th> <th colspan="2">Class Ia </th> <th colspan="2">Class II normal </th> <th>Class IIa </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">meaning </th> <th>"woman"</th> <th>"thing"</th> <th>"city"</th> <th>"neighbor"</th> <th>"servant"</th> <th>"father" </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">sg. </th> <th>nominative </th> <td rowspan="2">la fame</td> <td>la riens</td> <td>la citez</td> <td>li veisins</td> <td>li sergenz</td> <td>li pere </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td>la rien</td> <td>la cité</td> <td>le veisin</td> <td>le sergent</td> <td>le pere </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">pl. </th> <th>nominative </th> <td rowspan="2">les fames</td> <td rowspan="2">les riens</td> <td rowspan="2">les citez</td> <td>li veisin</td> <td>li sergent</td> <td>li pere </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td>les veisins</td> <td>les sergenz</td> <td>les peres </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Numbers </th> <th colspan="8">Class III (both) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Class IIIa </th> <th>Class IIIb </th> <th>Class IIIc </th> <th colspan="5">Class IIId </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">meaning </th> <th>"singer"</th> <th>"baron"</th> <th>"nun"</th> <th>"sister"</th> <th>"child"</th> <th>"priest"</th> <th>"lord"</th> <th>"count" </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">sg. </th> <th>nominative </th> <td>li chantere</td> <td>li ber</td> <td>la none</td> <td>la suer</td> <td>li enfes</td> <td>li prestre</td> <td>li sire</td> <td>li cuens </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td>le chanteor</td> <td>le baron</td> <td>la nonain</td> <td>la seror</td> <td>l'enfant</td> <td>le prevoire</td> <td>le sieur</td> <td>le conte </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">pl. </th> <th>nominative </th> <td>li chanteor</td> <td>li baron</td> <td>les nones</td> <td rowspan="2">les serors</td> <td>li enfant</td> <td>li prevoire</td> <td>li sieur</td> <td>li conte </td></tr> <tr> <th>oblique </th> <td>les chanteors</td> <td>les barons</td> <td>les nonains</td> <td>les enfanz</td> <td>les prevoires</td> <td>les sieurs</td> <td>les contes </td></tr></tbody></table> Class I is derived from the Latin <a href="/wiki/First_declension" title="First declension">first declension</a>. Class Ia mostly comes from Latin feminine nouns in the <a href="/wiki/Third_declension" title="Third declension">third declension</a>. Class II is derived from the Latin <a href="/wiki/Second_declension" title="Second declension">second declension</a>. Class IIa generally stems from second-declension nouns ending in -er and from third-declension masculine nouns; in both cases, the Latin nominative singular did not end in -s, which is preserved in Old French. The classes show various analogical developments: Class I nominative plural -es from the accusative instead of -∅ (-e after a consonant cluster) in Class I nominative plural (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> -ae, although there is evidence to suggest <a href="/wiki/Romance_plurals#Origin_of_plural_-s" title="Romance plurals">this analogy had already occurred in VL</a>), li pere instead of *li peres (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> illi patres) in Class IIa nominative plural, modelled on Class II, etc. Class III nouns show a separate stem in the nominative singular that does not occur in any of the other forms: <ul><li>IIIa nouns are <a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">agent nouns</a> that ended in -ātor, -ātōrem in Latin and preserve the stress shift.</li> <li>IIIb nouns also had a stress shift, from -ō to -ōnem although several IIIb nouns actually continue <a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a> <a href="/wiki/Weak_inflection#Nouns" title="Weak inflection">weak nouns</a> with a similar inflection: Frankish <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-West_Germanic/bar%C5%8D" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-West Germanic/barō">*barō ~ *baran</a> becomes <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> ber ~ baron.</li> <li>IIIc nouns are an Old French creation and have no clear Latin antecedent.</li> <li>IIId nouns represent various other third-declension Latin nouns with stress shift or a change of consonant (soror, sorōrem; īnfāns, īnfāntem; presbyter, presbyterem; seiior, seiiōrem; comes, comitem).</li></ul> Regular feminine forms of masculine nouns are formed by adding an -e to the masculine stem unless the masculine stem already ends in -e. For example, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bergier" class="extiw" title="wikt:bergier">bergier</a> (shepherd) becomes <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bergiere" class="extiw" title="wikt:bergiere">bergiere</a> (<abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/berger" class="extiw" title="wikt:berger">berger</a> and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/berg%C3%A8re" class="extiw" title="wikt:bergère">bergère</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Adjectives agree in terms of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, gender and case with the noun that they are qualifying. Thus, a feminine plural noun in the nominative case requires any qualifying adjectives to be feminine, plural and nominative. For example, in femes riches, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/riche#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:riche">riche</a> has to be in the feminine plural form. Adjectives can be divided into three declensional classes:<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> <ul><li>Class I corresponding roughly to <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension#First_and_second_declension_adjectives" title="Latin declension">Latin 1st- and 2nd-declension adjectives</a></li> <li>Class II corresponding roughly to <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension#Third_declension_adjectives" title="Latin declension">Latin 3rd-declension adjectives</a></li> <li>Class III containing primarily the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension#Comparative_and_superlative_forms_of_adjectives" title="Latin declension">Latin synthetic comparative forms</a> in -ior, -iōrem.</li></ul> Class I adjectives have a feminine singular form (nominative and oblique) ending in -e. They can be further subdivided into two subclasses, based on the masculine nominative singular form. Class Ia adjectives have a masculine nominative singular ending in -s: <dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bon#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:bon">bon</a> "good" (< <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bonus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:bonus">bonus</a>, > <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bon#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:bon">bon</a>)</dd></dl> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Feminine </th> <th>Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>Case</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>bons</td> <td>bon </td> <td rowspan="2">bone</td> <td rowspan="2">bones </td> <td>bon </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>bon</td> <td>bons</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> For Class Ib adjectives, the masculine nominative singular ends in -e, like the feminine. There are descendants of Latin second- and third-declension adjectives ending in -er in the nominative singular: <dl><dd>aspre "harsh" (< <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/asper#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:asper">asper</a>, > <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%A2pre#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:âpre">âpre</a>)</dd></dl> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Feminine </th> <th>Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>Case</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td rowspan="2">aspre </td> <td>aspre </td> <td rowspan="2">aspre</td> <td rowspan="2">aspres </td> <td>aspre </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>aspres</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> For Class II adjectives, the feminine singular is not marked by the ending -e: <dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/granz#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:granz">granz</a> "big, great" (< <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grandis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:grandis">grandis</a>, > <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/grand#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:grand">grand</a>)</dd></dl> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Feminine </th> <th>Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>Case</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>granz</td> <td>grant </td> <td>granz/grant</td> <td rowspan="2">granz </td> <td>grant </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>grant</td> <td>granz</td> <td>grant</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> An important subgroup of Class II adjectives is the present participial forms in -ant. Class III adjectives have a stem alternation, resulting from stress shift in the Latin third declension and a distinct neuter form: <dl><dd><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meillor#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:meillor">mieudre</a> "better" (< <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/melior#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:melior">melior</a>, > <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/meilleur#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:meilleur">meilleur</a>)</dd></dl> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Feminine </th> <th>Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>Case</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural</th> <th>Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>mieudre(s)</td> <td>meillor </td> <td>mieudre</td> <td rowspan="2">meillors </td> <td>mieuz </td></tr> <tr> <th>Oblique </th> <td>meillor</td> <td>meillors</td> <td>meillor</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> In later Old French, Classes II and III tended to be moved across to Class I, which was complete by Middle French. Modern French thus has only a single adjective declension, unlike most other Romance languages, which have two or more. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> Verbs in Old French show the same extreme phonological deformations as other Old French words; however, morphologically, Old French verbs are extremely conservative in preserving intact most of the Latin alternations and irregularities that had been inherited in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Romance">Proto-Romance</a>. Old French has much less analogical reformation than Modern French has and significantly less than the oldest stages of other languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Old_Spanish" title="Old Spanish">Old Spanish</a>) despite that the various <a href="/wiki/Phonological_development" title="Phonological development">phonological developments</a> in Gallo-Romance and Proto-French led to complex alternations in the majority of commonly-used verbs. For example, the <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> verb laver "to wash" (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> lavāre) is conjugated je lef, tu leves, il leve in the <a href="/wiki/Present_indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Present indicative">present indicative</a> and je lef, tu les, il let in the <a href="/wiki/Present_subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Present subjunctive">present subjunctive</a>, in both cases regular phonological developments from Latin indicative lavō, lavās, lavat and subjunctive lavem, lavēs, lavet. The following paradigm is typical in showing the phonologically regular but morphologically irregular alternations of most paradigms: <ul><li>The alternation je lef ~ tu leves is a regular result of the final <a href="/wiki/Devoicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Devoicing">devoicing</a> triggered by loss of final /o/ but not /a/.</li> <li>The alternation laver ~ tu leves is a regular result of the diphthongization of a stressed <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllable</a> /a/ into /ae/ > /æ/ > /e/.</li> <li>The alternation je lef ~ tu les ~ il let in the subjunctive is a regular result of the simplification of the final clusters /fs/ and /ft/, resulting from loss of /e/ in final syllables.</li></ul> Modern French, on the other hand, has je lave, tu laves, il lave in both indicative and subjunctive, reflecting significant analogical developments: analogical borrowing of unstressed vowel /a/, analogical -e in the first singular (from verbs like j'entre, with a regular -e ) and wholesale replacement of the subjunctive with forms modelled on -ir/-oir/-re verbs. All serve to eliminate the various alternations in the <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> verb paradigm. Even modern "irregular" verbs are not immune from analogy: For example, <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> je vif, tu vis, il vit (vivre "to live") has yielded to modern je vis, tu vis, il vit, eliminating the unpredictable -f in the first-person singular. The <a href="/wiki/Simple_past" title="Simple past">simple past</a> also shows extensive analogical reformation and simplification in Modern French, as compared with Old French. The Latin <a href="/wiki/Pluperfect" title="Pluperfect">pluperfect</a> was preserved in very early Old French as a past tense with a value similar to a <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Sequence_of_Saint_Eulalia" title="Sequence of Saint Eulalia">Sequence of Saint Eulalia</a> (878 AD) has past-tense forms such as avret (< <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> habuerat), voldret (< <abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> voluerat), alternating with past-tense forms from the Latin perfect (continued as the modern "simple past"). <a href="/wiki/Old_Occitan" title="Old Occitan">Old Occitan</a> also preserved this tense, with a <a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional</a> value; <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> still preserves this tense (the -ra imperfect subjunctive), as does <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> (in its original value as a pluperfect indicative). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verb_alternations">Verb alternations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Verb alternations">edit</a>]</div> In Latin, stress was determined automatically by the number of syllables in a word and the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">weight</a> (length) of the syllables. That resulted in certain automatic stress shifts between related forms in a paradigm, depending on the nature of the suffixes added. For example, in pensō "I think", the first syllable was stressed, but in pensāmus "we think", the second syllable was stressed. In many Romance languages, vowels diphthongized in stressed syllables under certain circumstances but not in unstressed syllables, resulting in alternations in verb paradigms: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> pienso "I think" vs. pensamos "we think" (pensar "to think"), or cuento "I tell" vs. contamos "we tell" (contar "to tell"). In the development of French, at least five vowels diphthongized in stressed, <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllables</a>. Combined with other stress-dependent developments, that yielded 15 or so types of alternations in so-called <a href="/wiki/Irregular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verb">strong verbs</a> in Old French. For example, /a/ diphthongized to /ai/ before <a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">nasal stops</a> in stressed, open syllables but not in unstressed syllables, yielding aim "I love" (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> amō) but amons "we love" (<abbr title="Latin">Lat</abbr> amāmus). The different types are as follows: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel alternations in Old French verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Vowel alternation</th> <th rowspan="2">Environment</th> <th colspan="4">Example (-er conjugation)</th> <th colspan="4">Example (other conjugation) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Stressed</th> <th>Unstressed</th> <th>Latin etymon</th> <th>3rd singular pres. ind.</th> <th>Infinitive</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>Latin etymon</th> <th>3rd singular pres. ind.</th> <th>Infinitive / Other form</th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td>/e/</td> <td>/a/</td> <td>free /a/</td> <td>lavāre</td> <td>leve</td> <td>laver</td> <td>"to wash"</td> <td>parere > *parīre</td> <td>pert</td> <td>parir</td> <td>"to give birth" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ãj̃/</td> <td>/ã/</td> <td>free /a/ + nasal</td> <td>amāre</td> <td>aime</td> <td>amer</td> <td>"to love"</td> <td>manēre</td> <td>maint</td> <td>maneir, manoir</td> <td>"to remain" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/je/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>palatal + free /a/</td> <td>*accapāre</td> <td>achieve</td> <td>achever</td> <td>"to achieve"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/i/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>palatal + /a/ + palatal</td> <td>*concacāre</td> <td>conchie</td> <td>concheer</td> <td>"to expel"</td> <td>iacēre</td> <td>gist</td> <td>gesir</td> <td>"to lie (down)" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/a/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>palatal + blocked /a/</td> <td>*accapitāre</td> <td>achate</td> <td>acheter</td> <td>"to buy"</td> <td>cadere > *cadēre</td> <td>chiet</td> <td>cheoir</td> <td>"to fall" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/a/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>intertonic /a/ + palatal?</td> <td>*tripaliāre</td> <td>travaille</td> <td>traveillier</td> <td>"to torment, make suffer"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/je/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>free /ɛ/</td> <td>levāre</td> <td>lieve</td> <td>lever</td> <td>"to raise"</td> <td>sedēre</td> <td>siet</td> <td>seeir, seoir</td> <td>"to sit; suit, be fitting" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/jẽ/</td> <td>/ẽ/</td> <td>free /ɛ/ + nasal</td> <td colspan="4"></td> <td>tremere > *cremere</td> <td>crient</td> <td>creindre (var. cremir, -oir)</td> <td>"to fear" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/i/</td> <td>/ej/</td> <td>/ɛ/ + palatal</td> <td>pretiāre</td> <td>prise</td> <td>preiser</td> <td>"to value"</td> <td>exīre</td> <td>ist</td> <td>eissir</td> <td>"to exit, go out" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ɛ/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>intertonic /ɛ, e/ + double cons.</td> <td>appellāre</td> <td>apele</td> <td>apeler</td> <td>"to call"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/oj/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>free /e/</td> <td>adhaerāre > *adēsāre</td> <td>adoise</td> <td>adeser</td> <td>"to touch"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ẽj̃/</td> <td>/ẽ/</td> <td>free /e/ + nasal</td> <td>mināre</td> <td>meine</td> <td>mener</td> <td>"to lead"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/i/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>palatal + free /e/</td> <td colspan="4"></td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/oj/</td> <td>/i/</td> <td>intertonic /e/ + palatal</td> <td>–</td> <td>charroie</td> <td>charrier</td> <td>"to cart around"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/we/</td> <td>/u/</td> <td>free /ɔ/</td> <td>*tropāre</td> <td>trueve</td> <td>truver</td> <td>"to invent, discover"</td> <td>morī > *morīre</td> <td>muert</td> <td>mourir</td> <td>"to die" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/uj/</td> <td>/oj/</td> <td>/ɔ/ + palatal</td> <td>*appodiāre</td> <td>apuie</td> <td>apoiier</td> <td>"to lean"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ew/</td> <td>/u/</td> <td>free /o/</td> <td>dēmōrārī</td> <td>demeure</td> <td>demo(u)rer</td> <td>"to stay"</td> <td>cōnsuere > *cōsere</td> <td>queust</td> <td>co(u)sdre</td> <td>"to sew" </td></tr> <tr> <td>/u/</td> <td>/e/</td> <td>intertonic blocked /o/</td> <td>*corruptiāre</td> <td>courouce</td> <td>courecier</td> <td>"to get angry"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ũ/</td> <td>/ã/</td> <td>intertonic blocked /o/ + nasal</td> <td>calumniārī</td> <td>chalonge</td> <td>chalengier</td> <td>"to challenge"</td> <td colspan="4"> </td></tr></tbody></table> In Modern French, the verbs in the -er class have been systematically <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/level#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:level"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-000000B0-QINU`"'</style>levelled</a>. Generally, the "weak" (unstressed) form predominates, but there are some exceptions (such as modern aimer/nous aimons). The only remaining alternations are in verbs like acheter/j'achète and jeter/je jette, with unstressed /ə/ alternating with stressed /ɛ/ and in (largely-learned) verbs like adhérer/j'adhère, with unstressed /e/ alternating with stressed /ɛ/. Many of the non-er verbs have become obsolete, and many of the remaining verbs have been levelled; however, a few alternations remain in what are now known as <a href="/wiki/Irregular_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verbs">irregular verbs</a>, such as je tiens, nous tenons; je dois, nous devons and je meurs, nous mourons. Some verbs had a more irregular alternation between different-length stems, with a longer, stressed stem alternating with a shorter, unstressed stem. That was a regular development stemming from the loss of unstressed <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages#Intertonic_vowels" title="Romance languages">intertonic vowels</a>, which remained when they were stressed: <ul><li>j'aiu/aidier "help" < adiūtō, adiūtāre</li> <li>j'araison/araisnier "speak to" < adratiōnō, adratiōnāre</li> <li>je deraison/deraisnier "argue" < dēratiōnō, dēratiōnāre</li> <li>je desjun/disner "dine" < disiēiūnō, disiēiūnāre</li> <li>je manju/mangier "eat" < mandūcō, mandūcāre</li> <li>je parol/parler "speak" < *paraulō, *paraulāre < parabolō, parabolāre</li></ul> The alternation of je desjun, disner is particularly complicated; it appears that: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">inf </th> <th colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">1sg.ind.pres </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Latin </th> <td style="border-right:0">disiēiūnāre </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disjeːjuːˈnaːre/ </td> <td style="border-right:0">disiēiūnō </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disjeːˈjuːnoː/ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">Western Romance </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Triphthong" title="Triphthong">Triphthong</a> reduction </th> <td style="border-right:0">disīūnāre </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disiːuːˈnaːre/ </td> <td style="border-right:0">disīūnō </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disiːˈuːnoː/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Loss of phonemic length </th> <td style="border-right:0">disjunare </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disjuˈnare/ </td> <td style="border-right:0">disjuno </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disˈjuno/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Syncopation </th> <td style="border-right:0">disinare </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disiˈnaːre/ </td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Change in quality and <a href="/wiki/Metaphony_(Romance_languages)" title="Metaphony (Romance languages)">metaphony</a> </th> <td style="border-right:0">disinare </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disiˈnare/ </td> <td style="border-right:0">desjuno </td> <td style="border-left:0">/desˈjuno/ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Gallo-Romance </th> <th>Lenition </th> <td style="border-right:0">dizinare </td> <td style="border-left:0">/diziˈnare/ </td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Further syncopation </th> <td style="border-right:0">diznare </td> <td style="border-left:0">/dizˈnare/ </td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="7">Old French </th> <th>Further syncopation </th> <td style="border-right:0">disnar </td> <td style="border-left:0">/dizˈnar/ </td> <td style="border-right:0">desjun </td> <td style="border-left:0">/desˈjun/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Diphthongization (→ fronting) </th> <td style="border-right:0">disner </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disˈnɛr/ </td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fortition </th> <td colspan="2">– </td> <td style="border-right:0">desjun </td> <td style="border-left:0">/desˈdʒun/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Devoicing </th> <td style="border-right:0">disner </td> <td style="border-left:0">/disˈnɛr/ </td> <td colspan="2">– </td></tr> <tr> <th>Allophonic nasalization </th> <td colspan="2">– </td> <td style="border-right:0">desjun </td> <td style="border-left:0">/desˈdʒũn/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fronting </th> <td colspan="2">– </td> <td style="border-right:0">desjun </td> <td style="border-left:0">/desˈdʒỹn/ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Compensatory lengthening </th> <td style="border-right:0">disner </td> <td style="border-left:0">/diːˈnɛr/ </td> <td style="border-right:0">desjun </td> <td style="border-left:0">/deːˈdʒỹn/ </td></tr></tbody></table> Both stems have become full verbs in Modern French: déjeuner "to have lunch" and dîner "to dine". Furthermore, déjeuner does not derive directly from je desjun (< *disi(ēi)ūnō, with total loss of unstressed -ēi-). Instead, it comes from <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> desjeüner, based on the alternative form je desjeün (< *disiē(i)ūnō, with loss of only -i-, likely influenced by jeûner "to fast" < <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> jeüner < je jeün /d͡ʒe.ˈyn/ "I fast" < iē(i)ūnō: iē- is an initial rather than intertonic so the vowel -ē- does not disappear). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example_of_regular_-er_verb:_durer_(to_last)">Example of regular -er verb: durer (to last)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Example of regular -er verb: durer (to last)">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">  </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Indicative </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Subjunctive </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Conditional </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present</td> <td>Simple past</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Future</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Present </td></tr> <tr> <td>je</td> <td>dur</td> <td>durai</td> <td>duroie</td> <td>durerai</td> <td>dur</td> <td>durasse</td> <td>dureroie</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>tu</td> <td>dures</td> <td>duras</td> <td>durois</td> <td>dureras</td> <td>durs</td> <td>durasses</td> <td>durerois</td> <td>dure </td></tr> <tr> <td>il</td> <td>dure</td> <td>dura</td> <td>duroit</td> <td>durera</td> <td>durt</td> <td>durast</td> <td>dureroit</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>nos</td> <td>durons</td> <td>durames</td> <td>duriiens/-ïons</td> <td>durerons</td> <td>durons</td> <td>durissons/-issiens</td> <td>dureriions/-ïons</td> <td>durons </td></tr> <tr> <td>vos</td> <td>durez</td> <td>durastes</td> <td>duriiez</td> <td>dureroiz/-ez</td> <td>durez</td> <td>durissoiz/-issez/-issiez</td> <td>dureriiez/-ïez</td> <td>durez </td></tr> <tr> <td>ils</td> <td>durent</td> <td>durerent</td> <td>duroient</td> <td>dureront</td> <td>durent</td> <td>durassent</td> <td>dureroient</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> Non-finite forms: <ul><li>Infinitive: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/durer#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:durer">durer</a></li> <li>Present participle: durant</li> <li>Past Participle: duré</li></ul> Auxiliary verb: avoir <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example_of_regular_-ir_verb:_fenir_(to_end)">Example of regular -ir verb: fenir (to end)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Example of regular -ir verb: fenir (to end)">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">  </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Indicative </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Subjunctive </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Conditional </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present</td> <td>Simple past</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Future</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Present </td></tr> <tr> <td>je</td> <td>fenis</td> <td>feni</td> <td>fenissoie</td> <td>fenirai</td> <td>fenisse</td> <td>fenisse</td> <td>feniroie</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>tu</td> <td>fenis</td> <td>fenis</td> <td>fenissoies</td> <td>feniras</td> <td>fenisses</td> <td>fenisses</td> <td>fenirois</td> <td>fenis </td></tr> <tr> <td>il</td> <td>fenist</td> <td>feni(t)</td> <td>fenissoit</td> <td>fenira</td> <td>fenisse(t)</td> <td>fenist</td> <td>feniroit</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>nos</td> <td>fenissons</td> <td>fenimes</td> <td>fenissiiens</td> <td>fenirons</td> <td>fenissons</td> <td>fenissons/-iens</td> <td>feniriiens</td> <td>fenissons </td></tr> <tr> <td>vos</td> <td>fenissez</td> <td>fenistes</td> <td>fenissiiez</td> <td>feniroiz/-ez</td> <td>fenissez</td> <td>fenissoiz/-ez/-iez</td> <td>feniriiez</td> <td>fenissez </td></tr> <tr> <td>ils</td> <td>fenissent</td> <td>fenirent</td> <td>fenissoient</td> <td>feniront</td> <td>fenissent</td> <td>fenissent</td> <td>feniroient</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> Non-finite forms: <ul><li>Infinitive: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fenir#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:fenir">fenir</a></li> <li>Present participle: fenissant</li> <li>Past participle: feni(t)</li></ul> Auxiliary verb: avoir <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example_of_regular_-re_verb:_corre_(to_run)">Example of regular -re verb: corre (to run)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Example of regular -re verb: corre (to run)">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">  </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Indicative </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Subjunctive </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Conditional </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present</td> <td>Simple past</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Future</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Present </td></tr> <tr> <td>je</td> <td>cor</td> <td>corui</td> <td>coroie</td> <td>corrai</td> <td>core</td> <td>corusse</td> <td>corroie</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>tu</td> <td>cors</td> <td>corus</td> <td>coroies</td> <td>corras</td> <td>cores</td> <td>corusses</td> <td>corroies</td> <td>cor </td></tr> <tr> <td>il</td> <td>cort</td> <td>coru(t)</td> <td>coroit</td> <td>corra</td> <td>core(t)</td> <td>corust</td> <td>corroit</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>nos</td> <td>corons</td> <td>corumes</td> <td>coriiens</td> <td>corrons</td> <td>corons</td> <td>corussons/-iens</td> <td>corriiens</td> <td>corons </td></tr> <tr> <td>vos</td> <td>corez</td> <td>corustes</td> <td>coriiez</td> <td>corroiz/-ez</td> <td>corez</td> <td>corussoiz/-ez/-iez</td> <td>corriiez</td> <td>corez </td></tr> <tr> <td>ils</td> <td>corent</td> <td>corurent</td> <td>coroient</td> <td>corront</td> <td>corent</td> <td>corussent</td> <td>corroient</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> Non-finite forms: <ul><li>Infinitive: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/corre#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:corre">corre</a></li> <li>Present participle: corant</li> <li>Past participle: coru(t)</li></ul> Auxiliary verb: estre <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_auxiliary_verbs">Examples of auxiliary verbs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Examples of auxiliary verbs">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="avoir_(to_have)">avoir (to have)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: avoir (to have)">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">  </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Indicative </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Subjunctive </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Conditional </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present</td> <td>Simple past</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Future</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Present </td></tr> <tr> <td>je</td> <td>ai</td> <td>eüi, oi</td> <td>avoie</td> <td>aurai</td> <td>ai</td> <td>eüsse</td> <td>auroie</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>tu</td> <td>ais (later as)</td> <td>eüs</td> <td>avois</td> <td>auras</td> <td>ais</td> <td>eüsses</td> <td>aurois</td> <td>ave </td></tr> <tr> <td>il</td> <td>ai (later a)</td> <td>eü(t), ot</td> <td>avoit</td> <td>aura</td> <td>ai</td> <td>eüst</td> <td>auroit</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>nos</td> <td>avons</td> <td>eümes</td> <td>aviiens/-ïons</td> <td>aurons</td> <td>aions</td> <td>eüssons/-issiens</td> <td>auravons/-ïons</td> <td>avons </td></tr> <tr> <td>vos</td> <td>avez</td> <td>eüstes</td> <td>aviiez</td> <td>auroiz/-ez</td> <td>aiez</td> <td>eüssoiz/-issez/-issiez</td> <td>auravez/-ïez</td> <td>avez </td></tr> <tr> <td>ils</td> <td>ont</td> <td>eürent</td> <td>avoient</td> <td>auront</td> <td>ont</td> <td>eüssent</td> <td>auroient</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> Non-finite forms: <ul><li>Infinitive: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/avoir" class="extiw" title="wikt:avoir">avoir</a> (earlier <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aveir" class="extiw" title="wikt:aveir">aveir</a>)</li> <li>Present participle: aiant</li> <li>Past participle: eü(t)</li></ul> Auxiliary verb: avoir <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="estre_(to_be)">estre (to be)</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: estre (to be)">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">  </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4" style="text-align: center;">Indicative </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">Subjunctive </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Conditional </th> <th style="text-align: center;">Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present</td> <td>Simple past</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Future</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Imperfect</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Present </td></tr> <tr> <td>je</td> <td>suis</td> <td>fui</td> <td>(i)ere esteie > estoie</td> <td>(i)er serai estrai</td> <td>seie > soie</td> <td>fusse</td> <td>sereie > seroie estreie > estroie</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>tu</td> <td>(i)es</td> <td>fus</td> <td>(i)eres esteies > estoies</td> <td>(i)ers seras estras</td> <td>seies > soies</td> <td>fusses</td> <td>sereies > seroies estreies > estroies</td> <td>seies > soies </td></tr> <tr> <td>il</td> <td>est</td> <td>fu(t)</td> <td>(i)ere(t), (i)ert esteit > estoit</td> <td>(i)ert sera(t) estra(t)</td> <td>seit > soit</td> <td>fust</td> <td>sereit > seroit estreit > estroit</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>nos</td> <td>somes, esmes</td> <td>fumes</td> <td>eriiens, erions estiiens, estions</td> <td>(i)ermes serons estrons</td> <td>seiiens, seions > soiiens, soions</td> <td>fussons/-iens</td> <td>seriiens, serions estriiens, estrions</td> <td>seiiens > soiiens, seions > soions </td></tr> <tr> <td>vos</td> <td>estes</td> <td>fustes</td> <td>eriiez estiiez</td> <td>— sere(i)z estre(i)z</td> <td>seiiez > soiiez</td> <td>fusseiz/-ez/-iez</td> <td>seriiez estriiez</td> <td>seiiez > soiiez </td></tr> <tr> <td>ils</td> <td>sont</td> <td>furent</td> <td>(i)erent esteient > estoient</td> <td>(i)erent seront estront</td> <td>seient > soient</td> <td>fussent</td> <td>sereient > seroient estreient > estroient</td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> Non-finite forms: <ul><li>Infinitive: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/estre" class="extiw" title="wikt:estre">estre</a></li> <li>Present participle: estant</li> <li>Past participle: esté(t)</li></ul> Auxiliary verb: avoir <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_parts_of_speech">Other parts of speech</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Other parts of speech">edit</a>]</div> Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are generally invariable. Pronouns are usually declinable. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">History of French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_literature" title="Anglo-Norman literature">Anglo-Norman literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic%E2%80%93Old_French_glossary" title="Arabic–Old French glossary">Arabic–Old French glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartsch%27s_law" title="Bartsch's law">Bartsch's law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Portuguese framboesa 'raspberry' and Spanish frambuesa are French loans. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Phonetic evolution approximately as follows: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">CL</a> ⟨vicinus⟩ [wiːˈkiːnus] > <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">VL</a> [βeˈcinʊs]<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> > early Proto-<a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">GR</a> *[βeˈdzʲinos] > <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> ⟨veisins⟩ [vejˈzĩns]. The <abbr title="Modern French">ModF</abbr> counterpart is ⟨voisin⟩ [vwaˈzɛ̃]. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> The <abbr title="Old French">OF</abbr> nominative sendre, inherited from Latin senior, appears only in the Oaths of Strasbourg, spelled sendra, before it became obsolete. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHammarströmForkelHaspelmathBank2022" class="citation web cs1">Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (2022-05-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oila1234">"Oil"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a>. <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology" title="Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221008064016/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/oila1234">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2022-10-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Glottolog&rft.atitle=Oil&rft.date=2022-05-24&rft.aulast=Hammarstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft.au=Forkel%2C+Robert&rft.au=Haspelmath%2C+Martin&rft.au=Bank%2C+Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglottolog.org%2Fresource%2Flanguoid%2Fid%2Foila1234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-French_first_attested-2"><a href="#cite_ref-French_first_attested_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBattyeHintzeRowlett2000" class="citation book cs1">Battye, Adrian; Hintze, Marie-Anne; Rowlett, Paul (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RnUGCAAAQBAJ&dq=History+of+French+language&pg=PP1">The French Language Today</a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-90328-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-90328-1"><bdi>978-1-136-90328-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Language+Today&rft.pages=12&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-136-90328-1&rft.aulast=Battye&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft.au=Hintze%2C+Marie-Anne&rft.au=Rowlett%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRnUGCAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DHistory%2Bof%2BFrench%2Blanguage%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> [2-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it was deemed no longer make to think of the varieties spoken in Gaul as Latin. Although a precise date can't be given, there is a general consensus (see Wright 1982, 1991, Lodge 1993) that an awareness of a vernacular, distinct from Latin, emerged at the end of the eighth century.] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinoshita20063-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinoshita20063_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinoshita2006">Kinoshita 2006</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Milis (1978) </li> <li id="cite_note-Lusignan-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Lusignan_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLusignan2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lusignan, Serge (2004). La langue des rois au Moyen Âge: Le français en France et en Angleterre [The language of kings in the Middle Ages: French in France and England] (in French). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+langue+des+rois+au+Moyen+%C3%82ge%3A+Le+fran%C3%A7ais+en+France+et+en+Angleterre&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lusignan&rft.aufirst=Serge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJozsef1997" class="citation book cs1">Jozsef, Herman (1997). "The end of the history of Latin". Vulgar Latin. Translated by Wright, Roger. Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02000-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02000-8"><bdi>0-271-02000-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+end+of+the+history+of+Latin&rft.btitle=Vulgar+Latin&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-271-02000-8&rft.aulast=Jozsef&rft.aufirst=Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130617111122/http://iedo.brillonline.nl/dictionaries/content/latin/index.html">"Brill Online Dictionaries"</a>. Iedo.brillonline.nl. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iedo.brillonline.nl/dictionaries/content/latin/index.html">the original</a> on 2013-06-17. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brill+Online+Dictionaries&rft.pub=Iedo.brillonline.nl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiedo.brillonline.nl%2Fdictionaries%2Fcontent%2Flatin%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508379/Romance-languages">"Romance languages"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Romance+languages&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F508379%2FRomance-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryAdams1997" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&q=%22The+predominance+of+the+Latin+language%22">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture – Google Boeken</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781884964985" title="Special:BookSources/9781884964985"><bdi>9781884964985</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture+%E2%80%93+Google+Boeken&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9781884964985&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.au=Adams%2C+Douglas+Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzU3RIV2BWIC%26q%3D%2522The%2Bpredominance%2Bof%2Bthe%2BLatin%2Blanguage%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110223205805/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Italic">"Definition of Italic"</a>. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Italic">the original</a> on February 23, 2011. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+Italic&rft.pub=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2FItalic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110426015754/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Romance">"Definition of Romance"</a>. Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Romance">the original</a> on April 26, 2011. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+Romance&rft.pub=Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2FRomance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Wright (1982), pp. 104–7 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Wright (1982), pp. 118–20 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXavier2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Xavier, Delamarre (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise [Dictionary of the Gallic language] (in French). Paris: Errance.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+de+la+langue+gauloise&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Errance&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Xavier&rft.aufirst=Delamarre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Delamarre (2003, pp. 389–90) lists 167 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Yves_Lambert" title="Pierre-Yves Lambert">Lambert, Pierre-Yves</a> (1994). La Langue gauloise [The Gallic language]. Paris: Errance. pp. 46–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-224-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-224-7"><bdi>978-2-87772-224-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Langue+gauloise&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=46-47&rft.pub=Errance&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-2-87772-224-7&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Helix-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Helix_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurence_Hélix2011" class="citation book cs1">Laurence Hélix (2011). Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7298-6470-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7298-6470-5"><bdi>978-2-7298-6470-5</bdi></a>. <q>Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+langue+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Ellipses+Edition+Marketing+S.A.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-2-7298-6470-5&rft.au=Laurence+H%C3%A9lix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Peter Schrijver, Studies in the History of Celtic Pronouns and Particles, Maynooth, 1997, 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-Savignac-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Savignac_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Savignac_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavignac,_Jean-Paul2004" class="citation book cs1">Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. p. 26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+Fran%C3%A7ais-Gaulois&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=La+Diff%C3%A9rence&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Savignac%2C+Jean-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-Matas-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Matas_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasovic,_Ranko2007" class="citation journal cs1">Matasovic, Ranko (2007). "Insular Celtic as a Language Area". Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies: 106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Papers+from+the+Workshop+within+the+Framework+of+the+XIII+International+Congress+of+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=Insular+Celtic+as+a+Language+Area&rft.pages=106&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Matasovic%2C+Ranko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Unknown parameter <code class="cs1-code">|agency=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#parameter_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Adams_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams,_J._N.2007" class="citation book cs1">Adams, J. N. (2007). "Chapter V – Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/regionaldiversif600adam_341">The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600</a>. Cambridge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/regionaldiversif600adam_341/page/n300">279</a>–289. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511482977">10.1017/CBO9780511482977</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511482977" title="Special:BookSources/9780511482977"><bdi>9780511482977</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+V+%E2%80%93+Regionalisms+in+provincial+texts%3A+Gaul&rft.btitle=The+Regional+Diversification+of+Latin+200+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+600&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=279-289&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511482977&rft.isbn=9780511482977&rft.au=Adams%2C+J.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fregionaldiversif600adam_341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolinskyVan_Everbroeck2003" class="citation journal cs1">Polinsky, Maria; Van Everbroeck, Ezra (2003). "Development of Gender Classifications: Modeling the Historical Change from Latin to French". Language. 79 (2): 356–390. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.134.9933">10.1.1.134.9933</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flan.2003.0131">10.1353/lan.2003.0131</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4489422">4489422</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6797972">6797972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Development+of+Gender+Classifications%3A+Modeling+the+Historical+Change+from+Latin+to+French&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=356-390&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.134.9933%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6797972%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4489422%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flan.2003.0131&rft.aulast=Polinsky&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft.au=Van+Everbroeck%2C+Ezra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Cerquiglini" title="Bernard Cerquiglini">Bernard Cerquiglini</a>, La naissance du français, Presses Universitaires de France, 2nd edn., chap. 3, 1993, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Cerquiglini 53 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Cerquiglini 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=frambuesa">"Etymology of frambuesa (Spanish)"</a>. Buscon.rae.es. Retrieved 2013-06-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etymology+of+frambuesa+%28Spanish%29&rft.pub=Buscon.rae.es&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbuscon.rae.es%2FdraeI%2FSrvltConsulta%3FTIPO_BUS%3D3%26LEMA%3Dframbuesa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPope1934" class="citation book cs1">Pope, Mildred Katherine (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K9JRAQAAIAAJ">From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman: Phonology and Morphology</a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719001765" title="Special:BookSources/9780719001765"><bdi>9780719001765</bdi></a>. Retrieved 15 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Modern+French+with+Especial+Consideration+of+Anglo-Norman%3A+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1934&rft.isbn=9780719001765&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Mildred+Katherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK9JRAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> La Chanson de Roland. Edited and Translated into Modern French by Ian Short. Paris: Livre de Poche, 1990. p. 12. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-253-05341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-253-05341-5">978-2-253-05341-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> (in French) Antoine Adam, Georges Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds. Littérature française. "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle", Paris: Larousse, 1967, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> (in French) Antoine Adam, Georges Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds. Littérature française. "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle", Paris: Larousse, 1967, p. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Rickard 1989: 47–8, Laborderie 1994: § 2.2 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthon,_H._E.Starkey,_V._G.1908" class="citation book cs1">Berthon, H. E.; Starkey, V. G. (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/tablessynoptique00bert#page/12/mode/1up">Tables synoptiques de phonologie de l'ancien français</a>. Oxford Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tables+synoptiques+de+phonologie+de+l%27ancien+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.pub=Oxford+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1908&rft.au=Berthon%2C+H.+E.&rft.au=Starkey%2C+V.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Ftablessynoptique00bert%23page%2F12%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Zink (1999), p. 132 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Per Hall (1946), converted from Americanist notation to IPA and with corrected word order at the beginning of line four. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1946" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, Robert A. (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4172774">"Old French Phonemes and Orthography"</a>. Studies in Philology. 43 (4): 575–585. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-3738">0039-3738</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4172774">4172774</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Philology&rft.atitle=Old+French+Phonemes+and+Orthography&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=575-585&rft.date=1946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4172774%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0039-3738&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4172774&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Pope 1934: § 294 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Moignet (1988, p. 26–31), Zink (1992, p. 39–48), de La Chaussée (1977, p. 39–44) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: General sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres-Bennett1995" class="citation book cs1">Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (1995). A History of the French Language Through Texts. London/New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+French+Language+Through+Texts&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Ayres-Bennett&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanniard1997" class="citation book cs1">Banniard, Michel (1997). Du latin aux langues romanes. Paris: Nathan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Du+latin+aux+langues+romanes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Nathan&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Banniard&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole2005" class="citation book cs1">Cole, William (2005). First and Otherwise Notable Editions of Old French Texts Printed from 1742 to 1874: A Bibliographical Catalogue of My Collection. Sitges: Cole & Contreras.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=First+and+Otherwise+Notable+Editions+of+Old+French+Texts+Printed+from+1742+to+1874%3A+A+Bibliographical+Catalogue+of+My+Collection&rft.place=Sitges&rft.pub=Cole+%26+Contreras&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_la_Chaussée1977" class="citation book cs1">de la Chaussée, François (1977). Initiation à la morphologie historique de l'ancien français. Paris: Klincksieck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-252-01922-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-252-01922-1"><bdi>978-2-252-01922-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Initiation+%C3%A0+la+morphologie+historique+de+l%27ancien+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Klincksieck&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-2-252-01922-1&rft.aulast=de+la+Chauss%C3%A9e&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelamarreP.-Y._Lambert2003" class="citation book cs1">Delamarre, X.; P.-Y. Lambert (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise : Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental (2nd ed.). Paris: Errance. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-237-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-87772-237-7"><bdi>978-2-87772-237-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionnaire+de+la+langue+gauloise+%3A+Une+approche+linguistique+du+vieux-celtique+continental&rft.place=Paris&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Errance&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-2-87772-237-7&rft.aulast=Delamarre&rft.aufirst=X.&rft.au=P.-Y.+Lambert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinhorn1974" class="citation book cs1">Einhorn, E. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldfrenchconcise0000einh">Old French: A Concise Handbook</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20343-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20343-2"><bdi>978-0-521-20343-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+French%3A+A+Concise+Handbook&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20343-2&rft.aulast=Einhorn&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldfrenchconcise0000einh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Grandgent, Charles Hall (1907). An introduction to Vulgar Latin. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.</li> <li>Hall, Robert Anderson (October 1946). "Old French phonemes and orthography". Studies in Philology. Vol. 43, No. 4. 575–585. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4172774">4172774</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKibler1984" class="citation book cs1">Kibler, William (1984). An Introduction to Old French. New York: Modern Language Association of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+French&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Kibler&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinoshita2006" class="citation book cs1">Kinoshita, Sharon (2006). Medieval Boundaries: Rethinking Difference in Old French Literature. University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Boundaries%3A+Rethinking+Difference+in+Old+French+Literature&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Kinoshita&rft.aufirst=Sharon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Laborderie, Noëlle (2009). Précis de Phonétique Historique. Paris: Armand Colin.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanly2002" class="citation book cs1">Lanly, André (2002). Morphologie historique des verbes français. Paris: Champion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7453-0822-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7453-0822-1"><bdi>978-2-7453-0822-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphologie+historique+des+verbes+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Champion&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2-7453-0822-1&rft.aulast=Lanly&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodge1993" class="citation book cs1">Lodge, R. Anthony (1993). French: From Dialect to Standard. London/New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French%3A+From+Dialect+to+Standard&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Lodge&rft.aufirst=R.+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilis1978" class="citation book cs1">Milis, L. (1978). "La frontière linguistique dans le comté de Guînes: un problème historique et méthodologique". Actes du 101e Congrès nationale des sociétés savantes. Paris. Section d'histoire moderne et contemporaine (pages 249–262).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=La+fronti%C3%A8re+linguistique+dans+le+comt%C3%A9+de+Gu%C3%AEnes%3A+un+probl%C3%A8me+historique+et+m%C3%A9thodologique&rft.btitle=Actes+du+101e+Congr%C3%A8s+nationale+des+soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9s+savantes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=Section+d%27histoire+moderne+et+contemporaine+%28pages+249-262%29&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Milis&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoignet1988" class="citation book cs1">Moignet, Gérard (1988). 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Manchester: Manchester University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Modern+French+with+Especial+Consideration+of+Anglo-Norman+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Mildred+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rickard, Peter (1989). A history of the French language. London: Unwin Hyman.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZink1999" class="citation book cs1">Zink, Gaston (1999). Phonétique historique du français (6th ed.). Paris: PUF. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-13-046471-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-13-046471-6"><bdi>978-2-13-046471-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phon%C3%A9tique+historique+du+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.place=Paris&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=PUF&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-2-13-046471-6&rft.aulast=Zink&rft.aufirst=Gaston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZink1992" class="citation book cs1">Zink, Gaston (1992). Morphologie du français médiéval (2nd ed.). Paris: PUF. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-13-044766-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-13-044766-5"><bdi>978-2-13-044766-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphologie+du+fran%C3%A7ais+m%C3%A9di%C3%A9val&rft.place=Paris&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=PUF&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-2-13-044766-5&rft.aulast=Zink&rft.aufirst=Gaston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Old_French&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Old_French_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Old French language">Old French language</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Old French, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Old_French" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Old French">Old French category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anintroductiont05rogegoog">An Introduction to Old French</a> by François Frédéric Roget (1887)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/ofrol">Old French Online</a> by Brigitte L. M. Bauer and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc">Linguistics Research Center</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1959.9/536786">Historical French Reader : medieval period</a> by Paul Studer and E.G.R Waters (1924)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atilf.fr/dect">DÉCT</a> (Electronic Dictionary of Chretien de Troyes): complete lexicon and transcriptions of the five romances of this Old French author. University of Ottawa, Le Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bellay1549" class="citation book cs1">Du Bellay, Joachim (1549). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4357/">La Défense, et illustration de la langue française</a>. Paris: Arnoul L'Angelier.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+D%C3%A9fense%2C+et+illustration+de+la+langue+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Arnoul+L%27Angelier&rft.date=1549&rft.aulast=Du+Bellay&rft.aufirst=Joachim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F4357%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOld+French" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" 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dialects"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gallo-Romance languages and dialects"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gallo-Romance_languages_and_dialects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo-Romance languages</a> and dialects</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areal groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian French</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langues d'oïl</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antillean_Creole" title="Antillean Creole">Antillean Creole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Creole_French" title="Dominican Creole French">Dominican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadian_Creole_French" title="Grenadian Creole French">Grenadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_Creole" title="Saint Lucian Creole">Saint Lucian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_Creole" title="Bourbonnais Creole">Bourbonnais Creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agalega_creole" title="Agalega creole">Agalega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagossian_creole" title="Chagossian creole">Chagossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritian_Creole" title="Mauritian Creole">Mauritian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union_Creole" title="Réunion Creole">Réunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodriguan_creole" title="Rodriguan creole">Rodriguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychellois_Creole" title="Seychellois Creole">Seychellois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_French" title="Acadian French">Acadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiac" title="Chiac">Chiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Marys_Bay_French" title="St. Marys Bay French">St. Marys Bay</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_French" title="African French">African</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_French#Abidjan_French_vocabulary" title="African French">Abidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_French#Kinshasa_French_vocabulary" title="African French">Kinshasa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aostan_French" title="Aostan French">Aostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_French" title="Belgian French">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_French" title="New England French">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French" title="Quebec French">Québécois</a>* <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joual" title="Joual">Joual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magoua" title="Magoua">Magoua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Cambodia" title="French language in Cambodia">Cambodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francien_language" title="Francien language">Francien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenchville_French" title="Frenchville French">Frenchville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_French" title="Haitian French">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houma_people#Modern_era" title="Houma people">Houma French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_India#Indian_French" title="French people in India">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Legal_French" title="Jersey Legal French">Jersey Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Laos" title="French language in Laos">Laotian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridional_French" title="Meridional French">Meridional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_of_France" title="French of France">Metropolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_French" title="Missouri French">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskrat_French" title="Muskrat French">Muskrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_French" title="Newfoundland French">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontarian_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontarian French">Ontarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Barth%C3%A9lemy_French" title="Saint-Barthélemy French">Saint-Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_French" title="Standard French">Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_French" title="Swiss French">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augeron" title="Augeron">Augeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchois_dialect" title="Cauchois dialect">Cauchois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotentinais" title="Cotentinais">Cotentinais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norman" title="Old Norman">Old Norman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_dialect" title="Angevin dialect">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berrichon_dialect" title="Berrichon dialect">Berrichon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolze" title="Bolze">Bolze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_dialects" title="Bourbonnais dialects">Bourbonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundi_Pidgin_French" title="Burundi Pidgin French">Burundi Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camfranglais" title="Camfranglais">Camfranglais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champenois_language" title="Champenois language">Champenois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frainc-Comtou" title="Frainc-Comtou">Frainc-Comtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guianese_Creole" title="French Guianese Creole">Guianese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>*</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karip%C3%BAna_French_Creole" title="Karipúna French Creole">Karipúna Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Inuit_Pidgin_French" title="Labrador Inuit Pidgin French">Labrador Inuit Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorrain_language" title="Lorrain language">Lorrain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welche" title="Welche">Welche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Romance" title="Moselle Romance">Moselle Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nouchi">Nouchi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Old French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anais_dialect" title="Orléanais dialect">Orléanais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ais_Tirailleur" title="Français Tirailleur">Petit nègre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin-Saintongeais" class="mw-redirect" title="Poitevin-Saintongeais">Poitevin-Saintongeais</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin_dialect" title="Poitevin dialect">Poitevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saintongeais_dialect" title="Saintongeais dialect">Saintongeais</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayo_Creole" title="Tayo Creole">Tayo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_B%E1%BB%93i_Pidgin_French" title="Tây Bồi Pidgin French">Tây Bồi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Walloon" title="Wisconsin Walloon">Wisconsin Walloon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Francoprovencalic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faetar_language" title="Faetar language">Faetar</a>/Faetar-Cigliàje</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Franco-Provençal</a>/Arpitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_dialect" title="Savoyard dialect">Savoyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vald%C3%B4tain_dialect" title="Valdôtain dialect">Valdôtain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> or dialects</li> <li>A star (*) indicates <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">varieties with more than 5 million speakers</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romance_languages_(classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romance_languages" title="Template:Romance languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romance_languages" title="Template talk:Romance languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romance_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romance languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romance_languages_(classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Romance_languages" title="Classification of Romance languages">classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Romance_languages" title="Eastern Romance languages">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Western_languages" title="Italo-Western languages">Italo-Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Dalmatian_languages" title="Italo-Dalmatian languages">Italo-Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Romance_languages" title="Western Romance languages">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Romance_languages" title="Southern Romance languages">Southern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Romance_languages" title="Eastern Romance languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_language" title="Aromanian language">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_language" title="Istro-Romanian language">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megleno-Romanian_language" title="Megleno-Romanian language">Megleno-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Daco-Romanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_dialects" title="Romanian dialects">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banat_Romanian_dialect" title="Banat Romanian dialect">Banat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukovinian_Romanian_dialect" title="Bukovinian Romanian dialect">Bukovinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cri%C8%99ana_dialect" title="Crișana dialect">Crișana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maramure%C8%99_dialect" title="Maramureș dialect">Maramureș</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavian_dialect" title="Moldavian dialect">Moldavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oltenian_dialect" title="Oltenian dialect">Oltenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_varieties_of_Romanian" title="Transylvanian varieties of Romanian">Transylvanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallachian_dialect" title="Wallachian dialect">Wallachian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Romanian" title="Common Romanian">Common Romanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italo-Dalmatian_languages" title="Italo-Dalmatian languages">Italo- Dalmatian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Italian" title="Central Italian">Central Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Marchigiano_dialect" title="Central Marchigiano dialect">Central Marchigiano</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Marchigiano_dialect#Ancona_dialect" title="Central Marchigiano dialect">Ancona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Marchigiano_dialect#Fabriano_dialect" title="Central Marchigiano dialect">Fabriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Marchigiano_dialect#Macerata_dialect" title="Central Marchigiano dialect">Macerata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central-Northern_Latian_dialect" title="Central-Northern Latian dialect">Central−Northern Latian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanesco_dialect" title="Romanesco dialect">Romanesco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabino_dialect" title="Sabino dialect">Sabino</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_language" title="Corsican language">Corsican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallurese" title="Gallurese">Gallurese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Australian_dialect" title="Italo-Australian dialect">Italo-Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Italian" title="Maltese Italian">Maltese Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Italian" title="Swiss Italian">Swiss Italian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sassarese_language" title="Sassarese language">Sassarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_dialect" title="Florentine dialect">Florentine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_Southern_Italian" title="Extreme Southern Italian">Extreme Southern Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Calabria#Central-Southern_Calabrian" title="Languages of Calabria">Central−Southern Calabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salentino_dialect" title="Salentino dialect">Salentino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manduriano" title="Manduriano">Manduriano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantesco_dialect" title="Pantesco dialect">Pantesco</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Neapolitan–Calabrese <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neapolitan_language" title="Neapolitan language">Neapolitan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barese_dialect" title="Barese dialect">Barese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benevento_dialect" title="Benevento dialect">Benevento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castelmezzano_dialect" title="Castelmezzano dialect">Castelmezzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilentan_dialect" title="Cilentan dialect">Cilentan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irpinian_dialect" title="Irpinian dialect">Irpinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arianese_dialect" title="Arianese dialect">Arianese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molisan" title="Molisan">Molisan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Latian_dialect" title="Southern Latian dialect">Southern Latian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarantino_dialect" title="Tarantino dialect">Tarantino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vastese" title="Vastese">Vastese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Calabria#Northern_Calabrian_(Cosentian)" title="Languages of Calabria">Northern Calabrian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Dalmatian_languages#Dalmatian_Romance" title="Italo-Dalmatian languages">Dalmatian Romance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_language" title="Dalmatian language">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istriot_language" title="Istriot language">Istriot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Romance_languages" title="Western Romance languages">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_languages" title="Gallo-Italic languages">Gallo-Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emilian%E2%80%93Romagnol" title="Emilian–Romagnol">Emilian–Romagnol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emilian_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilian dialects">Emilian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolognese_dialect" title="Bolognese dialect">Bolognese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmigiano_dialect" title="Parmigiano dialect">Parmigiano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romagnol" title="Romagnol">Romagnol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forlivese_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Forlivese dialect">Forlivese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Romagnol" title="Old Romagnol">Old Romagnol</a></li> <li><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetto_sammarinese" class="extiw" title="it:Dialetto sammarinese">Sammarinese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_of_Basilicata" title="Gallo-Italic of Basilicata">Gallo-Italic of Basilicata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Italic_of_Sicily" title="Gallo-Italic of Sicily">Gallo-Italic of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetto_gallo-piceno" class="extiw" title="it:Dialetto gallo-piceno">Gallo-Picene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_language" title="Ligurian language">Ligurian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brigasc_dialect" title="Brigasc dialect">Brigasc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_dialect" title="Genoese dialect">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intemelio_dialect" title="Intemelio dialect">Intemelio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%C3%A9gasque_dialect" title="Monégasque dialect">Monégasque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royasc" title="Royasc">Royasc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabarchino" title="Tabarchino">Tabarchino</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_language" title="Lombard language">Lombard</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_dialects" title="Eastern Lombard dialects">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergamasque_dialect" title="Bergamasque dialect">Bergamasque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cremish_dialect" title="Cremish dialect">Cremish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Lombard dialect">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brianz%C3%B6%C3%B6_dialect" title="Brianzöö dialect">Brianzöö</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canz%C3%A9s_dialect" title="Canzés dialect">Canzés</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bustocco_and_Legnanese_dialects" title="Bustocco and Legnanese dialects">Bustocco–Legnanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comasco-Lecchese_dialects" title="Comasco-Lecchese dialects">Comasco–Lecchese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comasco_dialect" title="Comasco dialect">Comasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagh%C3%A9e_dialect" title="Laghée dialect">Laghée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecchese_dialect" title="Lecchese dialect">Lecchese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallassinese_dialect" title="Vallassinese dialect">Vallassinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milanese_dialect" title="Milanese dialect">Milanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossolano" title="Ossolano">Ossolano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Lombard" title="Southwestern Lombard">Southwestern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cremun%C3%A9s_dialect" title="Cremunés dialect">Cremunés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novarese_Lombard" title="Novarese Lombard">Novarese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavese_dialect" title="Pavese dialect">Pavese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticinese_dialect" title="Ticinese dialect">Ticinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varesino_dialect" title="Varesino dialect">Varesino</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Lombard_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Lombard language">Old Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Romagnol" title="Old Romagnol">Old Romagnol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedmontese_language" title="Piedmontese language">Piedmontese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Romance_languages" title="Gallo-Romance languages">Gallo- Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Languesd&#039;oïl" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langues d'oïl</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_dialect" title="Angevin dialect">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berrichon_dialect" title="Berrichon dialect">Berrichon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbonnais_dialects" title="Bourbonnais dialects">Bourbonnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_language_(O%C3%AFl)" title="Burgundian language (Oïl)">Burgundian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champenois_language" title="Champenois language">Champenois</a> <ul><li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardennais_(dialecte)" class="extiw" title="fr:Ardennais (dialecte)">Ardennais</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9mois_(dialecte)" class="extiw" title="fr:Rémois (dialecte)">Rémois</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frainc-Comtou" title="Frainc-Comtou">Frainc-Comtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo_language" title="Gallo language">Gallo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Legal_French" title="Jersey Legal French">Jersey Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridional_French" title="Meridional French">Meridional</a></li> <li>North American dialects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_French" title="Canadian French">Canadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadian_French" title="Acadian French">Acadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiac" title="Chiac">Chiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Marys_Bay_French" title="St. Marys Bay French">St. Marys Bay French</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brayon" title="Brayon">Brayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_French" title="Newfoundland French">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_French" title="Quebec French">Quebec</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joual" title="Joual">Joual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magoua" title="Magoua">Magoua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Ontarians#Language" title="Franco-Ontarians">Franco-Ontarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_French" title="Métis French">Métis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskrat_French" title="Muskrat French">Muskrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_French" title="New England French">New England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenchville_French" title="Frenchville French">Frenchville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Houma_people#Modern_era" title="Houma people">Houma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_French" title="Missouri French">Missouri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">Creoles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorrain_language" title="Lorrain language">Lorrain</a> <ul><li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaumais" class="extiw" title="fr:Gaumais">Gaumais</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vosgien" class="extiw" title="fr:Vosgien">Vosgien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welche" title="Welche">Welche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayennais" class="extiw" title="fr:Mayennais">Mayennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Romance" title="Moselle Romance">Moselle Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_language" title="Norman language">Norman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auregnais" title="Auregnais">Auregnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guern%C3%A9siais" title="Guernésiais">Guernésiais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A8rriais" title="Jèrriais">Jèrriais</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sercquiais" title="Sercquiais">Sercquiais</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augeron" title="Augeron">Augeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cauchois_dialect" title="Cauchois dialect">Cauchois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotentinais" title="Cotentinais">Cotentinais</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orleanais_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Orleanais dialect">Orléanais</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paydret" class="extiw" title="fr:Paydret">Paydret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin%E2%80%93Saintongeais" title="Poitevin–Saintongeais">Poitevin–Saintongeais</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poitevin_dialect" title="Poitevin dialect">Poitevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saintongeais_dialect" title="Saintongeais dialect">Saintongeais</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> <ul><li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouest-wallon" class="extiw" title="fr:Ouest-wallon">West Walloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Walloon" title="Wisconsin Walloon">Wisconsin Walloon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Franco-Provençal</a>/Arpitan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faetar_language" title="Faetar language">Faetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoyard_dialect" title="Savoyard dialect">Savoyard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vald%C3%B4tain_dialect" title="Valdôtain dialect">Valdôtain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Gallo-Romance_language" title="Old Gallo-Romance language">Old Gallo-Romance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Romance_languages" title="Iberian Romance languages">Ibero- Romance</a> (<a href="/wiki/West_Iberian_languages" title="West Iberian languages">West Iberian</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asturleonese_language" title="Asturleonese language">Asturleonese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_language" title="Asturian language">Asturian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asturian" title="East Asturian">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Asturian" title="Western Asturian">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantabrian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantabrian dialect">Cantabrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonese_language" title="Leonese language">Leonese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bercian_dialect" title="Bercian dialect">Bercian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa%E1%B8%B7%E1%B8%B7uezu_dialect" title="Paḷḷuezu dialect">Paḷḷuezu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palra_d%27El_Rebollal" title="Palra d'El Rebollal">Palra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riberan_dialect" title="Riberan dialect">Riberan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riunorese_Leonese" title="Riunorese Leonese">Riunorese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirandese_language" title="Mirandese language">Mirandese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Leonese_language" title="Old Leonese language">Old Leonese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galician%E2%80%93Portuguese" title="Galician–Portuguese">Galician–Portuguese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fala_language" title="Fala language">Fala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician%E2%80%93Asturian" title="Galician–Asturian">Galician–Asturian</a>/Eonavian</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_dialects" title="Portuguese dialects">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language_in_Africa" title="Portuguese language in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language_in_Asia" title="Portuguese language in Asia">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Brazilian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mineiro" title="Mineiro">Mineiro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Portuguese" title="European Portuguese">European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alentejan_Portuguese" title="Alentejan Portuguese">Alentejan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oliventine_Portuguese" title="Oliventine Portuguese">Oliventine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estremenho_dialect" title="Estremenho dialect">Estremenho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minderico_language" title="Minderico language">Minderico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Portuguese" title="Northern Portuguese">Northern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Portuguese" title="Uruguayan Portuguese">Uruguayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Creoles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portugis" title="Portugis">Portugis</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judeo-Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Iberian_languages#Classification" title="West Iberian languages">Castilian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extremaduran_language" title="Extremaduran language">Extremaduran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatoguinean_Spanish" title="Equatoguinean Spanish">Equatoguinean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish language in the Americas">Latin American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_Spanish" title="Chilean Spanish">Chilean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_Spanish" title="Chilote Spanish">Chilote</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Spanish" title="Peruvian Spanish">Peruvian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Ribere%C3%B1o_Spanish" title="Peruvian Ribereño Spanish">Peruvian Ribereño</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish" title="Rioplatense Spanish">Rioplatense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Spanish" title="Peninsular Spanish">Peninsular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Spanish" title="Andalusian Spanish">Andalusian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Llanito" title="Llanito">Llanito</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_Spanish" title="Castilian Spanish">Castilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castrapo" title="Castrapo">Castrapo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast%C3%BAo" title="Castúo">Castúo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murcian_Spanish" title="Murcian Spanish">Murcian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Spanish" title="Philippine Spanish">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharan_Spanish" title="Saharan Spanish">Saharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish-based_creole_languages" title="Spanish-based creole languages">Creoles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Spanish" title="Old Spanish">Old Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pyrenean–Mozarabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Romance" title="Andalusi Romance">Andalusi Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarro-Aragonese" title="Navarro-Aragonese">Navarro-Aragonese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects#Central_Aragonese" title="Aragonese dialects">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects#Eastern_Aragonese" title="Aragonese dialects">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribagor%C3%A7an" title="Ribagorçan">Ribagorçan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benasquese_dialect" title="Benasquese dialect">Benasquese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects#Southern_Aragonese" title="Aragonese dialects">Southern</a> <ul><li>Somontanés <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navalese_dialect" title="Navalese dialect">Navalese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects#Western_Aragonese" title="Aragonese dialects">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aisinian_Aragonese" title="Aisinian Aragonese">Aisinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ans%C3%B3_Aragonese" title="Ansó Aragonese">Ansó</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arag%C3%BC%C3%A9s_Aragonese" title="Aragüés Aragonese">Aragüés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hecho_Aragonese" title="Hecho Aragonese">Hecho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarrese_dialect" title="Navarrese dialect">Navarrese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Navarrese" title="Old Navarrese">Old Navarrese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barranquenho" title="Barranquenho">Barranquenho</a> (mixed Portuguese–Spanish)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cal%C3%B3_language" title="Caló language">Caló</a> (mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occitano-Romance_languages" title="Occitano-Romance languages">Occitano- Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_dialects" title="Catalan dialects">dialects</a></li> <li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algherese_dialect" title="Algherese dialect">Algherese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balearic_Catalan" title="Balearic Catalan">Balearic</a> <ul><li><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallorqu%C3%ADn" class="extiw" title="es:Mallorquín">Mallorcan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorcan" title="Menorcan">Menorcan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Catalan" title="Central Catalan">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalan" title="Northern Catalan">Northern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judeo-Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patuet" title="Patuet">Patuet</a></li> <li>Western <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribagor%C3%A7an" title="Ribagorçan">Ribagorçan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valencian_language" title="Valencian language">Valencian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auvergnat" title="Auvergnat">Auvergnat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gascon_dialect" title="Gascon dialect">Gascon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aranese_dialect" title="Aranese dialect">Aranese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9arnese_dialect" title="Béarnese dialect">Béarnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landese_dialect" title="Landese dialect">Landese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judeo-Provençal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languedocien_dialect" title="Languedocien dialect">Languedocien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limousin_dialect" title="Limousin dialect">Limousin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect" title="Provençal dialect">Provençal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_dialect" title="Niçard dialect">Niçard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaro-Alpine_dialect" title="Vivaro-Alpine dialect">Vivaro-Alpine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vivaro-Alpine_dialect" title="Vivaro-Alpine dialect">Gardiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentonasc_dialect" title="Mentonasc dialect">Mentonasc</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Occitan" title="Old Occitan">Old Occitan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catalan" title="Old Catalan">Old Catalan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rhaeto-Romance_languages" title="Rhaeto-Romance languages">Rhaeto- Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friulian_language" title="Friulian language">Friulian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fornes_dialects" title="Fornes dialects">Fornes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladin_language" title="Ladin language">Ladin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cadorino_dialect" title="Cadorino dialect">Cadorino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nones_dialect" title="Nones dialect">Nones</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jauer_dialect" title="Jauer dialect">Jauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Put%C3%A8r" title="Putèr">Putèr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surmiran_dialect" title="Surmiran dialect">Surmiran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sursilvan" title="Sursilvan">Sursilvan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallader_dialect" title="Vallader dialect">Vallader</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Italian" title="Franco-Italian">Franco-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a> (Western Romance-based pidgin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a> (unknown further classification) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chipilo_Venetian_dialect" title="Chipilo Venetian dialect">Chipilo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiuman_dialect" title="Fiuman dialect">Fiuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talian_dialect" title="Talian dialect">Talian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triestine_dialect" title="Triestine dialect">Triestine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Latin" title="British Latin">British Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Latin" title="Pannonian Latin">Pannonian Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campidanese_Sardinian" title="Campidanese Sardinian">Campidanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logudorese_Sardinian" title="Logudorese Sardinian">Logudorese</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Romance_language" title="Proto-Romance language">Proto-Romance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Bold indicates <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers" title="List of languages by number of native speakers">languages with more than 5 million speakers</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35222#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550641705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_French&oldid=1252807478">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_French&oldid=1252807478</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Old_French" title="Category:Old French">Old French</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_language" title="Category:French language">French language</a></li><li><a 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title="Category:Pages with undetermined IPA">Pages with undetermined IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_with_ISO_639-2_code" title="Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code">Languages with ISO 639-2 code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_unreferenced_extinction_date" title="Category:Language articles with unreferenced extinction date">Language articles with unreferenced extinction date</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Transalpine_Gaulish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Transalpine Gaulish-language text">Articles containing Transalpine Gaulish-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Welsh-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Welsh-language text">Articles containing Welsh-language 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