CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>English grammar - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"5b125fbf-3483-48c0-92ef-aef508aa9898","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"English_grammar","wgTitle":"English grammar","wgCurRevisionId":1258710748,"wgRevisionId":1258710748,"wgArticleId":49610,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from May 2023","Pages with plain IPA","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023","CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list","English grammar"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext", "wgRelevantPageName":"English_grammar","wgRelevantArticleId":49610,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q560583","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness", "fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips", "ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="English grammar - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_grammar"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_grammar"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-English_grammar rootpage-English_grammar skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=English+grammar" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=English+grammar" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=English+grammar" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=English+grammar" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_classes_and_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_classes_and_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Word classes and phrases</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Word_classes_and_phrases-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Word classes and phrases subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Word_classes_and_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determiners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determiners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Determiners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determiners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Personal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Demonstrative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Interrogative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Relative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"There"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"There""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>"There"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"There"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reciprocal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reciprocal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Reciprocal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reciprocal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phrases_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrases_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phrases_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Comparison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phrases_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrases_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phrases_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Adverbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phrases_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrases_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phrases_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Prepositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Conjunctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clause_and_sentence_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clause_and_sentence_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Clause and sentence structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clause_and_sentence_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clause and sentence structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clause_and_sentence_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Word order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dependent_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dependent_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Dependent clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dependent_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses_of_inversion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses_of_inversion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Other uses of inversion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses_of_inversion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Imperatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elliptical_constructions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elliptical_constructions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Elliptical constructions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elliptical_constructions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_English_grammars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_English_grammars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History of English grammars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_English_grammars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grammar_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Grammar books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monographs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monographs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Monographs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monographs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">English grammar</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">39 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قواعد اللغة الإنجليزية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قواعد اللغة الإنجليزية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatica_de_l%27angl%C3%A9s" title="Gramatica de l'anglés – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Gramatica de l'anglés" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_ingl%C3%A9s" title="Gramática del inglés – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gramática del inglés" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Граматыка англійскай мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Граматыка англійскай мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0" title="अंग्रेजी ग्रामर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अंग्रेजी ग्रामर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A0tica_anglesa" title="Gramàtica anglesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gramàtica anglesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglick%C3%A1_gramatika" title="Anglická gramatika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Anglická gramatika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englische_Grammatik" title="Englische Grammatik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Englische Grammatik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_del_ingl%C3%A9s" title="Gramática del inglés – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gramática del inglés" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatiko_de_la_angla" title="Gramatiko de la angla – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gramatiko de la angla" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="دستور زبان انگلیسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستور زبان انگلیسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaire_anglaise" title="Grammaire anglaise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grammaire anglaise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EB%AC%B8%EB%B2%95" title="영문법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영문법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="अंग्रेज़ी व्याकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अंग्रेज़ी व्याकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatiko_dil_Angla_linguo" title="Gramatiko dil Angla linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Gramatiko dil Angla linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_bahasa_Inggris" title="Tata bahasa Inggris – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tata bahasa Inggris" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_inglese" title="Grammatica inglese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grammatica inglese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A3" title="ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engles_(gramatica)" title="Engles (gramatica) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Engles (gramatica)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angol_nyelvtan" title="Angol nyelvtan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Angol nyelvtan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Англиски деклинации – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Англиски деклинации" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%89" title="جرامر الانجليزى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جرامر الانجليزى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Bahaso_Inggris" title="Tata Bahaso Inggris – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Tata Bahaso Inggris" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="अङ्ग्रेजी व्याकरण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अङ्ग्रेजी व्याकरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E3%81%AE%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="英語の文法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="英語の文法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%99%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%8D%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F" title="វេយ្យាករណ៍អង់គ្លេស – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វេយ្យាករណ៍អង់គ្លេស" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatyka_j%C4%99zyka_angielskiego" title="Gramatyka języka angielskiego – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gramatyka języka angielskiego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_da_l%C3%ADngua_inglesa" title="Gramática da língua inglesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gramática da língua inglesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatica_limbii_engleze" title="Gramatica limbii engleze – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gramatica limbii engleze" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Грамматика английского языка – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Грамматика английского языка" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="English grammar" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelsk_grammatik" title="Engelsk grammatik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Engelsk grammatik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆங்கில இலக்கணம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆங்கில இலக்கணம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%82" title="ఆంగ్ల వ్యాకరణం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఆంగ్ల వ్యాకరణం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Граматика англійської мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Граматика англійської мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_ph%C3%A1p_ti%E1%BA%BFng_Anh" title="Ngữ pháp tiếng Anh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ pháp tiếng Anh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swihluvi_swa_ririmi" title="Swihluvi swa ririmi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Swihluvi swa ririmi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="英文文法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="英文文法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="英語文法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="英語文法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q560583#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:English_grammar" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/English_grammar"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/English_grammar"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/English_grammar" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/English_grammar" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&oldid=1258710748" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=English_grammar&id=1258710748&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEnglish_grammar"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEnglish_grammar"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=English_grammar&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:English_grammar" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibooks mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_Grammar" hreflang="en"><span>Wikibooks</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiversity mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/English_grammar" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiversity</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wiktionary mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:English_grammar" hreflang="en"><span>Wiktionary</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q560583" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Grammar of the English language</div> <p><b>English grammar</b> is the set of structural rules of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>. This includes the structure of <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clauses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a>, and whole texts. </p><p><br /> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This article describes a generalized, present-day <a href="/wiki/Standard_English" title="Standard English">Standard English</a> – forms of speech and writing used in public discourse, including broadcasting, education, entertainment, government, and news, over a range of <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a>, from formal to informal. Divergences from the <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> described here occur in some historical, social, cultural, and regional <a href="/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_the_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of dialects of the English language">varieties</a> of English, although these are minor compared to the differences in <a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">pronunciation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">vocabulary</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> has largely abandoned the <a href="/wiki/Inflectional" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflectional">inflectional</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a> in favor of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> constructions. The <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a> retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class (a remnant of the more extensive Germanic case system of Old English). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, grammatical function is indicated only by <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, by <a href="/wiki/English_prepositions" title="English prepositions">prepositions</a>, and by the "<a href="/wiki/Saxon_genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Saxon genitive">Saxon genitive</a> or <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">English possessive</a>" (<i>-'s</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Word_classes_and_phrases">Word classes and phrases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Word classes and phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English grammar</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bookman_Ornament_9617_(bookshelf).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bookman_Ornament_9617_%28bookshelf%29.svg/150px-Bookman_Ornament_9617_%28bookshelf%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bookman_Ornament_9617_%28bookshelf%29.svg/225px-Bookman_Ornament_9617_%28bookshelf%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bookman_Ornament_9617_%28bookshelf%29.svg/300px-Bookman_Ornament_9617_%28bookshelf%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="356" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_plurals" title="English plurals">Plurals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">Prefixes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_prefix" title="English prefix">in English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">Suffixes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">frequentative</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Word types</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acronym" title="Acronym">Acronyms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_adjectives" title="English adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_adverbs" title="English adverbs">Adverbs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">flat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_articles" title="English articles">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_coordinators" title="English coordinators">Coordinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_compound" title="English compound">Compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_determiners" title="English determiners">Determiners</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_determiners" title="List of English determiners">list</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expletive_attributive" title="Expletive attributive">Expletives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensifier" title="Intensifier">Intensifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_interjections" title="English interjections">Interjections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_nouns" title="English nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Portmanteau">Portmanteaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">Possessives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_prepositions" title="English prepositions">Prepositions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_prepositions" title="List of English prepositions">list</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_pronouns" title="English pronouns">Pronouns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_subordinators" title="English subordinators">Subordinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">Verbs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_auxiliary_verbs" title="English auxiliary verbs">Auxiliary verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Mood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_subjunctive" title="English subjunctive">subjunctive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">Aspect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">continuous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/-ing" title="-ing">-ing</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_irregular_verbs" title="English irregular verbs">Irregular verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_modal_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verbs">Modal verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_passive_voice" title="English passive voice">Passive voice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms" title="Uses of English verb forms">Verb usage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">Transitivity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">Clauses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_clause_syntax" title="English clause syntax">in English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_conditional_sentences" title="English conditional sentences">Conditional sentences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support">Do-support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">Periphrasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-marking_in_English" title="Zero-marking in English">Zero-marking</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Orthography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbreviation" title="Abbreviation">Abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalization_in_English" title="Capitalization in English">Capitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comma" title="Comma">Comma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphen" title="Hyphen">Hyphen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Variance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_grammatical_differences" title="American and British English grammatical differences">AmE and BrE grammatical differences</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_negative" title="Double negative">Double negatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_usage_controversies" title="English usage controversies">Grammar disputes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thou" title="Thou">Thou</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:English_grammar" title="Template:English grammar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:English_grammar" title="Template talk:English grammar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:English_grammar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:English grammar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are <a href="/wiki/Open_class_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open class (linguistics)">open classes</a> – word classes that readily accept new members, such as the noun <i><a href="/wiki/Celebutante" class="mw-redirect" title="Celebutante">celebutante</a></i> (a celebrity who frequents the fashion circles), and other similar relatively new words.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p296_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p296-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest are <a href="/wiki/Closed_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed class">closed classes</a>; for example, it is rare for a new pronoun to enter the language. Determiners, traditionally classified along with adjectives, have not always been regarded as a separate part of speech. <a href="/wiki/Interjections" class="mw-redirect" title="Interjections">Interjections</a> are another word class, but these are not described here as they do not form part of the <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a> structure of the language.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p296_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p296-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Linguists generally accept nine English word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, and exclamations. English words are not generally marked for word class. It is not usually possible to tell from the form of a word which class it belongs to; inflectional endings and derivational suffixes are unique and specific to. On the other hand, most words belong to more than one word class. For example, <i>run</i> can serve as either a verb or a noun (these are regarded as two different <a href="/wiki/Lexeme" title="Lexeme">lexemes</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p297-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lexemes may be <a href="/wiki/Inflected" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflected">inflected</a> to express different grammatical categories. The lexeme <i>run</i> has the forms <i>runs</i>, <i>ran</i>, <i>runny</i>, <i>runner</i>, and <i>running</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p297-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Words in one class can sometimes be <a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">derived</a> from those in another. This has the potential to give rise to new words. For example, the noun <i>aerobics</i> has given rise to the adjective <i>aerobicized</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p297-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Words combine to form <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrases</a>. A phrase typically serves the same function as a word from some particular word class.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p297-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i>my very good friend Peter</i> is a phrase that can be used in a sentence as if it were a noun, and is therefore called a <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a>. Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Adjectival_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjectival phrase">adjectival phrases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_phrase" title="Adverbial phrase">adverbial phrases</a> function as if they were adjectives or adverbs, but with other types of phrases, the terminology has different implications. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> consists of a verb together with any objects and other dependents; a <a href="/wiki/Adpositional_phrase" title="Adpositional phrase">prepositional phrase</a> consists of a preposition and its <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a> (and is therefore usually a type of adverbial phrase); and a <a href="/wiki/Determiner_phrase" title="Determiner phrase">determiner phrase</a> is a type of noun phrase containing a determiner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_nouns" title="English nouns">English nouns</a></div> <p>Many common <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a> form nouns from other nouns or from other types of words, such as <i>-age</i> (<i>shrinkage</i>), <i>-hood</i> (<i>sisterhood</i>), and so on,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p297-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though many nouns are base forms containing no such suffix (<i>cat</i>, <i>grass</i>, <i>France</i>). Nouns are also created by <a href="/wiki/Conversion_(word_formation)" title="Conversion (word formation)">converting</a> verbs and adjectives, as with the words <i>talk</i> and <i>reading</i> (<i>a boring talk</i>, <i>the assigned reading</i>). </p><p>Nouns are sometimes classified semantically (by their meanings) as <a href="/wiki/Noun#Proper_nouns_and_common_nouns" title="Noun">proper and common nouns</a> (<i>Cyrus</i>, <i>China</i> vs <i>frog</i>, <i>milk</i>) or as <a href="/wiki/Noun#Concrete_nouns_and_abstract_nouns" title="Noun">concrete and abstract nouns</a> (<i>book</i>, <i>laptop</i> vs <i>embarrassment</i>, <i>prejudice</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p298_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p298-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A grammatical distinction is often made between <a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">count (countable) nouns</a> such as <i>clock</i> and <i>city</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">non-count (uncountable) nouns</a> such as <i>milk</i> and <i>decor</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p299_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p299-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some nouns can function both as countable and as uncountable such as "wine" in <i>This is a good wine</i>. </p><p>Countable nouns generally have <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">singular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> forms.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p298_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p298-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most cases the plural is formed from the singular by adding <i>-[e]s</i> (as in <i>dogs</i>, <i>bushes</i>), although there are also <a href="/wiki/Irregular_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular plural">irregular</a> forms (<i>woman/women</i>, <i>foot/feet</i>), including cases where the two forms are identical (<i>sheep</i>, <i>series</i>). For more details see <a href="/wiki/English_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="English plural">English plural</a>. Certain nouns can be used with plural verbs even though they are singular in form, as in <i>The government were ...</i> (where <i>the government</i> is considered to refer to the people constituting the government). This is a form of <a href="/wiki/Synesis" title="Synesis">synesis</a>, and is more common in British than American English. See <a href="/wiki/English_plural#Singulars_with_collective_meaning_treated_as_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="English plural">English plural § Singulars with collective meaning treated as plural</a>. </p><p>English nouns are not marked for <a href="/wiki/Case_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Case (grammar)">case</a> as they are in some languages, but they have <a href="/wiki/Possessive_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive (linguistics)">possessive</a> forms, through the addition of <i>-'s</i> (as in <i>John's</i>, <i>children's</i>) or just an <a href="/wiki/Apostrophe" title="Apostrophe">apostrophe</a> (with no change in pronunciation) in the case of <i>-[e]s</i> plurals (<i>the dogs' owners</i>) and sometimes other words ending with <i>-s</i> (<i>Jesus' love</i>). More generally the ending can be applied to noun phrases (as in <i>the man you saw yesterday's sister</i>); see below. The possessive form can be used either as a determiner (<i>Manyanda's cat</i>) or as a noun phrase (<i>Manyanda's is the one next to Jane's</i>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">status of the possessive</a> as an affix or a clitic is the subject of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-Hudson_2013_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudson_2013-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Börjars_2013_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Börjars_2013-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It differs from the noun inflection of languages such as German, in that the <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> ending may attach to the last word of the phrase. To account for this, the possessive can be analysed, for instance as a clitic construction (an "<a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postposition</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Quirk_group_genitive_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quirk_group_genitive-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) or as an inflection<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_English_Grammar,_Case_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_English_Grammar,_Case-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the last word of a phrase ("edge inflection"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phrases">Phrases</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">Noun phrases</a> are phrases that function grammatically as nouns within sentences, for example as the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> or <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> of a verb. Most noun phrases have a noun as their <a href="/wiki/Head_(linguistics)" title="Head (linguistics)">head</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p299_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p299-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An English noun phrase typically takes the following form (not all elements need be present): </p> <dl><dd><table cellspacing="5"> <tbody><tr style="font-variant: small-caps; font-size: larger;"> <th>Determiner</th> <th>+</th> <th>Pre-modifiers</th> <th>+</th> <th>NOUN</th> <th>+</th> <th>Postmodifiers/Complement </th></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>In this structure: </p> <ul><li>the <i>determiner</i> may be an article (<i>the</i>, <i>a[n]</i>) or other equivalent word, as described in the following section. In many contexts, it is required for a noun phrase to include some determiner.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-modifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-modifier">pre-modifiers</a></i> include adjectives and some adjective phrases (such as <i>red</i>, <i>really lovely</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">noun adjuncts</a> (such as <i>college</i> in the phrase <i>the college student</i>). Adjectival modifiers usually come before noun adjuncts.</li> <li>a <i><a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Postmodifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodifier">postmodifier</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p299_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p299-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may be a prepositional phrase (<i>... of London</i>), a <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clause</a> (like <i>...which we saw yesterday</i>), certain adjective or <a href="/wiki/Participial" class="mw-redirect" title="Participial">participial</a> phrases (<i>... sitting on the beach</i>), or a <a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">dependent clause</a> or <a href="/wiki/Infinitive_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinitive phrase">infinitive phrase</a> appropriate to the noun (like <i>... that the world is round</i> after a noun such as <i>fact</i> or <i>statement</i>, or <i>... to travel widely</i> after a noun such as <i>desire</i>).</li></ul> <p>An example of a noun phrase that includes all of the above-mentioned elements is <i>that rather attractive young college student to whom you were talking</i>. Here <i>that</i> is the determiner, <i>rather attractive</i> and <i>young</i> are adjectival pre-modifiers, <i>college</i> is a noun adjunct, <i>student</i> is the noun serving as the head of the phrase, and <i>to whom you were talking</i> is a post-modifier (a relative clause in this case). Notice the order of the pre-modifiers; the determiner <i>that</i> must come first and the noun adjunct <i>college</i> must come after the adjectival modifiers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/English_coordinators" title="English coordinators">Coordinators</a> such as <i>and</i>, <i>or</i>, and <i>but</i> can be used at various levels in noun phrases, as in <i>John, Paul, and Mary</i>; <i>the matching green coat and hat</i>; <i>a dangerous but exciting ride</i>; <i>a person sitting down or standing up</i>. See <a href="#Conjunctions">§ Conjunctions</a> below for more explanation. </p><p>Noun phrases can also be placed in <i><a href="/wiki/Apposition" title="Apposition">apposition</a></i> (where two consecutive phrases refer to the same thing), as in <i>that president, Abraham Lincoln, ...</i> (where <i>that president</i> and <i>Abraham Lincoln</i> are in apposition). In some contexts, the same can be expressed by a prepositional phrase, as in <i>the twin curses of famine and pestilence</i> (meaning "the twin curses" that are "famine and pestilence"). </p><p>Particular forms of noun phrases include: </p> <ul><li>phrases formed by the determiner <i>the</i> with an adjective, as in <i>the homeless</i>, <i>the English</i> (these are <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> phrases referring to homeless people or English people in general);</li> <li>phrases with a pronoun rather than a noun as the head (see below);</li> <li>phrases consisting just of a <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">possessive</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> phrases, in certain positions;</li> <li>certain clauses, such as <i>that</i> clauses and <a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">relative clauses</a> like <i>what he said</i>, in certain positions.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gender">Gender</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender_in_English" title="Gender in English">Gender in English</a></div> <p>A system of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a>, whereby every <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> was treated as either masculine, feminine, or neuter, existed in <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, but fell out of use during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> period. <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> retains features relating to <a href="/wiki/Natural_gender" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gender">natural gender</a>, most prominently the use of <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> (such as <i>he</i> and <i>she</i>) to refer specifically to persons or animals of one or other genders and certain others (such as <i>it</i>) for sexless objects – although feminine pronouns are sometimes used when referring to ships (and more uncommonly some airplanes and analogous machinery) and nation-states. </p><p>Some aspects of gender usage in English have been influenced by the movement towards a preference for <a href="/wiki/Gender-neutral_language" title="Gender-neutral language">gender-neutral language</a>. Animals are triple-gender nouns, being able to take masculine, feminine and neuter pronouns.<sup id="cite_ref-Siemund_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siemund-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the vast majority of nouns in English do not carry gender, there remain some gendered nouns (e.g. <i>ewe</i>, <i>sow</i>, <i>rooster</i>) and derivational <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> (e.g. <i>widower, waitress</i>) that denote gender.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Masculine</th> <th>Feminine</th> <th>Gender neutral </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>man</i></td> <td><i>woman</i></td> <td><i>adult</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>boy</i></td> <td><i>girl</i></td> <td><i>child</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>husband</i></td> <td><i>wife</i></td> <td><i>spouse</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>actor</i></td> <td><i>actress</i></td> <td><i>performer</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rooster</i></td> <td><i>hen</i></td> <td><i>chicken</i> </td></tr></tbody></table><p><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. (May 2023)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many nouns that mention people's roles and jobs can refer to either a masculine or a feminine subject, for instance "cousin", "teenager", "teacher", "doctor", "student", "friend", and "colleague".<sup id="cite_ref-NOUN_GENDER_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOUN_GENDER-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Jane is my friend. She is a dentist.</li> <li>Paul is my cousin. He is a dentist.</li></ul> <p>Often the gender distinction for these neutral nouns is established by inserting the word "male" or "female".<sup id="cite_ref-NOUN_GENDER_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOUN_GENDER-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Sam is a male nurse.</li> <li>No, he is not my boyfriend; he is just a male friend.</li> <li>I have three female cousins and two male cousins.</li></ul> <p>Rarely, nouns illustrating things with no gender are referred to with a gendered pronoun to convey familiarity. It is also standard to use the gender-neutral pronoun (<i>it</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-NOUN_GENDER_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOUN_GENDER-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>I love my car. She [the car] is my greatest passion.</li> <li>France is popular with her [France's] neighbors at the moment.</li> <li>I traveled from England to New York on the <i>Queen Elizabeth</i>; she [the <i>Queen Elizabeth</i>] is a great ship.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Determiners">Determiners</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Determiners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/English_determiners" title="English determiners">English determiners</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_articles" title="English articles">English articles</a></div> <p>English <a href="/wiki/Determiner_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Determiner (grammar)">determiners</a> constitute a relatively small class of words. They include the <a href="/wiki/English_articles" title="English articles">articles</a> <i>the</i> and <i>a[n]</i>; certain <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative adjective">demonstrative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative">interrogative</a> words such as <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, and <i>which</i>; <a href="/wiki/Possessive_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive adjective">possessives</a> such as <i>my</i> and <i>whose</i> (the role of determiner can also be played by <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">noun possessive</a> forms such as <i>John's</i> and <i>the girl's</i>); various <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier (linguistics)">quantifying words</a> like <i>all</i>, <i>some</i>, <i>many</i>, <i>various</i>; and <a href="/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)" title="Numeral (linguistics)">numerals</a> (<i>one</i>, <i>two</i>, etc.). There are also many phrases (such as <i>a couple of</i>) that can play the role of determiners. </p><p>Determiners are used in the formation of noun phrases (see above). Many words that serve as determiners can also be used as pronouns (<i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>many</i>, etc.). </p><p>Determiners can be used in certain combinations, such as <i><b>all the</b> water</i> and <i><b>the many</b> problems</i>. </p><p>In many contexts, it is required for a noun phrase to be completed with an article or some other determiner. It is not grammatical to say just <i>cat sat on table</i>; one must say <i>my cat sat on the table</i>. The most common situations in which a complete noun phrase can be formed without a determiner are when it refers generally to a whole class or concept (as in <i>dogs are dangerous</i> and <i>beauty is subjective</i>) and when it is a name (<i>Jane</i>, <i>Spain</i>, etc.). This is discussed in more detail at <a href="/wiki/English_articles" title="English articles">English articles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zero_article_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero article in English">Zero article in English</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_pronouns" title="English pronouns">English pronouns</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronouns</a> are a relatively small, closed class of words that function in the place of nouns or noun phrases. They include <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronouns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative pronouns">interrogative pronouns</a>, and some others, mainly <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronouns</a>. The full set of English pronouns is presented in the following table. Nonstandard, informal and archaic forms are in <i>italics</i>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" rowspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a> </th> <th>Independent <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> </th> <th>Dependent genitive </th></tr> <tr> <th>(subject) </th> <th>(object) </th> <th> </th> <th colspan="2">(possessive) </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th rowspan="2">First-person </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <td><a href="/wiki/I_(pronoun)" title="I (pronoun)">I</a> </td> <td>me </td> <td>myself </td> <td>mine </td> <td>my<br /><i>mine</i> (before vowel)<br /><i>me</i> (esp. BrE) </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th colspan="2">Plural </th> <td><a href="/wiki/We" title="We">we</a> </td> <td>us </td> <td>ourselves<br /><i>ourself</i> </td> <td>ours </td> <td>our </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th rowspan="5">Second-person </th> <th rowspan="2">Singular </th> <th>Standard </th> <td><a href="/wiki/You" title="You">you</a> </td> <td>you </td> <td>yourself </td> <td>yours </td> <td>your </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th><i>Archaic informal</i> </th> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Thou" title="Thou">thou</a></i> </td> <td><i>thee</i> </td> <td><i>thyself</i> </td> <td><i>thine</i> </td> <td><i>thy<br />thine</i> (before vowel) </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th rowspan="3">Plural </th> <th>Standard </th> <td>you </td> <td>you </td> <td>yourselves </td> <td>yours </td> <td>your </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th><i>Archaic</i> </th> <td><i>ye</i> </td> <td><i>you</i> </td> <td><i>yourselves</i> </td> <td><i>yours</i> </td> <td><i>your</i> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th><i>Nonstandard</i> </th> <td><i>ye<br />you all<br />y'all<br />youse</i><br />etc. (see above) </td> <td><i>ye<br />you all<br />y'all<br />youse</i> </td> <td><i>yeerselves<br />y'all's</i> (or <i>y'alls</i>)<br /><i>selves</i> </td> <td><i>yeers<br />y'all's</i> (or <i>y'alls</i>) </td> <td><i>yeer<br />y'all's</i> (or <i>y'alls</i>) </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th rowspan="5">Third-person </th> <th rowspan="4">Singular </th> <th>Masculine </th> <td><a href="/wiki/He_(pronoun)" title="He (pronoun)">he</a> </td> <td>him </td> <td>himself </td> <td colspan="2">his </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th>Feminine </th> <td><a href="/wiki/She_(pronoun)" title="She (pronoun)">she</a> </td> <td>her </td> <td>herself </td> <td>hers </td> <td>her </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th>Neuter </th> <td><a href="/wiki/It_(pronoun)" title="It (pronoun)">it</a> </td> <td>it </td> <td>itself </td> <td><i>its</i> </td> <td>its </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th><a href="/wiki/Epicene" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicene">Epicene</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Singular_they" title="Singular they">they</a> </td> <td>them </td> <td>themselves<br /><i>themself</i> </td> <td>theirs </td> <td>their </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th colspan="2">Plural </th> <td><a href="/wiki/They" title="They">they</a> </td> <td>them </td> <td>themselves </td> <td>theirs </td> <td>their </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th rowspan="2">Generic </th> <th colspan="2">Formal </th> <td><a href="/wiki/One_(pronoun)" title="One (pronoun)">one</a> </td> <td>one </td> <td>oneself </td> <td> </td> <td>one's </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th colspan="2"><i>Informal</i> </th> <td><i>you</i> </td> <td><i>you</i> </td> <td><i>yourself</i> </td> <td><i>your</i> </td> <td><i>your</i> </td></tr> <tr valign="top"> <th rowspan="3">Wh- </th> <th rowspan="2">Relative and <p>interrogative </p> </th> <th>For persons </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)">who</a> </td> <td>whom<br /><i>who</i> </td> <td> </td> <td>whose<sup>†</sup> </td> <td>whose </td></tr> <tr> <th>Non-personal </th> <td>what </td> <td>what </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Relative only </th> <td>which </td> <td>which </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Reciprocal </th> <td> </td> <td>each other<br />one another </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a> </th> <td>there <p>it </p> </td> <td>it </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup>†</sup> Interrogative only. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Personal">Personal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Personal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_personal_pronouns" title="English personal pronouns">English personal pronouns</a></div> <p>The personal pronouns of modern standard English are presented in the table above. They are <i>I, you, she, he, it, we</i>, and <i>they</i>. The personal pronouns are so-called not because they apply to persons (which other pronouns also do), but because they participate in the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">system of grammatical person</a> (1st, 2nd, 3rd). </p><p>The second-person forms such as <i>you</i> are used with both singular and plural reference. In the Southern United States, <a href="/wiki/Y%27all" title="Y'all">y'all</a> (you all) is used as a plural form, and various other phrases such as <i>you guys</i> are used in other places. An archaic set of second-person pronouns used for singular reference is <i><a href="/wiki/Thou" title="Thou">thou</a>, thee, thyself, thy, thine, </i>which are still used in religious services and can be seen in older works, such as Shakespeare's—in such texts, the <i>you</i> set of pronouns are used for plural reference, or with singular reference as a formal <a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">V-form</a>. <i>You</i> can also be used as an <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronoun</a>, referring to a person in general (see <a href="/wiki/Generic_you" title="Generic you">generic <i>you</i></a>), compared to the more formal alternative, <i><a href="/wiki/One_(pronoun)" title="One (pronoun)">one</a></i> (reflexive <i>oneself</i>, possessive <i>one's</i>). </p><p>The third-person singular forms are differentiated according to the gender of the referent. For example, <i>she</i> is used to refer to a woman, sometimes a female animal, and sometimes an object to which feminine characteristics are attributed, such as a ship or a country. A man, and sometimes a male animal, is referred to using <i>he</i>. In other cases, <i>it</i> can be used. (See <a href="/wiki/Gender_in_English" title="Gender in English">Gender in English</a>.) The word <i>it</i> can also be used as a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Dummy subject">dummy subject</a>, concerning abstract ideas like time, weather, etc., or a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun#Dummy_objects" title="Dummy pronoun">dummy object</a> of a verb or preposition. </p><p>The third-person form <i>they</i> is used with both plural and singular <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referents</a>. Historically, <a href="/wiki/Singular_they" title="Singular they">singular <i>they</i></a> was restricted to <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier (linguistics)">quantificational</a> constructions such as <i>Each employee should clean their desk</i> and referential cases where the referent's gender was unknown. However, it is increasingly used when the referent's gender is irrelevant or when the referent is neither male nor female. </p><p>The possessive determiners such as <i>my</i> are used as determiners together with nouns, as in <i>my old man</i>, <i>some of his friends</i>. The second possessive forms like <i>mine</i> are used when they do not qualify a noun: as pronouns, as in <i>mine is bigger than yours</i>, and as predicates, as in <i>this one is mine</i>. Note also the construction <i>a friend of mine</i> (meaning "someone who is my friend"). See <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">English possessive</a> for more details. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Demonstrative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronouns</a> of English are <i>this</i> (plural <i>these</i>), and <i>that</i> (plural <i>those</i>), as in <i>these are good, I like that</i>. All four words can also be used as determiners (followed by a noun), as in <i>those cars</i>. They can also form the alternative pronominal expressions <i>this/that one</i>, <i>these/those ones</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interrogative">Interrogative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Interrogative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative pronoun">interrogative pronouns</a> are <i>who</i>, <i>what</i>, and <i>which</i> (all of them can take the suffix <i><a href="/wiki/-ever" class="mw-redirect" title="-ever">-ever</a></i> for emphasis). The pronoun <i>who</i> refers to a person or people; it has an oblique form <i><a href="/wiki/Whom" class="mw-redirect" title="Whom">whom</a></i> (though in informal contexts this is usually replaced by <i>who</i>), and a possessive form (pronoun or determiner) <i>whose</i>. The pronoun <i>what</i> refers to things or abstracts. The word <i>which</i> is used to ask about alternatives from what is seen as a closed set: <i>which (of the books) do you like best?</i> (It can also be an interrogative determiner: <i>which book?</i>; this can form the alternative pronominal expressions <i>which one</i> and <i>which ones</i>.) <i>Which</i>, <i>who</i>, and <i>what</i> can be either singular or plural, although <i>who</i> and <i>what</i> often take a singular verb regardless of any supposed number. For more information see <a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)"><i>who</i></a>. </p><p>In Old and Middle English, the roles of the three words were different from their roles today. "The interrogative pronoun <i>hwā</i> 'who, what' had only singular forms and also only distinguished between non-neuter and neuter, the neuter nominative form being <i>hwæt.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that neuter and non-neuter refers to the grammatical gender system of the time, rather than the so-called natural gender system of today. A small holdover of this is the ability of relative (but not interrogative) <i>whose</i> to refer to non-persons (e.g., <i>the car whose door won't open</i>). </p><p>All the interrogative pronouns can also be used as relative pronouns, though <i>what</i> is quite limited in its use;<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> see below for more details. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relative">Relative</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Relative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_relative_clauses" title="English relative clauses">English relative clauses</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For "who/whom" and related forms, see <a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)">Who (pronoun)</a>.</div> <p>The main <a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronouns</a> in English are <i><a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)">who</a></i> (with its derived forms <i>whom</i> and <i>whose</i>), <i>which</i>, and <i>that</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relative pronoun <i>which</i> refers to things rather than persons, as in <i>the shirt, which used to be red, is faded</i>. For persons, <i>who</i> is used (<i>the man who saw me was tall</i>). The <a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique case</a> form of <i>who</i> is <i>whom</i>, as in <i>the man whom I saw was tall</i>, although in informal <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> <i>who</i> is commonly used in place of <i>whom</i>. </p><p>The possessive form of <i>who</i> is <i>whose</i> (for example, <i>the man whose car is missing</i>); however the use of <i>whose</i> is not restricted to persons (one can say <i>an idea whose time has come</i>). </p><p>The word <i>that</i> as a relative pronoun is normally found only in <a href="/wiki/Restrictive_relative_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Restrictive relative clause">restrictive relative clauses</a> (unlike <i>which</i> and <i>who</i>, which can be used in both restrictive and unrestrictive clauses). It can refer to either persons or things, and cannot follow a preposition. For example, one can say <i>the song that</i> [or <i>which</i>] <i>I listened to yesterday</i>, but <i>the song to which</i> [not <i>to that</i>] <i>I listened yesterday</i>. The relative pronoun <i>that</i> is usually pronounced with a reduced vowel (<a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>), and hence differently from the demonstrative <i>that</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Weak_and_strong_forms_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak and strong forms in English">Weak and strong forms in English</a>). If <i>that</i> is not the subject of the relative clause, it can be omitted (<i>the song I listened to yesterday</i>). </p><p>The word <i>what</i> can be used to form a <a href="/wiki/Free_relative_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Free relative clause">free relative clause</a> – one that has no antecedent and that serves as a complete noun phrase in itself, as in <i>I like what he likes</i>. The words <i>whatever</i> and <i>whichever</i> can be used similarly, in the role of either pronouns (<i>whatever he likes</i>) or determiners (<i>whatever book he likes</i>). When referring to persons, <i>who(ever)</i> (and <i>whom(ever)</i>) can be used in a similar way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""There""><span id=".22There.22"></span><span class="anchor" id="There_as_pronoun"></span>"There"</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: "There""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>there</i> is used as a pronoun in some sentences, playing the role of a <a href="/wiki/Dummy_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Dummy subject">dummy subject</a>, normally of an <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verb</a>. The "logical subject" of the verb then appears as a <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a> after the verb. </p><p>This use of <i>there</i> occurs most commonly with forms of the verb <i>be</i> in <a href="/wiki/Existential_clause" title="Existential clause">existential clauses</a>, to refer to the presence or existence of something. For example: <i>There is a heaven</i>; <i>There are two cups on the table</i>; <i>There have been a lot of problems lately</i>. It can also be used with other verbs: <i>There exist two major variants</i>; <i>There occurred a very strange incident</i>. </p><p>The dummy subject takes the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> (singular or plural) of the logical subject (complement), hence it takes a plural verb if the complement is plural. In informal English, however, the <a href="/wiki/Contraction_(grammar)" title="Contraction (grammar)">contraction</a> <i>there's</i> is often used for both singular and plural.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dummy subject can undergo <a href="/wiki/Inversion_(linguistics)" title="Inversion (linguistics)">inversion</a>, <i>Is there a test today?</i> and <i>Never has there been a man such as this.</i> It can also appear without a corresponding logical subject, in short sentences and <a href="/wiki/Question_tag" class="mw-redirect" title="Question tag">question tags</a>: <i>There wasn't a discussion, was there? There was.</i> </p><p>The word <i>there</i> in such sentences has sometimes been analyzed as an <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverb</a>, or as a dummy <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>, rather than as a pronoun.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, its identification as a pronoun is most consistent with its behavior in inverted sentences and question tags as described above. </p><p>Because the word <i>there</i> can also be a <a href="/wiki/Deixis" title="Deixis">deictic</a> adverb (meaning "at/to that place"), a sentence like <i>There is a river</i> could have either of two meanings: "a river exists" (with <i>there</i> as a pronoun), and "a river is in that place" (with <i>there</i> as an adverb). In speech, the adverbial <i>there</i> would be given <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, while the pronoun would not – in fact, the pronoun is often pronounced as a <a href="/wiki/Weak_and_strong_forms_in_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak and strong forms in English">weak form</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ðə(r)/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reciprocal">Reciprocal</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Reciprocal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">reciprocal pronouns</a> are <i>each other</i> and <i>one another</i>. Although they are written with a space, they're best thought of as single words. No consistent distinction in meaning or use can be found between them. Like the reflexive pronouns, their use is limited to contexts where an <a href="/wiki/Antecedent_(grammar)" title="Antecedent (grammar)">antecedent</a> precedes it. In the case of the reciprocals, they need to appear in the same clause as the antecedent.<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other">Other</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other pronouns in English are often identical in form to <a href="/wiki/English_determiners" title="English determiners">determiners</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier (linguistics)">quantifiers</a>), such as <i>many</i>, <i>a little</i>, etc. Sometimes, the pronoun form is different, as with <i>none</i> (corresponding to the determiner <i>no</i>), <i>nothing</i>, <i>everyone</i>, <i>somebody</i>, etc. Many examples are listed as <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronouns</a>. Another indefinite (or impersonal) pronoun is <i><a href="/wiki/One_(pronoun)" title="One (pronoun)">one</a></i> (with its reflexive form <i>oneself</i> and possessive <i>one's</i>), which is a more formal alternative to <a href="/wiki/Generic_you" title="Generic you">generic <i>you</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a></div> <p>The basic form of an English verb is not generally marked by any ending, although there are certain suffixes that are frequently used to form verbs, such as <i>-ate</i> (<i>formulate</i>), <i>-fy</i> (<i>electrify</i>), and <i>-ise/ize</i> (<i>realise/realize</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p301_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p301-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many verbs also contain <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a>, such as <i>un-</i> (<i>unmask</i>), <i>out-</i> (<i>outlast</i>), <i>over-</i> (<i>overtake</i>), and <i>under-</i> (<i>undervalue</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p301_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p301-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Verbs can also be formed from nouns and adjectives by <a href="/wiki/Conversion_(word_formation)" title="Conversion (word formation)">zero derivation</a>, as with the verbs <i>snare</i>, <i>nose</i>, <i>dry</i>, and <i>calm</i>. </p><p>Most verbs have three or four inflected forms in addition to the base form: a third-person singular present tense form in <i>-(e)s</i> (<i>writes</i>, <i>botches</i>), a <a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> form in <i>-ing</i> (<i>writing</i>), a past tense (<i>wrote</i>), and – though often identical to the past tense form – a <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> (<i>written</i>). Regular verbs have identical past tense and past participle forms in <i>-ed</i>, but there are 100 or so <a href="/wiki/English_irregular_verbs" title="English irregular verbs">irregular English verbs</a> with different forms (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs" title="List of English irregular verbs">list</a>). The verbs <i>have</i>, <i>do</i> and <i>say</i> also have irregular third-person present tense forms (<i>has</i>, <i>does</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dʌz/</span>, <i>says</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sɛz/</span>). The verb <i>be</i> has the largest number of irregular forms (<i>am, is, are</i> in the present tense, <i>was, were</i> in the past tense, <i>been</i> for the past participle). </p><p>Most of what are often referred to as verb <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a> (or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspects</a>) in English are formed using <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a>. Apart from what are called the <a href="/wiki/Simple_present_(English)" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple present (English)">simple present</a> (<i>write</i>, <i>writes</i>) and <a href="/wiki/Simple_past_(English)" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple past (English)">simple past</a> (<i>wrote</i>), there are also <a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">continuous</a> (progressive) forms (<i>am/is/are/was/were writing</i>), <a href="/wiki/Perfect_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect aspect">perfect</a> forms (<i>have/has/had written</i>, and the perfect continuous <i>have/has/had been writing</i>), <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future</a> forms (<i>will write</i>, <i>will be writing</i>, <i>will have written</i>, <i>will have been writing</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Conditional_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional tense">conditionals</a> (also called "<a href="/wiki/Future_in_the_past" title="Future in the past">future in the past</a>"), so forms equivalent to future ones but with <i>would</i> instead of <i>will</i>. The auxiliaries <a href="/wiki/Shall_and_will" title="Shall and will"><i>shall</i> and <i>should</i></a> sometimes replace <i>will</i> and <i>would</i> in the first person. For the uses of these various verb forms, see <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_clause_syntax" title="English clause syntax">English clause syntax</a>. </p><p>The basic form of the verb (<i>be, write, play</i>) is used as the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a>, although there is also a "to-infinitive" (<i>to be</i>, <i>to write</i>, <i>to play</i>) used in many syntactical constructions. There are also infinitives corresponding to other aspects: <i>(to) have written</i>, <i>(to) be writing</i>, <i>(to) have been writing</i>. The second-person <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> is identical to the (basic) infinitive; other imperative forms may be made with <i>let</i> (<i>let us go</i>, or <i>let's go</i>; <i>let them eat cake</i>). </p><p>A form identical to the infinitive can be used as a present <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> in certain contexts: <i>It is important that he <b>follow</b> them</i> or <i>... that he <b>be</b> committed to the cause</i>. There is also a past subjunctive (distinct from the simple past only in the possible use of <i>were</i> instead of <i>was</i>), used in some conditional sentences and similar: <i>if I were</i> (or <i>was</i>) <i>rich ...</i>; <i>were he to arrive now ...</i>; <i>I wish she were</i> (or <i>was</i>) <i>here</i>. For details see <a href="/wiki/English_subjunctive" title="English subjunctive">English subjunctive</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a> is formed using the verb <i>be</i> (in the appropriate tense or form) with the past participle of the verb in question: <i>cars are driven, he was killed, I am being tickled, it is nice to be pampered</i>, etc. The performer of the action may be introduced in a prepositional phrase with <i>by</i> (as in <i>they were killed by the invaders</i>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/English_modal_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="English modal verbs">English modal verbs</a> consist of the core modals <i>can</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>should</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>would</i>, as well as <i>ought (to</i>), <i>had better</i>, and in some uses <i>dare</i> and <i>need</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p303_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p303-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These do not inflect for person or number,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p303_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p303-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> do not occur alone, and do not have infinitive or participle forms (except synonyms, as with <i>be/being/been able (to</i>) for the modals <i>can/could</i>). The modals are used with the basic infinitive form of a verb (<i>I can swim, he may be killed</i>, <i>we dare not move</i>, <i>need they go?</i>), except for <i>ought</i>, which takes <i>to</i> (<i>you ought to go</i>). Modals can indicate the condition, probability, possibility, necessity, obligation and ability exposed by the speaker's or writer's attitude or expression.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> <i>be</i>, along with the modal verbs and the other <a href="/wiki/English_auxiliary_verbs" title="English auxiliary verbs">auxiliaries</a>, form a distinct class, sometimes called "<a href="/wiki/Special_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Special verbs">special verbs</a>" or simply "auxiliaries".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These have different syntax from ordinary <a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">lexical verbs</a>, especially in that they make their <a href="/wiki/Interrogative" title="Interrogative">interrogative</a> forms by plain <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">inversion</a> with the subject, and their <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">negative</a> forms by adding <i>not</i> after the verb (<i>could I ...? I could not ...</i>). Apart from those already mentioned, this class may also include <i>used to</i> (although the forms <i>did he use to?</i> and <i>he didn't use to</i> are also found), and sometimes <i>have</i> even when not an auxiliary (forms like <i>have you a sister?</i> and <i>he hadn't a clue</i> are possible, though becoming less common). It also includes the auxiliary <i>do</i> (<i>does</i>, <i>did</i>); this is used with the basic infinitive of other verbs (those not belonging to the "special verbs" class) to make their question and negation forms, as well as emphatic forms (<i>do I like you?</i>; <i>he doesn't speak English</i>; <i>we did close the fridge</i>). For more details of this, see <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support"><i>do</i>-support</a>. </p><p>Some forms of the copula and auxiliaries often appear as <a href="/wiki/Contraction_(grammar)" title="Contraction (grammar)">contractions</a>, as in <i>I'm</i> for <i>I am</i>, <i>you'd</i> for <i>you would</i> or <i>you had</i>, and <i>John's</i> for <i>John is</i>. Their negated forms with following <i>not</i> are also often contracted (see <a href="#Negation">§ Negation</a> below). For detail see <a href="/wiki/English_auxiliaries_and_contractions" class="mw-redirect" title="English auxiliaries and contractions">English auxiliaries and contractions</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phrases_2">Phrases</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A verb together with its dependents, excluding its <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, may be identified as a <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> (although this concept is not acknowledged in all theories of grammar<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). A verb phrase headed by a <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a> may also be called a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a>. The dependents may be <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">objects</a>, complements, and modifiers (adverbs or <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_phrase" title="Adverbial phrase">adverbial phrases</a>). In English, objects and complements nearly always come after the verb; a <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a> precedes other complements such as prepositional phrases, but if there is an <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a> as well, expressed without a preposition, then that precedes the direct object: <i>give me the book</i>, but <i>give the book to me</i>. Adverbial modifiers generally follow objects, although other positions are possible (see under <a href="#Adverbs">§ Adverbs</a> below). Certain verb–modifier combinations, particularly when they have independent meaning (such as <i>take on</i> and <i>get up</i>), are known as "<a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">phrasal verbs</a>". </p><p>For details of possible patterns, see <a href="/wiki/English_clause_syntax" title="English clause syntax">English clause syntax</a>. See the <a href="/wiki/English_clause_syntax#Non-finite_clauses" title="English clause syntax">Non-finite clauses</a> section of that article for verb phrases headed by non-finite verb forms, such as infinitives and participles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_adjectives" title="English adjectives">English adjectives</a></div> <p>English <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>, as with other word classes, cannot in general be identified as such by their form,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p308_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p308-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although many of them are formed from nouns or other words by the addition of a suffix, such as <i>-al</i> (<i>habitual</i>), <i>-ful</i> (<i>blissful</i>), <i>-ic</i> (<i>atomic</i>), <i>-ish</i> (<i>impish</i>, <i>youngish</i>), <i>-ous</i> (<i>hazardous</i>), etc.; or from other adjectives using a prefix: <i>disloyal</i>, <i>irredeemable</i>, <i>unforeseen</i>, <i>overtired</i>. </p><p>Adjectives may be used <a href="/wiki/Attributive_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Attributive adjective">attributively</a>, as part of a noun phrase (nearly always preceding the noun they modify; for exceptions see <a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">postpositive adjective</a>), as in <i>the big house</i>, or <a href="/wiki/Predicate_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate adjective">predicatively</a>, as in <i>the house is big</i>. Certain adjectives are restricted to one or other use; for example, <i>drunken</i> is attributive (<i>a drunken sailor</i>), while <i>drunk</i> is usually predicative (<i>the sailor was drunk</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparison">Comparison</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Comparison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many adjectives have <a href="/wiki/Comparative" title="Comparative">comparative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superlative" class="mw-redirect" title="Superlative">superlative</a> forms in <i>-er</i> and <i>-est</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p309_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p309-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <i>faster</i> and <i>fastest</i> (from the positive form <i>fast</i>). Spelling rules which maintain pronunciation apply to suffixing adjectives just as they do for similar treatment of <a href="/wiki/English_verbs#Past_tense" title="English verbs">regular past tense formation</a>; these cover consonant doubling (as in <i>bigger</i> and <i>biggest</i>, from <i>big</i>) and the change of <i>y</i> to <i>i</i> after consonants (as in <i>happier</i> and <i>happiest</i>, from <i>happy</i>). </p><p>The adjectives <i>good</i> and <i>bad</i> have the irregular forms <i>better, best</i> and <i>worse, worst</i>; also <i>far</i> becomes <i>farther, farthest</i> or <i>further, furthest</i>. The adjective <i>old</i> (for which the regular <i>older</i> and <i>oldest</i> are usual) also has the irregular forms <i>elder</i> and <i>eldest</i>, these generally being restricted to use in comparing <a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">siblings</a> and in certain independent uses. For the comparison of adverbs, see <a href="#Adverbs">Adverbs</a> below. </p><p>Many adjectives, however, particularly those that are longer and less common, do not have inflected comparative and superlative forms. Instead, they can be qualified with <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>, as in <i>beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful</i> (this construction is also sometimes used even for adjectives for which inflected forms do exist). </p><p>Certain adjectives are classed as <a href="/wiki/Ungradable_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ungradable adjective">ungradable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p309_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p309-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These represent properties that cannot be compared on a scale; they simply apply or do not, as with <i>pregnant</i>, <i>dead</i>, <i>unique</i>. Consequently, comparative and superlative forms of such adjectives are not normally used, except in a figurative, humorous or imprecise context. Similarly, such adjectives are not normally qualified with modifiers of degree such as <i>very</i> and <i>fairly</i>, although with some of them it is idiomatic to use adverbs such as <i>completely</i>. Another type of adjective sometimes considered ungradable is those that represent an extreme degree of some property, such as <i>delicious</i> and <i>terrified</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phrases_3">Phrases</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Adjective_phrase" title="Adjective phrase">adjective phrase</a> is a group of words that plays the role of an adjective in a sentence. It usually has a single adjective as its <a href="/wiki/Head_(linguistics)" title="Head (linguistics)">head</a>, to which <a href="/wiki/Modifier_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modifier (linguistics)">modifiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complements</a> may be added.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p310_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p310-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adjectives can be modified by a preceding adverb or adverb phrase, as in <i>very warm</i>, <i>truly imposing</i>, <i>more than a little excited</i>. Some can also be preceded by a noun or quantitative phrase, as in <i>fat-free</i>, <i>two-meter-long</i>. </p><p>Complements following the adjective may include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrase">prepositional phrases</a>: <i>proud of him</i>, <i>angry at the screen</i>, <i>keen on breeding toads</i>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> phrases: <i>anxious to solve the problem</i>, <i>easy to pick up</i>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_clause" title="Content clause">content clauses</a>, i.e. <i>that</i> clauses and certain others: <i>certain that he was right</i>, <i>unsure where they are</i>;</li> <li>after comparatives, phrases or clauses with <i>than</i>: <i>better than you</i>, <i>smaller than I had imagined</i>.</li></ul> <p>An adjective phrase may include both modifiers before the adjective and a complement after it, as in <i>very difficult to put away</i>. </p><p>Adjective phrases containing complements after the adjective cannot normally be used as attributive adjectives <i>before</i> a noun. Sometimes they are used <a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">attributively after the noun</a>, as in <i>a woman proud of being a midwife</i> (where they may be converted into relative clauses: <i>a woman who is proud of being a midwife</i>), but it is wrong to say *<i>a proud of being a midwife woman</i>. Exceptions include very brief and often established phrases such as <i>easy-to-use</i>. (Certain complements can be moved to after the noun, leaving the adjective before the noun, as in <i>a better man than you</i>, <i>a hard nut to crack</i>.) </p><p>Certain attributive adjective phrases are formed from other parts of speech, without any adjective as their head, as in <i>a two-bedroom house</i>, <i>a no-jeans policy</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Adverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_adverbs" title="English adverbs">English adverbs</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverbs</a> perform a wide range of functions. They typically modify verbs (or verb phrases), adjectives (or adjectival phrases), or other adverbs (or adverbial phrases).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p311_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p311-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, adverbs also sometimes qualify noun phrases (<i><b>only</b> the boss</i>; <i><b>quite</b> a lovely place</i>), pronouns and determiners (<i><b>almost</b> all</i>), prepositional phrases (<i><b>halfway</b> through the movie</i>), or whole sentences, to provide contextual comment or indicate an attitude (<i><b>Frankly</b>, I don't believe you</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p313_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p313-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can also indicate a relationship between clauses or sentences (<i>He died, and <b>consequently</b> I inherited the estate</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p313_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p313-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many English adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the ending <i>-ly</i>, as in <i>hopefully</i>, <i>widely</i>, <i>theoretically</i> (for details of spelling and etymology, see <i><a href="/wiki/-ly" title="-ly">-ly</a></i>). Certain words can be used as both adjectives and adverbs, such as <i>fast</i>, <i>straight</i>, and <i>hard</i>; these are <a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">flat adverbs</a>. In earlier usage more flat adverbs were accepted in formal usage; many of these survive in idioms and colloquially. (<i>That's just <b>plain</b> ugly.</i>) Some adjectives can also be used as flat adverbs when they actually describe the subject. (<i>The streaker ran <b>naked</b></i>, not <i>The streaker ran <b>nakedly</b></i>.) The adverb corresponding to the adjective <i>good</i> is <i>well</i> (note that <i>bad</i> forms the regular <i>badly</i>, although <i>ill</i> is occasionally used in some phrases). </p><p>There are also many adverbs that are not derived from adjectives,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p311_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p311-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including adverbs of time, of frequency, of place, of degree and with other meanings. Some suffixes that are commonly used to form adverbs from nouns are <i>-ward[s]</i> (as in <i>homeward[s]</i>) and <i>-wise</i> (as in <i>lengthwise</i>). </p><p>Adverbs are also formed by adding -<i>ly</i> to the participles. For example, <i>according,</i> a present participle adjective, becomes <i>accordingly,</i> an adverb, by adding -<i>ly</i> after it. The past participle adjective <i>repeated</i> becomes <i>repeatedly</i> by adding -<i>ly</i> after it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Most adverbs form comparatives and superlatives by modification with <i>more</i> and <i>most</i>: <i>often</i>, <i>more often</i>, <i>most often</i>; <i>smoothly</i>, <i>more smoothly</i>, <i>most smoothly</i> (see also <a href="#Comparison">comparison of adjectives</a>, above). However, a few adverbs retain irregular inflection for <a href="/wiki/Comparative" title="Comparative">comparative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superlative" class="mw-redirect" title="Superlative">superlative</a> forms:<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p311_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p311-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>much</i>, <i>more</i>, <i>most</i>; <i>a little</i>, <i>less</i>, <i>least</i>; <i>well</i>, <i>better</i>, <i>best</i>; <i>badly</i>, <i>worse</i>, <i>worst</i>; <i>far</i>, <i>further</i> (<i>farther</i>), <i>furthest</i> (<i>farthest</i>); or follow the regular adjectival inflection: <i>fast</i>, <i>faster</i>, <i>fastest</i>; <i>soon</i>, <i>sooner</i>, <i>soonest</i>; etc. </p><p>Adverbs indicating the manner of an action are generally placed after the verb and its objects (<i>We considered the proposal <b>carefully</b></i>), although other positions are often possible (<i>We <b>carefully</b> considered the proposal</i>). Many adverbs of frequency, degree, certainty, etc. (such as <i>often</i>, <i>always</i>, <i>almost</i>, <i>probably</i>, and various others such as <i>just</i>) tend to be placed before the verb (<i>they <b>usually</b> have chips</i>), although if there is an auxiliary or other "special verb" (see <a href="#Verbs">§ Verbs</a> above), then the normal position for such adverbs is after that special verb (or after the first of them, if there is more than one): <i>I have <b>just</b> finished the crossword</i>; <i>She can <b>usually</b> manage a pint</i>; <i>We are <b>never</b> late</i>; <i>You might <b>possibly</b> have been unconscious</i>. Adverbs that provide a connection with previous information (such as <i>next</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>however</i>), and those that provide the context (such as time or place) for a sentence, are typically placed at the start of the sentence: <i><b>Yesterday</b> we went on a shopping expedition.</i><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the verb has an object, the adverb comes after the object (<i>He finished the test <b>quickly</b></i>). When there is more than one type of adverb, they usually appear in the order: manner, place, time (<i>His arm was hurt <b>severely at home yesterday</b></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A special type of adverb is the adverbial particle used to form <a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">phrasal verbs</a> (such as <i>up</i> in <i>pick up</i>, <i>on</i> in <i>get on</i>, etc.) If such a verb also has an object, then the particle may precede or follow the object, although it will normally follow the object if the object is a pronoun (<i>pick the pen up</i> or <i>pick up the pen</i>, but <i>pick it up</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phrases_4">Phrases</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Adverb_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverb phrase">adverb phrase</a> is a phrase that acts as an adverb within a sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p312_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p312-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An adverb phrase may have an adverb as its <a href="/wiki/Head_(linguistics)" title="Head (linguistics)">head</a>, together with any modifiers (other adverbs or adverb phrases) and complements, analogously to the <a href="#Adjective_phrases">adjective phrases</a> described above. For example: <i>very sleepily</i>; <i>all too suddenly</i>; <i>oddly enough</i>; <i>perhaps shockingly for us</i>. </p><p>Another very common type of adverb phrase is the <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrase">prepositional phrase</a>, which consists of a preposition and its object: <i>in the pool</i>; <i>after two years</i>; <i>for the sake of harmony</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prepositions">Prepositions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Prepositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_prepositions" title="English prepositions">English prepositions</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">Prepositions</a> form a closed word class,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p313_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p313-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although there are also certain phrases that serve as prepositions, such as <i>in front of</i>. A single preposition may have a variety of meanings, often including temporal, spatial and abstract. Many words that are prepositions can also serve as adverbs. Examples of common English prepositions (including phrasal instances) are: <i>of</i>, <i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>over</i>, <i>under</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>with</i>, <i>in front of</i>, <i>behind</i>, <i>opposite</i>, <i>by</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>during</i>, <i>through</i>, <i>in spite of</i> or <i>despite</i>, <i>between</i>, <i>among</i>, etc. </p><p>A preposition is usually used with a noun phrase as its <a href="/wiki/Complement_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement (grammar)">complement</a>. A preposition together with its complement is called a <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_phrase" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositional phrase">prepositional phrase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p314-315_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p314-315-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples are <i>in England</i>, <i>under the table</i>, <i>after six pleasant weeks</i>, <i>between the land and the sea</i>. A prepositional phrase can be used as a complement or post-modifier of a noun in a noun phrase, as in <i>the man in the car</i>, <i>the start of the fight</i>; as a complement of a verb or adjective, as in <i>deal with the problem</i>, <i>proud of oneself</i>; or generally as an adverb phrase (see above). </p><p>English allows the use of <a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">"stranded" prepositions</a>. This can occur in interrogative and <a href="/wiki/English_relative_clauses" title="English relative clauses">relative clauses</a>, where the interrogative or relative pronoun that is the preposition's complement is moved to the start (<a href="/wiki/Wh-fronting" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh-fronting">fronted</a>), leaving the preposition in place. This kind of structure is avoided in some kinds of formal English. For example: </p> <ul><li><i>What are you talking about?</i> (Possible alternative version: <i>About what are you talking?</i>)</li> <li><i>The song that you were listening to ...</i> (more formal: <i>The song to which you were listening ...</i>)</li></ul> <p>Notice that in the second example the relative pronoun <i>that</i> could be omitted. </p><p>Stranded prepositions can also arise in <a href="/wiki/English_passive_voice" title="English passive voice">passive voice</a> constructions and other uses of passive <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participial phrases</a>, where the complement in a prepositional phrase can become <a href="/wiki/Zero_(linguistics)" title="Zero (linguistics)">zero</a> in the same way that a verb's direct object would: <i>it was looked at</i>; <i>I will be operated on</i>; <i>get your teeth seen to</i>. The same can happen in certain uses of <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> phrases: <i>he is nice to talk to</i>; <i>this is the page to make copies of</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Conjunctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction (grammar)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunctions</a> express a variety of logical relations between items, phrases, clauses and sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p315_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p315-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They help link ideas, show relationships, and form more complex sentences. </p><p>The principal <a href="/wiki/Coordinating_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Coordinating conjunction">coordinating conjunctions</a> in English are: <i>and</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>nor</i>, <i>so</i>, <i>yet</i>, and <i>for</i>. These can be used in many grammatical contexts to link two or more items of equal grammatical status,<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p315_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p315-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example: </p> <ul><li>Noun phrases combined into a longer noun phrase, such as <i>John, Eric, and Jill</i>, <i>the red coat or the blue one</i>. When <i>and</i> is used, the resulting noun phrase is plural. A determiner does not need to be repeated with the individual elements: <i>the cat, the dog, and the mouse</i> and <i>the cat, dog, and mouse</i> are both correct. The same applies to other modifiers. (The word <i>but</i> can be used here in the sense of "except": <i>nobody but you</i>.)</li> <li>Adjective or adverb phrases combined into a longer adjective or adverb phrase: <i>tired but happy</i>, <i>over the fields and far away</i>.</li> <li>Verbs or verb phrases combined as in <i>he washed, peeled, and diced the turnips</i> (verbs conjoined, object shared); <i>he washed the turnips, peeled them, and diced them</i> (full verb phrases, including objects, conjoined).</li> <li>Other equivalent items linked, such as prefixes linked in <i>pre- and post-test counselling</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> numerals as in <i>two or three buildings</i>, etc.</li> <li>Clauses or sentences linked, as in <i>We came, <b>but</b> they wouldn't let us in. They wouldn't let us in, <b>nor</b> would they explain what we had done wrong.</i></li></ul> <p>Another example of clauses or sentences linked is: <i>I like reading books, <b>and</b> I also enjoy watching movies.</i> </p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Correlative_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlative conjunction">correlative conjunctions</a>, where as well as the basic conjunction, an additional element appears before the first of the items being linked.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p315_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p315-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The common correlatives in English are: </p> <ul><li><i>either ... or</i> (<i><b>either</b> a man <b>or</b> a woman</i>);</li> <li><i>neither ... nor</i> (<i><b>neither</b> clever <b>nor</b> funny</i>);</li> <li><i>both ... and</i> (<i>they <b>both</b> punished <b>and</b> rewarded them</i>);</li> <li><i>not ... but</i>, particularly in <i>not only ... but also</i> (<i><b>not</b> exhausted <b>but</b> exhilarated</i>, <i><b>not only</b> football <b>but also</b> many other sports</i>).</li></ul> <p>An example of a correlative conjunction can be seen in: <i> <b>Not</b> only did I finish my homework, <b>but</b> I also helped my sibling.</i> </p><p><a href="/wiki/English_subordinators" title="English subordinators">Subordinators</a> make relations between clauses, making the clause in which they appear into a <a href="/wiki/Subordinate_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate clause">subordinate clause</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p316_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p316-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some common subordinators in English are: </p> <ul><li>conjunctions of time, including <i>after</i>, <i>before</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>until</i>, <i>when</i>, <i>while</i>;</li> <li>conjunctions of cause and effect, including <i>because</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>now that</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>in order that</i>, <i>so</i>;</li> <li>conjunctions of opposition or concession, such as <i>although</i>, <i>though</i>, <i>even though</i>, <i>whereas</i>, <i>while</i>;</li> <li>conjunctions of condition: such as <i>if</i>, <i>unless</i>, <i>only if</i>, <i>whether or not</i>, <i>even if</i>, <i>in case (that)</i>;</li> <li>the conjunction <i>that</i>, which produces <a href="/wiki/Content_clause" title="Content clause">content clauses</a>, as well as words that produce interrogative content clauses: <i>whether</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>when</i>, <i>how</i>, etc.</li></ul> <p>Subordinating conjunction generally comes at the very start of its clause, although many of them can be preceded by qualifying adverbs, as in <i>probably because ...</i>, <i>especially if ...</i>. The conjunction <i>that</i> can be omitted after certain verbs, as in <i>she told us (that) she was ready</i>. (For the use of <i>that</i> in relative clauses, see <a href="#Relative_pronouns">§ Relative pronouns</a> above.) </p><p>An example of a subordinating conjunction being used is: <i>I went to the store <b>because</b> I needed milk.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case">Case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although English has largely lost its case system, <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal pronouns">personal pronouns</a> still have three morphological cases that are simplified forms of the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Objective_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Objective case">objective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive cases</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Subjective_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjective pronouns">subjective pronouns</a></i> such as <i>I</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>we</i>, <i>they</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>whoever</i>), used for the subject of a <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite verb</a> and sometimes for the <a href="/wiki/Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a>.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique case</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">object pronouns</a></i> such as <i>me</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>it</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>them</i>, <i>whom</i>, <i>whomever</i>), used for the direct or indirect <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, and sometimes for the complement of a copula.</li> <li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Possessive_pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive pronouns">possessive pronouns</a></i> such as <i>my/mine</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>her(s)</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>our(s)</i>, <i>their(s)</i>, <i>whose</i>), used for a grammatical possessor. This is not always considered to be a case; see <a href="/wiki/English_possessive#Status_of_the_possessive_as_a_grammatical_case" title="English possessive">English possessive § Status of the possessive as a grammatical case</a>.</li></ul> <p>Most English personal pronouns have five forms: the nominative and oblique case forms, the <a href="/wiki/Possessive_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive case">possessive case</a>, which has both a <i><a href="/wiki/Determiner_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Determiner (linguistics)">determiner</a></i> form (such as <i>my</i>, <i>our</i>) and a distinct <i>independent</i> form (such as <i>mine</i>, <i>ours</i>) (with two exceptions: the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">third person</a> singular masculine and the third person singular neuter <i>it</i>, which use the same form for both determiner and independent [<i>his car</i>, <i>it is his</i>]), and a distinct <i><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive</a></i> or <i>intensive</i> form (such as <i>myself</i>, <i>ourselves</i>). The <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative</a> personal pronoun <i>who</i> exhibits the greatest diversity of forms within the modern English pronoun system, having definite nominative, oblique, and genitive forms (<i>who</i>, <i>whom</i>, <i>whose</i>) and equivalently coordinating indefinite forms (<i>whoever</i>, <i>whomever</i>, and <i>whosever</i>). </p><p>Forms such as <i>I</i>, <i>he</i>, and <i>we</i> are used for the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> ("<b>I</b> kicked the ball"), whereas forms such as <i>me</i>, <i>him</i> and <i>us</i> are used for the <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a> ("John kicked <b>me</b>").<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Declension">Declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">Declension</a></div> <p>Nouns have distinct singular and plural forms; that is, they <i>decline</i> to reflect their <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical number</a>; consider the difference between <i>book</i> and <i>books</i>. In addition, a few English pronouns have distinct <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case#Subjective" title="Nominative case">subjective</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique</a> (or objective) forms; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> or <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>. Consider the difference between <i>he</i> (subjective) and <i>him</i> (objective), as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider <i><a href="/wiki/Who_(pronoun)" title="Who (pronoun)">who</a></i>, which is subjective, and the objective <i>whom</i>. Further, these pronouns and a few others have distinct <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_possession" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical possession">possessive</a> forms, such as <i>his</i> and <i>whose</i>. By contrast, nouns have no distinct nominative and objective forms, the two being merged into a single <i>plain case</i>. For example, <i>chair</i> does not change form between "the chair is here" (subject) and "I saw the chair" (direct object). Possession is shown by the <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a> <i>-'s</i> attached to a possessive <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun phrase</a>, rather than by declension of the noun itself.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Negation">Negation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above under <a href="#Verbs">§ Verbs</a>, a finite indicative verb (or its clause) is <a href="/wiki/Negation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negation (linguistics)">negated</a> by placing the word <i>not</i> after an auxiliary, modal or other "<a href="/wiki/Special_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Special verb">special</a>" verb such as <i>do</i>, <i>can</i> or <i>be</i>. For example, the clause <i>I go</i> is negated with the appearance of the auxiliary <i>do</i>, as <i>I do not go</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support"><i>do</i>-support</a>). When the <b>affirmative</b> already uses auxiliary verbs (<i>I am going</i>), no other auxiliary <i>verbs</i> are added to negate the clause (<i>I am not going</i>). (Until the period of early Modern English, negation was effected without additional auxiliary verbs: <i>I go not.</i>) </p><p>Most combinations of auxiliary verbs etc. with <i>not</i> have <a href="/wiki/Contraction_(grammar)" title="Contraction (grammar)">contracted forms</a>: <i>don't</i>, <i>can't</i>, <i>isn't</i>, etc. (Also the uncontracted negated form of <i>can</i> is written as a single word <i>cannot</i>.) On the inversion of subject and verb (such as in questions; see below), the subject may be placed after a contracted negated form: <i>Should he not pay?</i> or <i>Shouldn't he pay?</i> </p><p>Other elements, such as noun phrases, adjectives, adverbs, infinitive and participial phrases, etc., can be negated by placing the word <i>not</i> before them: <i>not the right answer</i>, <i>not interesting</i>, <i>not to enter</i>, <i>not noticing the train</i>, etc. </p><p>When other negating words such as <i>never</i>, <i>nobody</i>, etc. appear in a sentence, the negating <i>not</i> is omitted (unlike its equivalents in many languages): <i>I saw nothing</i> or <i>I didn't see anything</i>, but not (except in non-standard speech) *<i>I didn't see nothing</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Double_negative" title="Double negative">Double negative</a>). Such negating words generally have corresponding <a href="/wiki/Negative_polarity_item" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative polarity item">negative polarity items</a> (<i>ever</i> for <i>never</i>, <i>anybody</i> for <i>nobody</i>, etc.) which can appear in a negative context but are not negative themselves (and can thus be used after a negation without giving rise to double negatives). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clause_and_sentence_structure">Clause and sentence structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Clause and sentence structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/English_clause_syntax" title="English clause syntax">English clause syntax</a></div> <p>A typical <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentence</a> contains one <a href="/wiki/Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">independent clause</a> and possibly one or more <a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">dependent clauses</a>, although it is also possible to link together sentences of this form into longer sentences, using coordinating conjunctions (see above). A clause typically contains a <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> (a noun phrase) and a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> (a verb phrase in the terminology used above; that is, a verb together with its objects and complements). A dependent clause also normally contains a subordinating conjunction (or in the case of relative clauses, a relative pronoun, or phrase containing one). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Word order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>English word order has moved from the Germanic <a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">verb-second (V2) word order</a> to being almost exclusively <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> (SVO). The combination of SVO order and use of <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliary verbs">auxiliary verbs</a> often creates clusters of two or more verbs at the center of the sentence, such as <i>he had hoped to try to open it</i>. In most sentences, English marks grammatical relations only through word order. The subject constituent precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. The <a href="/wiki/Object%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Object–subject–verb">Object–subject–verb</a> (OSV) may on occasion be seen in English, usually in the <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future tense</a> or used as a contrast with the conjunction "but", such as in the following examples: "Rome I shall see!", "I hate oranges, but apples I'll eat!".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Questions">Questions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like many other Western European languages, English historically allowed <a href="/wiki/Question" title="Question">questions</a> to be formed by <a href="/wiki/Inversion_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inversion (grammar)">inverting</a> the positions of the verb and <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>. Modern English permits this only in the case of a small class of verbs ("<a href="/wiki/Special_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Special verb">special verbs</a>"), consisting of auxiliaries as well as forms of the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> <i>be</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93auxiliary_inversion" title="Subject–auxiliary inversion">subject–auxiliary inversion</a>). To form a question from a sentence which does not have such an auxiliary or copula present, the auxiliary verb <i>do</i> (<i>does</i>, <i>did</i>) needs to be inserted, along with inversion of the word order, to form a question (see <a href="/wiki/Do-support" title="Do-support"><i>do</i>-support</a>). For example: </p> <ul><li>She can dance. → Can she dance? (inversion of subject <i>she</i> and auxiliary <i>can</i>)</li> <li>I am sitting here. → Am I sitting here? (inversion of subject <i>I</i> and copula <i>am</i>)</li> <li>The milk goes in the fridge. → Does the milk go in the fridge? (no special verb present; <i>do</i>-support required)</li></ul> <p>The above concerns <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes–no questions</a>, but inversion also takes place in the same way after other questions, formed with <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">interrogative words</a> such as <i>where</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>how</i>, etc. An exception applies when the interrogative word is the subject or part of the subject, in which case there is no inversion. For example: </p> <ul><li>I go. → Where do I go? (<i>wh</i>-question formed using inversion, with <i>do</i>-support required in this case)</li> <li>He goes. → Who goes? (no inversion, because the question word <i>who</i> is the subject)</li></ul> <p>Inversion does not apply in <a href="/wiki/Indirect_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect question">indirect questions</a>: <i>I wonder where he is</i> (not *<i>... where is he</i>). Indirect yes–no questions can be expressed using <i>if</i> or <i>whether</i> as the interrogative word: <i>Ask them whether/if they saw him.</i> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Negative_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative (grammar)">Negative</a> questions are formed similarly; however, if the verb undergoing inversion has a <a href="/wiki/English_contractions" class="mw-redirect" title="English contractions">contraction</a> with <i>not</i>, then it is possible to invert the subject with this contraction as a whole. For example: </p> <ul><li>John is going. (affirmative)</li> <li>John is not going. / John isn't going. (negative, with and without contraction)</li> <li>Isn't John going? / Is John not going? (negative question, with and without contraction respectively)</li></ul> <p>See also <a href="/wiki/English_auxiliaries_and_contractions#Contractions_and_inversion" class="mw-redirect" title="English auxiliaries and contractions">English auxiliaries and contractions § Contractions and inversion</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dependent_clauses">Dependent clauses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Dependent clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The syntax of a dependent clause is generally the same as that of an independent clause, except that the dependent clause usually begins with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (or phrase containing such). In some situations (as already described) the conjunction or relative pronoun <i>that</i> can be omitted. Another type of dependent clause with no subordinating conjunction is the conditional clause formed by inversion (see below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_uses_of_inversion">Other uses of inversion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other uses of inversion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The clause structure with an inverted subject and verb, used to form questions as described above, is also used in certain types of declarative sentences. This occurs mainly when the sentence begins with adverbial or other phrases that are essentially negative or contain words such as <i>only</i>, <i>hardly</i>, etc.: <i>Never have I known someone so stupid; Only in France can such food be tasted</i>. </p><p>In elliptical sentences (see below), inversion takes place after <i>so</i> (meaning "also") as well as after the negative <i>neither</i>: <i>so do I, neither does she</i>. </p><p>Inversion can also be used to form conditional clauses, beginning with <i>should</i>, <i>were</i> (subjunctive), or <i>had</i>, in the following ways: </p> <ul><li><i>should I win the race</i> (equivalent to <i>if I win the race</i>);</li> <li><i>were he a soldier</i> (equivalent to <i>if he were a soldier</i>);</li> <li><i>were he to win the race</i> (equivalent to <i>if he were to win the race</i>, i.e. <i>if he won the race</i>);</li> <li><i>had he won the race</i> (equivalent to <i>if he had won the race</i>).</li></ul> <p>Other similar forms sometimes appear but are less common. There is also a construction with subjunctive <i>be</i>, as in <i>be he alive or dead</i> (meaning "no matter whether he is alive or dead"). </p><p>Use of inversion to express a third-person imperative is now mostly confined to the expression <i>long live X</i>, meaning "let X live long". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperatives">Imperatives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Imperatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> sentence (one giving an order), there is usually no subject in the independent clause: <i>Go away until I call you.</i> It is possible, however, to include <i>you</i> as the subject for emphasis: <i><b>You</b> stay away from me.</i> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elliptical_constructions">Elliptical constructions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Elliptical constructions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many types of elliptical construction are possible in English, resulting in sentences that omit certain redundant elements. Various examples are given in the article on <a href="/wiki/Ellipsis_(linguistics)" title="Ellipsis (linguistics)">Ellipsis</a>. </p><p>Some notable elliptical forms found in English include: </p> <ul><li>Short statements of the form <i>I can</i>, <i>he isn't</i>, <i>we mustn't</i>. Here the verb phrase (understood from the context) is reduced to a single auxiliary or other "special" verb, negated if appropriate. If there is no special verb in the original verb phrase, it is replaced by <i>do/does/did</i>: <i>he does</i>, <i>they didn't</i>.</li> <li>Clauses that omit the verb, in particular those like <i>me too</i>, <i>nor me</i>, <i>me neither</i>. The latter forms are used after negative statements. (Equivalents including the verb: <i>I do too</i> or <i>so do I</i>; <i>I don't either</i> or <i>neither do I</i>.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tag_question" title="Tag question">Tag questions</a>, formed with a special verb and pronoun subject: <i>isn't it?</i>; <i>were there?</i>; <i>am I not?</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_English_grammars">History of English grammars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: History of English grammars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_English_grammars" title="History of English grammars">History of English grammars</a></div> <p>The first published English grammar was a <i>Pamphlet for Grammar</i> of 1586, written by <a href="/wiki/William_Bullokar" title="William Bullokar">William Bullokar</a> with the stated goal of demonstrating that English was just as rule-based as Latin. Bullokar's grammar was faithfully modeled on <a href="/wiki/William_Lily_(grammarian)" title="William Lily (grammarian)">William Lily's</a> Latin grammar, <i>Rudimenta Grammatices</i> (1534), used in English schools at that time, having been "prescribed" for them in 1542 by <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>. Bullokar wrote his grammar in English and used a "reformed spelling system" of his own invention; but much English grammar, for much of the century after Bullokar's effort, was written in Latin, especially by authors who were aiming to be scholarly. <a href="/wiki/John_Wallis" title="John Wallis">John Wallis</a>'s <i>Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae</i> (1685) was the last English grammar written in Latin. </p><p>Even as late as the early 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Lindley_Murray" title="Lindley Murray">Lindley Murray</a>, the author of one of the most widely used grammars of the day, was having to cite "grammatical authorities" to bolster the claim that grammatical cases in English are different from those in Ancient Greek or Latin. </p><p>English <a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">parts of speech</a> are based on Latin and Greek parts of speech.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some English grammar rules were adopted from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, for example <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a> is thought to have created the rule <a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">no sentences can end in a preposition</a> because Latin cannot end sentences in prepositions. The rule of no <a href="/wiki/Split_infinitive" title="Split infinitive">split infinitives</a> was adopted from Latin because Latin has no split infinitives.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_usage_controversies" title="English usage controversies">English usage controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_prefixes" class="mw-redirect" title="English prefixes">English prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">Subject–object–verb</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huddleston_phrasal_genitive_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPayneHuddleston2002" class="citation book cs1">Payne, John; <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Huddleston" title="Rodney Huddleston">Huddleston, Rodney</a> (2002). "Nouns and noun phrases". In <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Huddleston" title="Rodney Huddleston">Huddleston, Rodney</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Pullum, Geoffrey</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</i>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 479–481. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43146-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43146-8"><bdi>0-521-43146-8</bdi></a>. <q>We conclude that both head and phrasal genitives involve case inflection. With head genitives it is always a noun that inflects, while the phrasal genitive can apply to words of most classes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nouns+and+noun+phrases&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pages=479-481&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-43146-8&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Huddleston%2C+Rodney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p296-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p296_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p296_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 296</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p297-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p297_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p298-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p298_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p298_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 298</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p299-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p299_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p299_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p299_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 299</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hudson_2013-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hudson_2013_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hudson_(linguist)" title="Richard Hudson (linguist)">Hudson, Richard</a> (2013). "A cognitive analysis of Manyanda's hat". In <a href="/wiki/David_Denison" title="David Denison">Börjars, Kersti</a>; Denison, David; Scott, Alan (eds.). <i>Morphosyntactic Categories and the Expression of Possession</i>. Manyanda Simon Publishing Company. pp. 123–148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027273000" title="Special:BookSources/9789027273000"><bdi>9789027273000</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+cognitive+analysis+of+Manyanda%27s+hat&rft.btitle=Morphosyntactic+Categories+and+the+Expression+of+Possession&rft.pages=123-148&rft.pub=Manyanda+Simon+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789027273000&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Börjars_2013-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Börjars_2013_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBörjarsDenisonKrajewskiScott2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Denison" title="David Denison">Börjars, Kersti</a>; Denison, David; Krajewski, Grzegorz; Scott, Alan (2013). "Expression of Possession in English". In <a href="/wiki/David_Denison" title="David Denison">Börjars, Kersti</a>; Denison, David; Scott, Alan (eds.). <i>Morphosyntactic Categories and the Expression of Possession</i>. Manyanda Simon Publishing Company. pp. 149–176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789027273000" title="Special:BookSources/9789027273000"><bdi>9789027273000</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Expression+of+Possession+in+English&rft.btitle=Morphosyntactic+Categories+and+the+Expression+of+Possession&rft.pages=149-176&rft.pub=Manyanda+Simon+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9789027273000&rft.aulast=B%C3%B6rjars&rft.aufirst=Kersti&rft.au=Denison%2C+David&rft.au=Krajewski%2C+Grzegorz&rft.au=Scott%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quirk_group_genitive-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Quirk_group_genitive_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuirkGreenbaumLeechSvartvik1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Quirk" title="Randolph Quirk">Quirk, Randolph</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Greenbaum" title="Sidney Greenbaum">Greenbaum, Sidney</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Leech" title="Geoffrey Leech">Leech, Geoffrey</a>; Svartvik, Jan (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/328"><i>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</i></a>. Harlow: Longman. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/328">328</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-51734-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-51734-9"><bdi>978-0-582-51734-9</bdi></a>. <q>[the <i>-s</i> ending is] more appropriately described as an enclitic postposition'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pages=328&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-582-51734-9&rft.aulast=Quirk&rft.aufirst=Randolph&rft.au=Greenbaum%2C+Sidney&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Svartvik%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomprehensivegra00quir%2Fpage%2F328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_English_Grammar,_Case-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_English_Grammar,_Case_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenbaum1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Greenbaum" title="Sidney Greenbaum">Greenbaum, Sidney</a> (1996). <i>The Oxford English Grammar</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861250-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-861250-8"><bdi>0-19-861250-8</bdi></a>. <q>In speech the genitive is signalled in singular nouns by an inflection that has the same pronunciation variants as for plural nouns in the common case</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+English+Grammar&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-861250-8&rft.aulast=Greenbaum&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuirkGreenbaumLeechSvartik1985" class="citation book cs1">Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; Svartik, Jan (1985). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir"><i>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</i></a></span>. Longman. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/319">319</a>. <q>In writing, the inflection of regular nouns is realized in the singular by apostrophe + <i>s</i> (<i>boy's</i>), and in the regular plural by the apostrophe following the plural <i>s</i> (<i>boys<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Quirk&rft.aufirst=Randolph&rft.au=Greenbaum%2C+Sidney&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Svartik%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomprehensivegra00quir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siemund-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Siemund_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiemund2008" class="citation book cs1">Siemund, Peter (2008). <i>Pronominal Gender in English: A Study of English Varieties form a Cross-Linguistic Perspective</i>. New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pronominal+Gender+in+English%3A+A+Study+of+English+Varieties+form+a+Cross-Linguistic+Perspective&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Siemund&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinton2017" class="citation book cs1">Brinton, Laurel J., and Leslie K. Arnovick (2017). <i>The English language: a linguistic history</i> (3rd ed.). Don Mills, Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-901915-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-901915-1"><bdi>978-0-19-901915-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+English+language%3A+a+linguistic+history&rft.place=Don+Mills%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pages=194&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-901915-1&rft.aulast=Brinton&rft.aufirst=Laurel+J.%2C+and+Leslie+K.+Arnovick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NOUN_GENDER-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NOUN_GENDER_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOUN_GENDER_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NOUN_GENDER_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ef.com/wwen/english-resources/english-grammar/noun-gender/">"NOUN GENDER"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NOUN+GENDER&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ef.com%2Fwwen%2Fenglish-resources%2Fenglish-grammar%2Fnoun-gender%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> <i>EF Education First</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg1992" class="citation book cs1">Hogg, Richard, ed. (1992). <i>The Cambridge history of the English language: Volume I</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 144.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+the+English+language%3A+Volume+I&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some linguists consider <i>that</i> in such sentences to be a <a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">complementizer</a> rather than a relative pronoun. See <a href="/wiki/English_relative_clauses#That_as_relativizer_instead_of_relative_pronoun" title="English relative clauses">English relative clauses: Status of <i>that</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFowler2015">Fowler 2015</a>, p. 813</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a treatment of <i>there</i> as a dummy predicate, based on the analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Moro" title="Andrea Moro">Moro, A.</a>, <i>The Raising of Predicates. Predicative Noun Phrases and the Theory of Clause Structure</i>, <i>Cambridge Studies in Linguistics</i>, 80, Cambridge University Press, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/one">"<i>One</i> Definition"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">dictionary.com</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=One+Definition&rft.btitle=dictionary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p301-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p301_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p301_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 301</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p303-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p303_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p303_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 303</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/modal-verbs-and-modality">"Modal verbs and modality – English Grammar Today – Cambridge Dictionary"</a>. <i>dictionary.cambridge.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dictionary.cambridge.org&rft.atitle=Modal+verbs+and+modality+%E2%80%93+English+Grammar+Today+%E2%80%93+Cambridge+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fgrammar%2Fbritish-grammar%2Fmodal-verbs-and-modality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.D. Sidhu, <i>An Intensive Course in English</i>, Orient Blackswan, 1976, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency grammars</a> reject the concept of finite verb phrases as clause constituents, regarding the subject as a dependent of the verb as well. See the <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a> article for more information.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p308-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p308_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 308</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p309-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p309_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p309_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 309</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p310-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p310_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p311-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p311_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p311_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p311_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 311</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p313-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p313_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p313_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p313_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 313</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeare2019" class="citation web cs1">Beare, Kenneth (10 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/adverb-placement-in-english-1211117">"Adverb Placement in English"</a>. <i>ThoughtCo</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ThoughtCo.&rft.atitle=Adverb+Placement+in+English&rft.date=2019-02-10&rft.aulast=Beare&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fadverb-placement-in-english-1211117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverbs-and-adverb-phrases-position">"Adverbs and adverb phrases: position – English Grammar Today – Cambridge Dictionary"</a>. <i>dictionary.cambridge.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dictionary.cambridge.org&rft.atitle=Adverbs+and+adverb+phrases%3A+position+%E2%80%93+English+Grammar+Today+%E2%80%93+Cambridge+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fgrammar%2Fbritish-grammar%2Fadverbs-and-adverb-phrases-position&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p312-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p312_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p314-315-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p314-315_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, pp. 314–315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p315-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p315_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p315_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p315_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">British Medical Association, <i>Misuse of Drugs</i>, Chapter 4, "Constraints of current practice."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carter-mccarthy-p316-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-carter-mccarthy-p316_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006">Carter & McCarthy 2006</a>, p. 316</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Chambers Dictionary, 11th edition</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon. C. Winter.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Clackson" title="James Clackson">James Clackson</a> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DJDjNp6wODoC&pg=PA90"><i>Indo-European linguistics: an introduction</i></a>, p.90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrystal1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (1997). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-55967-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-55967-7"><bdi>0-521-55967-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+Language&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-55967-7&rft.aulast=Crystal&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStamper2017" class="citation book cs1">Stamper, Kory (2017-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3komDgAAQBAJ&q=dryden"><i>Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 27–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781101870945" title="Special:BookSources/9781101870945"><bdi>9781101870945</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Word+by+Word%3A+The+Secret+Life+of+Dictionaries&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2017-01-01&rft.isbn=9781101870945&rft.aulast=Stamper&rft.aufirst=Kory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3komDgAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddryden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=524618639">"From 'F-Bomb' To 'Photobomb,' How The Dictionary Keeps Up With English"</a>. <i>NPR.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=From+%27F-Bomb%27+To+%27Photobomb%2C%27+How+The+Dictionary+Keeps+Up+With+English&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Ftranscript%2Ftranscript.php%3FstoryId%3D524618639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStamper2017" class="citation book cs1">Stamper, Kory (2017-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3komDgAAQBAJ&q=latin"><i>Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781101870945" title="Special:BookSources/9781101870945"><bdi>9781101870945</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Word+by+Word%3A+The+Secret+Life+of+Dictionaries&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2017-01-01&rft.isbn=9781101870945&rft.aulast=Stamper&rft.aufirst=Kory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3komDgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dlatin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStamper2017" class="citation book cs1">Stamper, Kory (2017-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3komDgAAQBAJ&q=split"><i>Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781101870945" title="Special:BookSources/9781101870945"><bdi>9781101870945</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Word+by+Word%3A+The+Secret+Life+of+Dictionaries&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2017-01-01&rft.isbn=9781101870945&rft.aulast=Stamper&rft.aufirst=Kory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3komDgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsplit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar_books">Grammar books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Grammar books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAarts,_Bas2011" class="citation book cs1">Aarts, Bas (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordmodernengl00aart/page/410"><i>Oxford Modern English Grammar</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordmodernengl00aart/page/410">410</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953319-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953319-0"><bdi>978-0-19-953319-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Modern+English+Grammar&rft.pages=410&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953319-0&rft.au=Aarts%2C+Bas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordmodernengl00aart%2Fpage%2F410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiber,_DouglasJohansson,_StigLeech,_GeoffreyConrad,_Susan1999" class="citation book cs1">Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finegan, Edward (1999). <i>Longman grammar of spoken and written English</i>. Pearson Education Limited. p. 1203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-23725-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-23725-4"><bdi>0-582-23725-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+grammar+of+spoken+and+written+English&rft.pages=1203&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-582-23725-4&rft.au=Biber%2C+Douglas&rft.au=Johansson%2C+Stig&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Conrad%2C+Susan&rft.au=Finegan%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiber,_DouglasLeech,_GeoffreyConrad,_Susan2002" class="citation book cs1">Biber, Douglas; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan (2002). <i>Longman student grammar of spoken and written English</i>. Pearson Education Limited. p. 487. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-23726-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-23726-2"><bdi>0-582-23726-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+student+grammar+of+spoken+and+written+English&rft.pages=487&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-582-23726-2&rft.au=Biber%2C+Douglas&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Conrad%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant,_Margaret1945" class="citation book cs1">Bryant, Margaret (1945). <i>A functional English grammar</i>. D.C. Heath and company. p. 326.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+functional+English+grammar&rft.pages=326&rft.pub=D.C.+Heath+and+company&rft.date=1945&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant,_MargaretMomozawa,_Chikara1976" class="citation book cs1">Bryant, Margaret; Momozawa, Chikara (1976). <i>Modern English Syntax</i>. Seibido. p. 157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+English+Syntax&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Seibido&rft.date=1976&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Momozawa%2C+Chikara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Carter_(linguist)" title="Ronald Carter (linguist)">Carter, Ronald</a>; McCarthy, Michael (2006), <i>Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, p. 984, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-67439-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-67439-5"><bdi>0-521-67439-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Grammar+of+English%3A+A+Comprehensive+Guide&rft.pages=984&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-67439-5&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> A CD-Rom version is included.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelce-Murcia,_MarianneLarsen-Freeman,_Diane1999" class="citation book cs1">Celce-Murcia, Marianne; Larsen-Freeman, Diane (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838447253/page/854"><i>The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL teacher's course, 2nd ed</i></a>. Heinle & Heinle. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838447253/page/854">854</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8384-4725-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8384-4725-2"><bdi>0-8384-4725-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grammar+Book%3A+An+ESL%2FEFL+teacher%27s+course%2C+2nd+ed.&rft.pages=854&rft.pub=Heinle+%26+Heinle&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8384-4725-2&rft.au=Celce-Murcia%2C+Marianne&rft.au=Larsen-Freeman%2C+Diane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780838447253%2Fpage%2F854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChalker,_SylviaWeiner,_Edmund1998" class="citation book cs1">Chalker, Sylvia; Weiner, Edmund, eds. (1998). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 464. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280087-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280087-6"><bdi>0-19-280087-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+English+Grammar&rft.pages=464&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-280087-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobbett,_William1883" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Cobbett" title="William Cobbett">Cobbett, William</a> (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/agrammarenglish05cobbgoog"><i>A Grammar of the English Language, In a Series of Letters: Intended for the Use of Schools and of Young Persons in General, but more especially for the use of Soldiers, Sailors, Apprentices, and Plough-Boys</i></a>. New York and Chicago: A. S. Barnes and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+English+Language%2C+In+a+Series+of+Letters%3A+Intended+for+the+Use+of+Schools+and+of+Young+Persons+in+General%2C+but+more+especially+for+the+use+of+Soldiers%2C+Sailors%2C+Apprentices%2C+and+Plough-Boys&rft.place=New+York+and+Chicago&rft.pub=A.+S.+Barnes+and+Company&rft.date=1883&rft.au=Cobbett%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fagrammarenglish05cobbgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobbett,_William2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Cobbett" title="William Cobbett">Cobbett, William</a> (2003) [1818]. <i>A Grammar of the English Language (Oxford Language Classics)</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860508-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860508-0"><bdi>0-19-860508-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+English+Language+%28Oxford+Language+Classics%29&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-860508-0&rft.au=Cobbett%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Curme, George O., College English Grammar, Richmond, VA, 1925, Johnson Publishing company, 414 pages . A revised edition <i>Principles and Practice of English Grammar</i> was published by Barnes & Noble, in 1947.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurme,_George_O.1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Oliver_Curme" title="George Oliver Curme">Curme, George O.</a> (1978) [1931, 1935]. <i>A Grammar of the English Language: Volumes I (Parts of Speech) & II (Syntax)</i>. Verbatim Books. p. 1045. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930454-03-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-930454-03-0"><bdi>0-930454-03-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+the+English+Language%3A+Volumes+I+%28Parts+of+Speech%29+%26+II+%28Syntax%29&rft.pages=1045&rft.pub=Verbatim+Books&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-930454-03-0&rft.au=Curme%2C+George+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeclerck,_Renaat1990" class="citation book cs1">Declerck, Renaat (1990). <i>A Comprehensive Descriptive Grammar of English</i>. Kaitakusha, Tokyo. p. 595. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-7589-0538-X" title="Special:BookSources/4-7589-0538-X"><bdi>4-7589-0538-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Descriptive+Grammar+of+English&rft.pages=595&rft.pub=Kaitakusha%2C+Tokyo&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=4-7589-0538-X&rft.au=Declerck%2C+Renaat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> Declerck in his introduction (p.vi) states that almost half his grammar is taken up by the topics of tense, aspect and modality. This he contrasts with the 71 pages devoted to these subjects in <i>The Comprehensive Grammar of English</i>. Huddleston and Pullman say they profited from consulting this grammar in their <i>Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.</i> (p. 1765)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDekeyser,_XavierDevriendt,_BettyTops,_Guy_A._J.Guekens,_Steven2004" class="citation book cs1">Dekeyser, Xavier; Devriendt, Betty; Tops, Guy A. J.; Guekens, Steven (2004). <i>Foundations of English Grammar For University Students and Advanced Learners</i>. Uitgeverij Acco, Leuven, Belgium. p. 449. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-334-5637-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-334-5637-4"><bdi>978-90-334-5637-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+English+Grammar+For+University+Students+and+Advanced+Learners&rft.pages=449&rft.pub=Uitgeverij+Acco%2C+Leuven%2C+Belgium&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-334-5637-4&rft.au=Dekeyser%2C+Xavier&rft.au=Devriendt%2C+Betty&rft.au=Tops%2C+Guy+A.+J.&rft.au=Guekens%2C+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2015" class="citation cs2">Fowler, H.W. (2015), Butterfield, Jeremy (ed.), <i>Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, p. 813, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966135-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966135-0"><bdi>978-0-19-966135-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fowler%27s+Dictionary+of+Modern+English+Usage&rft.pages=813&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966135-0&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=H.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenbaum,_Sidney1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Greenbaum" title="Sidney Greenbaum">Greenbaum, Sidney</a> (1996). <i>Oxford English Grammar</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 672. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861250-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-861250-8"><bdi>0-19-861250-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Grammar&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=672&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-861250-8&rft.au=Greenbaum%2C+Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenbaum,_Sidney1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Greenbaum" title="Sidney Greenbaum">Greenbaum, Sidney</a> (1990). <i>A Student's Grammar of the English Language</i>. Addison Wesley Publishing Company. p. 496. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-05971-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-05971-2"><bdi>0-582-05971-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Student%27s+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=496&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-582-05971-2&rft.au=Greenbaum%2C+Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliday,_M._A._K.;_Matthiessen,_Christian_M._I._M._(revised_by)2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Halliday" title="Michael Halliday">Halliday, M. A. K.; Matthiessen, Christian M. I. M. (revised by)</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JM3KAgAAQBAJ"><i>An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 3rd. edition</i></a>. London: Hodder Arnold. p. 700. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-76167-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-76167-9"><bdi>0-340-76167-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Functional+Grammar%2C+3rd.+edition&rft.place=London&rft.pages=700&rft.pub=Hodder+Arnold&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-340-76167-9&rft.au=Halliday%2C+M.+A.+K.%3B+Matthiessen%2C+Christian+M.+I.+M.+%28revised+by%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJM3KAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li>Huddleston, Rodney D. (1984) <i>Introduction to the Grammar of English</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Huddleston, Rodney D. (1988) <i>English Grammar: An outline</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Huddleston" title="Rodney Huddleston">Huddleston, Rodney D.</a>; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002). <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language"><i>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 1860. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43146-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43146-8"><bdi>0-521-43146-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.pages=1860&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-43146-8&rft.aulast=Huddleston&rft.aufirst=Rodney+D.&rft.au=Pullum%2C+Geoffrey+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuddleston,_Rodney_D.PullumReynolds2022" class="citation book cs1">Huddleston, Rodney D.; Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Reynolds, Brett (2022). <i>A student's introduction to English grammar</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-08574-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-08574-8"><bdi>978-1-009-08574-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+student%27s+introduction+to+English+grammar&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=320&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-009-08574-8&rft.au=Huddleston%2C+Rodney+D.&rft.au=Pullum%2C+Geoffrey+K.&rft.au=Reynolds%2C+Brett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jespersen, Otto. (1937). <i>Analytic Syntax</i>. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1937. 170 p.</li> <li>Jespersen, Otto. (1909–1949). <i><a href="/wiki/A_Modern_English_Grammar_on_Historical_Principles" title="A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles">A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles</a></i> (Vols. 1–7). Heidelberg: C. Winter.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1933" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a> (1933). <i>Essentials of English Grammar: 25th impression, 1987</i>. London: Routledge. p. 400. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10440-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10440-8"><bdi>0-415-10440-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+English+Grammar%3A+25th+impression%2C+1987&rft.place=London&rft.pages=400&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1933&rft.isbn=0-415-10440-8&rft.au=Jespersen%2C+Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonson,_Ben1756" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Jonson, Ben</a> (1756). "The English grammar: Made by Ben Jonson for the benefit of all strangers, out of his observation of the English language now spoken and in use". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SaM_AAAAYAAJ"><i>The Works of Ben Jonson: Volume 7</i></a>. London: D. Midwinter et al.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+English+grammar%3A+Made+by+Ben+Jonson+for+the+benefit+of+all+strangers%2C+out+of+his+observation+of+the+English+language+now+spoken+and+in+use&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Ben+Jonson%3A+Volume+7&rft.place=London&rft.pub=D.+Midwinter+et+al&rft.date=1756&rft.au=Jonson%2C+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSaM_AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolln,_Martha_J.2006" class="citation book cs1">Kolln, Martha J. (2006). <i>Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects, 5th edition</i>. Longman. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-39723-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-39723-1"><bdi>0-321-39723-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhetorical+Grammar%3A+Grammatical+Choices%2C+Rhetorical+Effects%2C+5th+edition&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-321-39723-1&rft.au=Kolln%2C+Martha+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolln,_Martha_J.Funk,_Robert_W.2008" class="citation book cs1">Kolln, Martha J.; Funk, Robert W. (2008). <i>Understanding English Grammar</i> (8th ed.). Longman. p. 453. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-62690-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-62690-8"><bdi>978-0-205-62690-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+English+Grammar&rft.pages=453&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-205-62690-8&rft.au=Kolln%2C+Martha+J.&rft.au=Funk%2C+Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korsakov_Andrey" class="mw-redirect" title="Korsakov Andrey">Korsakov</a>, A. K. (Andreĭ Konstantinovich). 1969. The use of tenses in English. Korsakov, A. K. Structure of Modern English pt. 1. oai:gial.edu:26766 at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.language-archives.org/item/oai:gial.edu:26766">http://www.language-archives.org/item/oai:gial.edu:26766</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaetzner,_Eduard_Adolf_Ferdinand,_1805–1892.1873" class="citation book cs1">Maetzner, Eduard Adolf Ferdinand, 1805–1892. (1873). <i>An English grammar; methodical, analytical, and historical</i>. J. Murray, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+English+grammar%3B+methodical%2C+analytical%2C+and+historical&rft.pub=J.+Murray%2C+London&rft.date=1873&rft.au=Maetzner%2C+Eduard+Adolf+Ferdinand%2C+1805%E2%80%931892.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span>Three Volumes, translated by Clair James Grece from the German edition <i>Englische Grammatik: Die Lehre von der Wort- und Satzfügung.</i> Professor Whitney in his <i>Essentials of English Grammar</i> recommends the German original stating "there is an English version, but it is hardly to be used." (p. vi)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer-Myklestad,_J.1967" class="citation book cs1">Meyer-Myklestad, J. (1967). <i>An Advanced English Grammar for Students and Teachers</i>. Universitetsforlaget-Oslo. p. 627.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Advanced+English+Grammar+for+Students+and+Teachers&rft.pages=627&rft.pub=Universitetsforlaget-Oslo&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Meyer-Myklestad%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorenberg,_Max2002" class="citation book cs1">Morenberg, Max (2002). <i>Doing Grammar, 3rd edition</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513840-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513840-6"><bdi>0-19-513840-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Grammar%2C+3rd+edition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-513840-6&rft.au=Morenberg%2C+Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Poutsma, Hendrik. A grammar of late modern English, Groningen, P. Noordhoff, 1914–29, 2 pt. in 5 v. Contents: pt. I. The sentence: 1st half. The elements of the sentence, 1928. 2d half. The composite sentence, 1929.--pt. II. The parts of speech: section I, A. Nouns, adjectives and articles, 1914. section I, B. Pronouns and numerals, 1916. section II. The verb and the particles, 1926.</li> <li>Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; & Svartvik, Jan. (1972). <i>A Grammar of Contemporary English</i>. Harlow: Longman.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuirk,_Randolph1985" class="citation book cs1">Quirk, Randolph (1985). <a href="/wiki/A_Comprehensive_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language"><i>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</i></a>. Harlow: Longman. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/1779">1779</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-51734-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-51734-6"><bdi>0-582-51734-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pages=1779&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-582-51734-6&rft.au=Quirk%2C+Randolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossiter,_Andrew2020" class="citation book cs1">Rossiter, Andrew (2020). <i>A Descriptive Grammar of English</i>. Linguapress. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-958-38550-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-958-38550-7"><bdi>978-2-958-38550-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Descriptive+Grammar+of+English&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Linguapress&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-2-958-38550-7&rft.au=Rossiter%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchibsbye,_Knud1970" class="citation book cs1">Schibsbye, Knud (1970). <i>A Modern English Grammar: Second edition</i>. London: Oxford University Press. p. 390. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-431327-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-431327-1"><bdi>0-19-431327-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Modern+English+Grammar%3A+Second+edition&rft.place=London&rft.pages=390&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-19-431327-1&rft.au=Schibsbye%2C+Knud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> This book is a translation of Schibsbye's three volume <i>Engelsk Grammatik</i> published between 1957 and 1961. Schibsbye was a student of Jespersen's and co-author of the sixth volume –Morphology –of Jespersen's seven volume <i>Modern English Grammar</i>.</li> <li>Sinclair, John, ed. (1991) <i>Collins COBUILD – English Grammar</i> London: Collins <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-370257-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-370257-X">0-00-370257-X</a> second edition, 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-718387-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-718387-9">0-00-718387-9</a>. Huddleston and Pullman say they found this grammar 'useful' in their <i>Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.</i> (p. 1765) A CD-Rom version of the 1st edition is available on the Collins COBUILD Resource Pack <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-716921-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-716921-3">0-00-716921-3</a></li> <li>Sledd, James. (1959) <i>A short introduction to English grammar</i> Chicago: Scott, Foresman.</li> <li>Strang, Barbara M. H. (1968) <i>Modern English structure</i> (2nd ed.) London: Arnold.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson,_A._J._(Audrey_Jean);_Martinet,_A._V._(Agnes_V.)1986" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, A. J. (Audrey Jean); Martinet, A. V. (Agnes V.) (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalenglish00thom/page/384"><i>A practical English grammar:Fourth Edition</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalenglish00thom/page/384">384</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-431342-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-431342-5"><bdi>0-19-431342-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+practical+English+grammar%3AFourth+Edition&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-19-431342-5&rft.au=Thomson%2C+A.+J.+%28Audrey+Jean%29%3B+Martinet%2C+A.+V.+%28Agnes+V.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpracticalenglish00thom%2Fpage%2F384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVisser,_F._Th._(Fredericus_Theodorus)2003" class="citation book cs1">Visser, F. Th. (Fredericus Theodorus) (2003). <i>An historical syntax of the English language</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-07142-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-07142-3"><bdi>90-04-07142-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+historical+syntax+of+the+English+language&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=90-04-07142-3&rft.au=Visser%2C+F.+Th.+%28Fredericus+Theodorus%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span> 4th impression. pts. 1–2. Syntactical units with one verb.--pt.3. 1st half. Syntactical units with two verbs.--pt.3. 2d half. Syntactical units with two and more verbs.</li> <li>Whitney, William Dwight, (1877) <i>Essentials of English Grammar</i>, Boston: Ginn & Heath.</li> <li>Zandvoort, R. W. (1972) <i>A Handbook of English Grammar</i> (2nd ed.) London: Longmans.</li> <li>Peter Herring (2016), <i>The Farlex Grammar Book</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/The-Farlex-Grammar-Book.htm">http://www.thefreedictionary.com/The-Farlex-Grammar-Book.htm</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monographs">Monographs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Monographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adams, Valerie. (1973). <i>An introduction to modern English word-formation</i>. London: Longman.</li> <li>Bauer, Laurie. (1983). <i>English word-formation</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Fries, Charles Carpenter. (1952). <i>The structure of English; an introduction to the construction of English sentences</i>. New York: Harcourt, Brace.</li> <li>Halliday, M. A. K. (1985/94). <i>Spoken and written language</i>. <a href="/wiki/Deakin_University" title="Deakin University">Deakin University</a> Press.</li> <li>Huddleston, Rodney D. (1976). <i>An introduction to English transformational syntax</i>. Longman.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuddleston,_Rodney_D.2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Huddleston" title="Rodney Huddleston">Huddleston, Rodney D.</a> (2009). <i>The Sentence in Written English: A Syntactic Study Based on an Analysis of Scientific Texts</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11395-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11395-3"><bdi>978-0-521-11395-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sentence+in+Written+English%3A+A+Syntactic+Study+Based+on+an+Analysis+of+Scientific+Texts&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-11395-3&rft.au=Huddleston%2C+Rodney+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a> (1982). <i>Growth and Structure of the English Language</i>. Chicago and London: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-39877-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-39877-3"><bdi>0-226-39877-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growth+and+Structure+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-226-39877-3&rft.au=Jespersen%2C+Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a> (1992). <i>Philosophy of Grammar</i>. Chicago and London: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 363. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-39881-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-39881-1"><bdi>0-226-39881-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Grammar&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pages=363&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-226-39881-1&rft.au=Jespersen%2C+Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1962" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Jespersen, Otto</a> (1962). <i>Selected Writings</i>. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 820.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Writings&rft.place=London&rft.pages=820&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1962&rft.au=Jespersen%2C+Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnglish+grammar" class="Z3988"></span>—includes Jespersen's monographs <i>Negation in English and Other Languages</i>, and <i>A System of Grammar</i>.</li> <li>Kruisinga, E. (1925). <i>A handbook of present-day English</i>. Utrecht: Kemink en Zoon.</li> <li>Leech, Geoffrey N. (1971). <i>Meaning and the English verb</i>. London: Longman.</li> <li>Marchand, Hans. (1969). <i>The categories and types of present-day English word-formation</i> (2nd ed.). München: C. H. Beck.</li> <li>McCawley, James D. (1998). <i>The syntactic phenomena of English</i> (2nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Onions, C. T. (Charles Talbut), (1904, 1st edition) <i>An advanced English syntax based on the principles and requirements of the Grammatical society</i>. London: Keegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & co. A new edition of <i>An advanced English syntax</i>, prepared from the author's materials by B. D. H. Miller, was published as <i>Modern English syntax</i> in 1971.</li> <li>Palmer, F. R. (1974). <i>The English verb</i>. London: Longman.</li> <li>Palmer, F. R. (1979). <i>Modality and the English modals</i>. London: Longman.</li> <li>Plag, Ingo. (2003). <i>Word-formation in English</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Scheurweghs, Gustave. (1959). <i>Present-day English syntax: A survey of sentence patterns</i>. London: Longmans.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_Grammar" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:English Grammar">English Grammar</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_Grammar_Worksheets" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:English Grammar Worksheets">English Grammar Worksheets</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/">The Internet Grammar of English</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">UCL</a></li> <li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.englicious.org">Englicious</a> website for school teachers developed by <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">UCL</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/grammar">English Grammar</a> at the <a href="/wiki/British_Council" title="British Council">British Council</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Description_of_the_English_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Description_of_English" title="Template:Description of English"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Description_of_English" title="Template talk:Description of English"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Description_of_English" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Description of English"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Description_of_the_English_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Description of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English" title="Stress and vowel reduction in English">Stress and reduced vowels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English-language_spelling_reform" title="English-language spelling reform">Spelling reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_alphabet" title="English alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">Dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">Language history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English" title="Phonological history of English">Phonological history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lexical_categories" title="Template talk:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Pro-form</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">Prop-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">Yes and no</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_grammars" title="Template talk:Language grammars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_grammars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">Grammars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><b>Grammars</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_grammar" title="Georgian grammar">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed languages">constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lojban_grammar" title="Lojban grammar">Lojban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q560583#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85043556">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000060249&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007545868605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&oldid=1258710748">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&oldid=1258710748</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_grammar" title="Category:English grammar">English grammar</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from May 2023">Articles lacking reliable references from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 04:48<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_grammar&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-694cf4987f-lm479","wgBackendResponseTime":252,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.187","walltime":"1.416","ppvisitednodes":{"value":5274,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":205085,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":2502,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":20,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":215755,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1126.973 1 -total"," 31.97% 360.290 46 Template:Cite_book"," 30.98% 349.145 1 Template:Reflist"," 11.44% 128.982 1 Template:Grammar_series"," 10.79% 121.549 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.69% 75.428 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.52% 73.515 16 Template:Harvnb"," 6.32% 71.203 5 Template:Navbox"," 5.33% 60.045 13 Template:Main"," 4.35% 49.070 2 Template:Fix"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.710","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9564987,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAarts,_Bas2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeare2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiber,_DouglasJohansson,_StigLeech,_GeoffreyConrad,_Susan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBiber,_DouglasLeech,_GeoffreyConrad,_Susan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrinton2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryant,_Margaret1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryant,_MargaretMomozawa,_Chikara1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBörjarsDenisonKrajewskiScott2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarterMcCarthy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCelce-Murcia,_MarianneLarsen-Freeman,_Diane1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChalker,_SylviaWeiner,_Edmund1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobbett,_William1883\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobbett,_William2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrystal1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurme,_George_O.1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeclerck,_Renaat1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDekeyser,_XavierDevriendt,_BettyTops,_Guy_A._J.Guekens,_Steven2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowler2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenbaum,_Sidney1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenbaum,_Sidney1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenbaum1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalliday,_M._A._K.;_Matthiessen,_Christian_M._I._M._(revised_by)2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHogg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuddleston,_Rodney_D.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuddleston,_Rodney_D.PullumReynolds2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJespersen,_Otto1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonson,_Ben1756\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolln,_Martha_J.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolln,_Martha_J.Funk,_Robert_W.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaetzner,_Eduard_Adolf_Ferdinand,_1805–1892.1873\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer-Myklestad,_J.1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorenberg,_Max2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayneHuddleston2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuirk,_Randolph1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuirkGreenbaumLeechSvartik1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuirkGreenbaumLeechSvartvik1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossiter,_Andrew2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchibsbye,_Knud1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiemund2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStamper2017\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFThomson,_A._J._(Audrey_Jean);_Martinet,_A._V._(Agnes_V.)1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVisser,_F._Th._(Fredericus_Theodorus)2003\"] = 1,\n [\"There_as_pronoun\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 46,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 4,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:English Grammar\"] = 1,\n [\"Description of English\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Grammar series\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 16,\n [\"IPA\"] = 3,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Language grammars\"] = 1,\n [\"Lexical categories\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 13,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slink\"] = 9,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b7f745dd4-t7k9b","timestamp":"20241125133820","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"English grammar","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English_grammar","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q560583","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q560583","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-04-18T20:15:39Z","dateModified":"2024-11-21T04:48:35Z","headline":"body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in the English language"}</script> </body> </html>