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aria-controls="toc-Hydrothermal_plumes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Hydrothermal plumes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Hydrothermal_plumes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Identification_and_dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification_and_dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Identification and dating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification_and_dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ocean_biogeochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_biogeochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Ocean biogeochemistry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_biogeochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology_of_hydrothermal_vents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology_of_hydrothermal_vents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Biology of hydrothermal vents </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biology_of_hydrothermal_vents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biology of hydrothermal vents subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biology_of_hydrothermal_vents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biological_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Biological communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Animal-bacterial_symbiosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animal-bacterial_symbiosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Animal-bacterial symbiosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animal-bacterial_symbiosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_hydrothermal_origin_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_hydrothermal_origin_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Theory of hydrothermal origin of life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_hydrothermal_origin_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 The Deep Hot Biosphere </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_and_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_and_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Discovery and exploration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_and_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Exploitation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Conservation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geochronological_dating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geochronological_dating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Geochronological dating </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geochronological_dating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Hydrothermal vent</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" > 45 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="منفس مائي حراري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منفس مائي حراري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonte_hidrotermal" title="Fonte hidrotermal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fonte hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="জলতাপীয় রন্ধ্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জলতাপীয় রন্ধ্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Хидротермален комин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хидротермален комин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrotermalni_otvori" title="Hidrotermalni otvori – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hidrotermalni otvori" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumarola_hidrotermal" title="Fumarola hidrotermal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fumarola hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotermisk_v%C3%A6ld" title="Hydrotermisk væld – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hydrotermisk væld" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiefsee-Hydrothermalquelle" title="Tiefsee-Hydrothermalquelle – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tiefsee-Hydrothermalquelle" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCdrotermid" title="Hüdrotermid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hüdrotermid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuente_hidrotermal" title="Fuente hidrotermal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fuente hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroterma_fonto" title="Hidroterma fonto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hidroterma fonto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iturri_hidrotermal" title="Iturri hidrotermal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Iturri hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%87_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="چاه گرمابی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چاه گرمابی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_hydrothermal" title="Mont hydrothermal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mont hydrothermal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scoilteanna_hidriteirmeacha" title="Scoilteanna hidriteirmeacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Scoilteanna hidriteirmeacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonte_hidrotermal" title="Fonte hidrotermal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fonte hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EC%88%98%EB%B6%84%EC%B6%9C%EA%B3%B5" title="열수분출공 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="열수분출공" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="जलतापीय छिद्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जलतापीय छिद्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidrotermalni_izvori" title="Hidrotermalni izvori – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hidrotermalni izvori" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilasi_hidrotermal" title="Ventilasi hidrotermal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ventilasi hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne%C3%B0ansj%C3%A1varhver" title="Neðansjávarhver – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Neðansjávarhver" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorgente_idrotermale" title="Sorgente idrotermale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sorgente idrotermale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="נביעה הידרותרמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נביעה הידרותרמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemine_idwot%C3%A8mal" title="Chemine idwotèmal – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Chemine idwotèmal" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidroterm%C3%A1lis_k%C3%BCrt%C5%91" title="Hidrotermális kürtő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hidrotermális kürtő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Хидротермални извори – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хидротермални извори" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="ജലതാപ വിള്ളലുകൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജലതാപ വിള്ളലുകൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengudaraan_hidroterma" title="Pengudaraan hidroterma – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pengudaraan hidroterma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermale_bron" title="Hydrothermale bron – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hydrothermale bron" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E6%B0%B4%E5%99%B4%E5%87%BA%E5%AD%94" title="熱水噴出孔 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="熱水噴出孔" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotermisk_skorstein" title="Hydrotermisk skorstein – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hydrotermisk skorstein" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%89%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="هایډروترمل سوری – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هایډروترمل سوری" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komin_hydrotermalny" title="Komin hydrotermalny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Komin hydrotermalny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fissura_hidrotermal" title="Fissura hidrotermal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fissura hidrotermal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Гидротермальные источники срединно-океанических хребтов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гидротермальные источники срединно-океанических хребтов" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hydrothermal vent" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple 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title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Hydrothermal vents are <a href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">fissures</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a> from which <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">geothermally</a> heated water discharges. They are commonly found near <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanically</a> active places, areas where <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</a> are moving apart at <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, ocean basins, and <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> The dispersal of <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal fluid">hydrothermal fluids</a> throughout the global ocean at active vent sites creates hydrothermal plumes. <a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis#Classification_of_ore_deposits" title="Ore genesis">Hydrothermal deposits</a> are rocks and mineral ore deposits formed by the action of hydrothermal vents. Hydrothermal vents exist because the Earth is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Under the sea, they may form features called black smokers or white smokers, which deliver a wide range of elements to the world's oceans, thus contributing to global marine <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemistry</a>. Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthetic</a> bacteria and archaea found around hydrothermal vents form the base of the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>, supporting diverse organisms including <a href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant tube worm">giant tube worms</a>, clams, <a href="/wiki/Limpet" title="Limpet">limpets</a>, and shrimp. Active hydrothermal vents are thought to exist on <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170413-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> and it is speculated that ancient hydrothermal vents once existed on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Hydrothermal vents have been <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesized</a> to have been a significant factor to starting <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a> and the survival of primitive <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>. The conditions of these vents have been shown to support the synthesis of molecules important to life. Some evidence suggests that certain vents such as alkaline hydrothermal vents or those containing <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide" title="Supercritical carbon dioxide">supercritical CO2</a> are more conducive to the formation of these <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic molecules</a>. However, the origin of life is a widely debated topic, and there are many conflicting viewpoints. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_properties">Physical properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Physical properties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm/220px--0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="66" data-mwtitle="0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/71/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm/0501-hydrothermal-vents-640x360.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a> video on hydrothermal vents</figcaption></figure> Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>. These are locations where two <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</a> are diverging and new crust is being formed.<a href="#cite_note-:5-5">[5]</a> The water that issues from seafloor hydrothermal vents consists mostly of <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> drawn into the hydrothermal system close to the volcanic edifice through faults and porous sediments or volcanic strata, plus some magmatic water released by the upwelling <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> In terrestrial[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] hydrothermal systems, the majority of water circulated within the <a href="/wiki/Fumarole" title="Fumarole">fumarole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geyser</a> systems, is <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_water" title="Meteoric water">meteoric water</a> plus <a href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground water</a> that has percolated down into the thermal system from the surface, but also commonly contains some portion of <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism#Hydrothermal" title="Metamorphism">metamorphic water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magmatic_water" title="Magmatic water">magmatic water</a>, and sedimentary formational <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> that is released by the magma. The proportion of each varies from location to location.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In contrast to the approximately 2 °C (36 °F) ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 °C (140 °F)<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> up to as high as 464 °C (867 °F).<a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-8">[8]</a> Due to the high <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic pressure">hydrostatic pressure</a> at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</a> at such temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-:5-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</a> of (pure) water is 375 °C (707 °F) at a pressure of 218 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</a>. However, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater (3.2 wt. % NaCl) is 407 °C (765 °F) and 298.5 bars,<a href="#cite_note-bischoff1988-9">[9]</a> corresponding to a depth of ~2,960 m (9,710 ft) below sea level. Accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C (765 °F) and 298.5 bars, it is supercritical. Furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust.<a href="#cite_note-VonDamm1991-10">[10]</a> The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, but higher than that for pure water. For example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the critical point at 400 °C (752 °F) and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid#Submarine_volcanoes" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</a>, possessing physical properties between those of a <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> and those of a <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-8">[8]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase-diag2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/260px-Phase-diag2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/390px-Phase-diag2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/520px-Phase-diag2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>In this <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</a>, the green dotted line illustrates the <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)#Density_of_water_and_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">anomalous behavior of water</a>. The dotted green line marks the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> and the blue line the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a>, showing how they vary with pressure; the solid green line shows the typical melting point behavior for other substances.</figcaption></figure>Examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites. Sister Peak (Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Hydrothermal_vent&params=4_48_S_12_22_W_">4°48′S 12°22′W / 4.800°S 12.367°W / -4.800; -12.367</a>, depth 2,996 m or 9,829 ft) vents low salinity <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase-separated</a>, vapor-type fluids. Sustained venting was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 °C (867 °F) was well above supercritical conditions. A nearby site, Turtle Pits, was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 °C (765 °F), which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity. A vent site in the <a href="/wiki/Cayman_Trough" title="Cayman Trough">Cayman Trough</a> named <a href="/wiki/Beebe_Hydrothermal_Vent_Field" title="Beebe Hydrothermal Vent Field">Beebe</a>, which is the world's deepest known hydrothermal site at ~5,000 m (16,000 ft) below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 °C (754 °F) and 2.3 wt% NaCl.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Although supercritical conditions have been observed at several sites, it is not yet known what significance, if any, supercritical venting has in terms of hydrothermal circulation, mineral deposit formation, geochemical fluxes or biological activity.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The initial stages of a vent chimney begin with the deposition of the mineral <a href="/wiki/Anhydrite" title="Anhydrite">anhydrite</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">Sulfides</a> of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> then precipitate in the chimney gaps, making it less <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</a> over the course of time. Vent growths on the order of 30 cm (1 ft) per day have been recorded.<a href="#cite_note-black_smoker-12">[12]</a> An April 2007 exploration of the deep-sea vents off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> found those vents to be a significant source of dissolved iron (see <a href="/wiki/Iron_cycle" title="Iron cycle">iron cycle</a>).<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Black_smokers_and_white_smokers">Black smokers and white smokers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Black smokers and white smokers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg/220px-Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg/330px-Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg/440px-Blackdiamante_hirez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Extinct smokers</figcaption></figure> Some hydrothermal vents form roughly cylindrical chimney structures. These form from minerals that are dissolved in the vent fluid. When the superheated water contacts the near-freezing sea water, the minerals precipitate out to form particles which add to the height of the stacks. Some of these chimney structures can reach heights of 60 m (200 ft).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> An example of such a towering vent was "Godzilla", a structure on the Pacific Ocean deep seafloor near <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> that rose to 40 m (130 ft) before it fell over in 1996.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_smokers">Black smokers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Black smokers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg/220px-MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg/330px-MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg/440px-MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The black smoker "Candelabra" in the Logatchev hydrothermal field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a water depth of 3,300 m (10,800 ft)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="60" data-mwtitle="Black_smoker_hydrothermal_vent.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Black_smoker_hydrothermal_vent.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Black_smoker_hydrothermal_vent.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dd/Black_smoker_hydrothermal_vent.ogg/Black_smoker_hydrothermal_vent.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Sound recording from a black smoker</figcaption></figure> A black smoker or deep-sea vent is a type of hydrothermal vent found on the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a>, typically in the <a href="/wiki/Bathyal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyal zone">bathyal zone</a> (with largest frequency in depths from 2,500 to 3,000 m (8,200 to 9,800 ft)), but also in lesser depths as well as deeper in the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> They appear as black, chimney-like structures that emit a cloud of black material. Black smokers typically emit particles with high levels of sulfur-bearing minerals, or sulfides. Black smokers are formed in fields hundreds of meters wide when <a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">superheated</a> water from below <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> comes through the ocean floor (water may attain temperatures above 400 °C (752 °F)).<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> This water is rich in dissolved minerals from the crust, most notably <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a>. When it comes in contact with cold ocean water, many minerals precipitate, forming a black, chimney-like structure around each vent. The deposited metal sulfides can become <a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">massive sulfide ore deposits</a> in time. Some black smokers on the <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents_and_seamounts_of_the_Azores" title="Hydrothermal vents and seamounts of the Azores">Azores portion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> are extremely rich in <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a> content, such as <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_Vent_Field" title="Rainbow Vent Field">Rainbow</a> with 24,000 <a href="/wiki/Molar_concentration" title="Molar concentration">μM</a> concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Black smokers were first discovered in 1979 on the <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a> by scientists from <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> during the <a href="/wiki/RISE_project_(oceanography)" class="mw-redirect" title="RISE project (oceanography)">RISE Project</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Spiess_et_al_1980-17">[17]</a> They were observed using the deep submergence vehicle <a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">ALVIN</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>. Now, black smokers are known to exist in the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> Oceans, at an average depth of 2,100 m (6,900 ft). The most northerly black smokers are a cluster of five named <a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Castle_(hydrothermal_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Castle (hydrothermal field)">Loki's Castle</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> discovered in 2008 by scientists from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bergen" title="University of Bergen">University of Bergen</a> at <a href="/wiki/73rd_parallel_north" title="73rd parallel north">73°N</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> between <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>. These black smokers are of interest as they are in a more stable area of the Earth's crust, where tectonic forces are less and consequently fields of hydrothermal vents are less common.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The world's deepest known black smokers are located in the <a href="/wiki/Cayman_Trough" title="Cayman Trough">Cayman Trough</a>, 5,000 m (3.1 miles) below the ocean's surface.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_smokers">White smokers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: White smokers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg/220px-Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg/330px-Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg/440px-Eifuku_chimneys_bubbles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Carbon dioxide bubbles are emitted from white smokers at the Champagne vent site in Eifuku.</figcaption></figure> White smoker vents emit lighter-hued minerals, such as those containing <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>. These vents also tend to have lower-temperature plumes probably because they are generally distant from their heat source.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> Black and white smokers may coexist in the same hydrothermal field, but they generally represent proximal (close) and distal (distant) vents to the main upflow zone, respectively. However, white smokers correspond mostly to waning stages of such hydrothermal fields, as magmatic heat sources become progressively more distant from the source (due to magma crystallization) and hydrothermal fluids become dominated by seawater instead of magmatic water. Mineralizing fluids from this type of vent are rich in calcium and they form dominantly <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a>-rich (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Barite" class="mw-redirect" title="Barite">barite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anhydrite" title="Anhydrite">anhydrite</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> deposits.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrothermal_plumes">Hydrothermal plumes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydrothermal plumes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg/220px-Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg/330px-Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg/440px-Champagne_vent_white_smokers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>White smokers at Champagne Vent, <a href="/wiki/Eifuku" title="Eifuku">Eifuku</a>, Japan</figcaption></figure> Hydrothermal plumes are fluid entities that manifest where <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal fluid">hydrothermal fluids</a> are expelled into the overlying <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a> at active hydrothermal vent sites.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> As hydrothermal fluids typically harbor physical (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>) and chemical (e.g., <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reduction_potential" title="Reduction potential">Eh</a>, major ions) properties distinct from <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>, hydrothermal plumes embody physical and chemical gradients that promote several types of chemical reactions, including <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation-reduction reactions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation reactions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Because of these reactions, hydrothermal plumes are dynamic entities whose physical and chemical properties evolve over both space and time within the ocean. Hydrothermal vent fluids harbor temperatures (~40 to >400 °C) well above that of ocean floor seawater (~4 °C), meaning that hydrothermal fluid is less dense than the surrounding seawater and will rise through the water column due to <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a>, forming a hydrothermal plume; therefore, the phase during which hydrothermal plumes rise through the water column is known as the "buoyant plume" phase.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> During this phase, <a href="/wiki/Shear_force" title="Shear force">shear forces</a> between the hydrothermal plume and surrounding seawater generate <a href="/wiki/Turbulence" title="Turbulence">turbulent flow</a> that facilitates mixing between the two types of fluids, which progressively dilutes the hydrothermal plume with seawater.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Eventually, the coupled effects of dilution and rising into progressively warmer (less dense) overlying seawater will cause the hydrothermal plume to become neutrally buoyant at some height above the seafloor; therefore, this stage of hydrothermal plume evolution is known as the "nonbuoyant plume" phase.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Once the plume is neutrally buoyant, it can no longer continue to rise through the water column and instead begins to spread laterally throughout the ocean, potentially over several thousands of kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-:42-22">[22]</a> Chemical reactions occur concurrently with the physical evolution of hydrothermal plumes. While seawater is a relatively oxidizing fluid, hydrothermal vent fluids are typically reducing in nature.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Consequently, reduced chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen gas">hydrogen gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferrous" title="Ferrous">Fe2+</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mn2%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="Mn2+">Mn2+</a> that are common in many vent fluids will react upon mixing with seawater. In fluids with high concentrations of H2S, dissolved metal ions such as Fe2+ and Mn2+ readily precipitate as dark-colored metal sulfide minerals (see "black smokers").<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Furthermore, Fe2+ and Mn2+ entrained within the hydrothermal plume will eventually oxidize to form insoluble Fe and Mn <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide-hydroxide" title="Iron(III) oxide-hydroxide">(oxy)hydroxide minerals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:32-23">[23]</a> For this reason, the hydrothermal "near field" has been proposed to refer to the hydrothermal plume region undergoing active oxidation of metals while the term "far field" refers to the plume region within which complete metal oxidation has occurred.<a href="#cite_note-:42-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Identification_and_dating">Identification and dating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Identification and dating">edit</a>]</div> Several chemical tracers found in hydrothermal plumes are used to locate deep-sea hydrothermal vents during discovery cruises. Useful tracers of hydrothermal activity should be chemically unreactive so that changes in tracer concentration subsequent to venting are due solely to dilution.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> fits this criterion and is a particularly useful tracer of hydrothermal activity. This is because hydrothermal venting releases elevated concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">helium-3</a> relative to seawater, a rare, naturally occurring He isotope derived exclusively from the Earth's interior.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> Thus, the dispersal of 3He throughout the oceans via hydrothermal plumes creates anomalous seawater He isotope compositions that signify hydrothermal venting. Another noble gas that can serve as a tracer of hydrothermal activity is <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>. As all naturally occurring isotopes of Rn are radioactive, Rn concentrations in seawater can also provide information on hydrothermal plume ages when combined with He isotope data.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> The isotope <a href="/wiki/Radon-222" title="Radon-222">radon-222</a> is utilized for this purpose as 222Rn has the longest <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of all naturally occurring radon isotopes of roughly 3.82 days.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Dissolved gases, such as H2, H2S, and CH4, and metals, such as Fe and Mn, present at high concentrations in hydrothermal vent fluids relative to seawater may also be diagnostic of hydrothermal plumes and thus active venting; however, these components are reactive and are thus less suitable as tracers of hydrothermal activity.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_biogeochemistry">Ocean biogeochemistry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ocean biogeochemistry">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg/241px-Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="241" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg/362px-Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg/482px-Deep_Sea_Vent_Chemistry_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2198" data-file-height="1266" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemical</a> processes within a hydrothermal vent system</figcaption></figure> Hydrothermal plumes represent an important mechanism through which hydrothermal systems influence marine <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">biogeochemistry</a>. Hydrothermal vents emit a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Trace_metal" title="Trace metal">trace metals</a> into the ocean, including <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:22-25">[25]</a> many of which have biological functions.<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a> Numerous physical and chemical processes control the fate of these metals once they are expelled into the water column. Based on <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> theory, Fe2+ and Mn2+ should <a href="/wiki/Oxidize" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidize">oxidize</a> in seawater to form insoluble metal (oxy)hydroxide precipitates; however, complexation with <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> and the formation of <a href="/wiki/Colloid" title="Colloid">colloids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> can keep these redox-sensitive elements suspended in solution far from the vent site.<a href="#cite_note-:02-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-23">[23]</a> Fe and Mn often have the highest concentrations among metals in acidic hydrothermal vent fluids,<a href="#cite_note-:22-25">[25]</a> and both have biological significance, particularly Fe, which is often a <a href="/wiki/Limiting_nutrient" class="mw-redirect" title="Limiting nutrient">limiting nutrient</a> in marine environments.<a href="#cite_note-:52-26">[26]</a> Therefore, far-field transport of Fe and Mn via organic complexation may constitute an important mechanism of ocean metal cycling.<a href="#cite_note-:42-22">[22]</a> Additionally, hydrothermal vents deliver significant concentrations of other biologically important trace metals to the ocean such as Mo, which may have been important in the early chemical evolution of the Earth's oceans and to the <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">origin of life</a> (see "theory of hydrothermal origin of life").<a href="#cite_note-:22-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> However, Fe and Mn precipitates can also influence ocean biogeochemistry by removing trace metals from the water column. The charged surfaces of iron (oxy)hydroxide minerals effectively <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorb</a> elements such as <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare earth metals</a> from seawater; therefore, although hydrothermal plumes may represent a net source of metals such as Fe and Mn to the oceans, they can also scavenge other metals and non-metalliferous nutrients such as P from seawater, representing a net sink of these elements.<a href="#cite_note-:32-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology_of_hydrothermal_vents">Biology of hydrothermal vents</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biology of hydrothermal vents">edit</a>]</div> Life has traditionally been seen as driven by energy from the sun, but deep-sea organisms have no access to sunlight, so biological communities around hydrothermal vents must depend on nutrients found in the dusty chemical deposits and hydrothermal fluids in which they live. Previously, <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> oceanographers assumed that vent organisms were dependent on <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a>, as deep-sea organisms are. This would leave them dependent on plant life and thus the sun. Some hydrothermal vent organisms do consume this "rain", but with only such a system, life forms would be sparse. Compared to the surrounding sea floor, however, hydrothermal vent zones have a density of organisms 10,000 to 100,000 times greater. These organisms include <a href="/wiki/Yeti_crab" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeti crab">yeti crabs</a>, which have long hairy arms that they reach out over the vent to collect food with.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The hydrothermal vents are recognized as a type of <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemosynthetic">chemosynthetic</a> based <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> (CBE) where primary productivity is fuelled by chemical compounds as energy sources instead of light (<a href="/wiki/Chemoautotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoautotrophy">chemoautotrophy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Hydrothermal vent communities are able to sustain such vast amounts of life because vent organisms depend on chemosynthetic bacteria for food. The water from the hydrothermal vent is rich in dissolved minerals and supports a large population of chemoautotrophic bacteria. These bacteria use sulfur compounds, particularly <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, a chemical highly toxic to most known organisms, to produce organic material through the process of <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>. The vents' impact on the living environment goes beyond the organisms that lives around them, as they act as a significant source of iron in the oceans, providing iron for the phytoplankton.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_communities">Biological communities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Biological communities">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geyser#Biology_of_geysers" title="Geyser">Geyser § Biology of geysers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring#Biota_in_hot_springs" title="Hot spring">Hot spring § Biota in hot springs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_microbial_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent microbial communities">Hydrothermal vent microbial communities</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermophile" title="Hyperthermophile">Hyperthermophile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">Thermophile</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg/220px-MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg/330px-MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg/440px-MARUM_Schwarzer_Raucher_Fauna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Living community at hydrothermal seeps on the Mid-Ocean Ridge at a water depth of 3,030 m (9,940 ft)</figcaption></figure> The oldest confirmed record of a "modern" biological community related with a vent is the <a href="/wiki/Figueroa_Sulfide" title="Figueroa Sulfide">Figueroa Sulfide</a>, from the Early Jurassic of California.<a href="#cite_note-:12-30">[30]</a> The ecosystem so formed is reliant upon the continued existence of the hydrothermal vent field as the primary source of energy, which differs from most surface life on Earth, which is based on <a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">solar energy</a>. However, although it is often said that these communities exist independently of the sun, some of the organisms are actually dependent upon oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms, while others are <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg/220px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg/330px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg/440px-Riftia_tube_worm_colony_Galapagos_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Giant tube worms (<a href="/wiki/Riftia_pachyptila" class="mw-redirect" title="Riftia pachyptila">Riftia pachyptila</a>) cluster around vents in the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Rift" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Rift">Galapagos Rift</a>.</figcaption></figure> The chemosynthetic bacteria grow into a thick mat which attracts other organisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Amphipoda" title="Amphipoda">amphipods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a>, which graze upon the bacteria directly. Larger organisms, such as snails, shrimp, crabs, <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">tube worms</a>, fish (especially <a href="/wiki/Eelpout" title="Eelpout">eelpout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cutthroat_eel" title="Cutthroat eel">cutthroat eel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ophidiiformes" title="Ophidiiformes">Ophidiiformes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Symphurus_thermophilus" title="Symphurus thermophilus">Symphurus thermophilus</a>), and octopuses (notably <a href="/wiki/Vulcanoctopus_hydrothermalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis">Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis</a>), form a <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> of predator and prey relationships above the primary consumers. The main families of organisms found around seafloor vents are <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">pogonophorans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a>, and crustaceans, with large <a href="/wiki/Bivalves" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalves">bivalves</a>, vestimentiferan worms, and "eyeless" shrimp making up the bulk of nonmicrobial organisms.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expl1534_(9734552643).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Expl1534_%289734552643%29.jpg/220px-Expl1534_%289734552643%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Expl1534_%289734552643%29.jpg/330px-Expl1534_%289734552643%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Expl1534_%289734552643%29.jpg/440px-Expl1534_%289734552643%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Swarms of small synaphobranchid eels, Dysommina rugosa, live in the crevices on the summit of Nafanua. Scientists dubbed this site "Eel City".</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">Siboglinid tube worms</a>, which may grow to over 2 m (6.6 ft) tall in the largest species, often form an important part of the community around a hydrothermal vent. They have no mouth or digestive tract, and like parasitic worms, absorb nutrients produced by the bacteria in their tissues. About 285 billion bacteria are found per ounce of tubeworm tissue. Tubeworms have red plumes which contain <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>. Hemoglobin combines with hydrogen sulfide and transfers it to the bacteria living inside the worm. In return, the bacteria nourish the worm with carbon compounds. Two of the species that inhabit a hydrothermal vent are <a href="/wiki/Tevnia" title="Tevnia">Tevnia</a> jerichonana, and <a href="/wiki/Riftia_pachyptila" class="mw-redirect" title="Riftia pachyptila">Riftia pachyptila</a>. One discovered community, dubbed "<a href="/wiki/Eel_City" title="Eel City">Eel City</a>", consists predominantly of the eel <a href="/wiki/Dysommina_rugosa" title="Dysommina rugosa">Dysommina rugosa</a>. Though eels are not uncommon, invertebrates typically dominate hydrothermal vents. Eel City is located near <a href="/wiki/Vailulu%27u" class="mw-redirect" title="Vailulu'u">Nafanua volcanic cone</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In 1993, already more than 100 gastropod species were known to occur in hydrothermal vents.<a href="#cite_note-Sysoev_1995-32">[32]</a> Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> many of them "sister species" to others found in geographically separated vent areas. It has been proposed that before the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Plate">North American Plate</a> overrode the <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a>, there was a single biogeographic vent region found in the eastern Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The subsequent barrier to travel began the evolutionary divergence of species in different locations. The examples of convergent evolution seen between distinct hydrothermal vents is seen as major support for the theory of natural selection and of evolution as a whole. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sully_Vent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sully_Vent.jpg/220px-Sully_Vent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sully_Vent.jpg/330px-Sully_Vent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sully_Vent.jpg/440px-Sully_Vent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Giant tube worms at the base of a hydrothermal mount</figcaption></figure> Although life is very sparse at these depths, black smokers are the centers of entire <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>. Sunlight is nonexistent, so many organisms, such as <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophiles</a>, convert the heat, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> compounds provided by black smokers into energy through a process called <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a>. More complex life forms, such as <a href="/wiki/Clam" title="Clam">clams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant tube worm">tubeworms</a>, feed on these organisms. The organisms at the base of the <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a> also deposit minerals into the base of the black smoker, therefore completing the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a>. A species of phototrophic bacterium has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> at a depth of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). No sunlight penetrates that far into the waters. Instead, the bacteria, part of the <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiaceae</a> family, use the faint glow from the black smoker for <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. This is the first organism discovered in nature to exclusively use a light other than sunlight for photosynthesis.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> New and unusual species are constantly being discovered in the neighborhood of black smokers. The <a href="/wiki/Pompeii_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompeii worm">Pompeii worm</a> Alvinella pompejana, which is capable of withstanding temperatures up to 80 °C (176 °F), was found in the 1980s, and a <a href="/wiki/Scaly-foot_gastropod" title="Scaly-foot gastropod">scaly-foot gastropod</a> Chrysomallon squamiferum in 2001 during an expedition to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kairei_vent_field" title="Kairei vent field">Kairei hydrothermal vent field</a>. The latter uses iron sulfides (<a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> and greigite) for the structure of its dermal <a href="/wiki/Sclerites" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerites">sclerites</a> (hardened body parts), instead of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. The extreme pressure of 2,500 m of water (approximately 25 <a href="/wiki/Megapascal" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapascal">megapascals</a> or 250 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</a>) is thought to play a role in stabilizing iron sulfide for biological purposes. This armor plating probably serves as a defense against the venomous <a href="/wiki/Radula" title="Radula">radula</a> (teeth) of <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</a> in that community. In March 2017, researchers reported evidence of possibly the <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">oldest forms of life on Earth</a>. Putative fossilized microorganisms were discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the <a href="/wiki/Nuvvuagittuq_Greenstone_Belt" title="Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt">Nuvvuagittuq Belt</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec, Canada</a>, that may have lived as <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">early as 4.280 billion years ago</a>, not long after the oceans <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth#History_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">formed 4.4 billion years ago</a>, and not long after the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">formation of the Earth</a> 4.54 billion years ago.<a href="#cite_note-NAT-20170301-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170301-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20170301-38">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg/220px-Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg/330px-Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg/440px-Fauna_on_hydrothermal_vents.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Shrimp (Alvinocaris), a few squat lobsters, and hundreds of bivalves (Bathymodiolus)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macrouridae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Macrouridae.jpg/220px-Macrouridae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Macrouridae.jpg/330px-Macrouridae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Macrouridae.jpg/440px-Macrouridae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A Macrouridae next to an extinct smoker</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal-bacterial_symbiosis">Animal-bacterial symbiosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Animal-bacterial symbiosis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg/220px-Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg/330px-Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg/440px-Dense_mass_of_anomuran_crab_Kiwa_around_deep-sea_hydrothermal_vent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2030" data-file-height="1197" /></a><figcaption>A dense fauna (<a href="/wiki/Kiwaidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiwaidae">Kiwa</a> anomurans and <a href="/wiki/Vulcanolepas_osheai" title="Vulcanolepas osheai">Vulcanolepas</a>-like stalked barnacles) near <a href="/wiki/East_Scotia_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="East Scotia Ridge">East Scotia Ridge</a> vents</figcaption></figure> Hydrothermal vent ecosystems have enormous biomass and productivity, but this rests on the symbiotic relationships that have evolved at vents. Deep-sea hydrothermal vent ecosystems differ from their shallow-water and terrestrial hydrothermal counterparts due to the symbiosis that occurs between macroinvertebrate hosts and chemoautotrophic microbial symbionts in the former.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Since sunlight does not reach deep-sea hydrothermal vents, organisms in deep-sea hydrothermal vents cannot obtain energy from the sun to perform photosynthesis. Instead, the microbial life found at hydrothermal vents is chemosynthetic; they fix carbon by using energy from chemicals such as sulfide, as opposed to light energy from the sun. In other words, the symbiont converts inorganic molecules (H2S, CO2, O) to organic molecules that the host then uses as nutrition. However, sulfide is an extremely toxic substance to most life on Earth. For this reason, scientists were astounded when they first found hydrothermal vents teeming with life in 1977. What was discovered was the ubiquitous symbiosis of chemoautotrophs living in (<a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">endosymbiosis</a>) the vent animals' gills; the reason why multicellular life is capable to survive the toxicity of vent systems. Scientists are therefore now studying how the microbial symbionts aid in sulfide detoxification (therefore allowing the host to survive the otherwise toxic conditions). Work on <a href="/wiki/Microbiome" title="Microbiome">microbiome</a> function shows that host-associated microbiomes are also important in host development, nutrition, defense against predators, and detoxification. In return, the host provides the symbiont with chemicals required for chemosynthesis, such as carbon, sulfide, and oxygen.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the early stages of studying life at hydrothermal vents, there were differing theories regarding the mechanisms by which multicellular organisms were able to acquire nutrients from these environments, and how they were able to survive in such extreme conditions. In 1977, it was hypothesized that the chemoautotrophic bacteria at hydrothermal vents might be responsible for contributing to the diet of suspension-feeding bivalves.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Finally, in 1981, it was understood that giant tubeworm nutrition acquisition occurred as a result of chemoautotrophic bacterial endosymbionts.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> As scientists continued to study life at hydrothermal vents, it was understood that symbiotic relationships between chemoautotrophs and macrofauna invertebrate species was ubiquitous. For instance, in 1983, clam gill tissue was confirmed to contain bacterial endosymbionts;<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> in 1984 vent <a href="/wiki/Bathymodiolus" title="Bathymodiolus">bathymodiolid mussels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">vesicomyid clams</a> were also found to carry endosymbionts.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> However, the mechanisms by which organisms acquire their symbionts differ, as do the metabolic relationships. For instance, tubeworms have no mouth and no gut, but they do have a "trophosome", which is where they deal with nutrition and where their endosymbionts are found. They also have a bright red plume, which they use to uptake compounds such as O, H2S, and CO2, which feed the endosymbionts in their trophosome. Remarkably, the tubeworms hemoglobin (which incidentally is the reason for the bright red color of the plume) is capable of carrying oxygen without interference or inhibition from sulfide, despite the fact that oxygen and sulfide are typically very reactive. In 2005, it was discovered that this is possible due to zinc ions that bind the hydrogen sulfide in the tubeworms hemoglobin, therefore preventing the sulfide from reacting with the oxygen. It also reduces the tubeworms tissue from exposure to the sulfide and provides the bacteria with the sulfide to perform chemoautotrophy.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> It has also been discovered that tubeworms can metabolize CO2 in two different ways, and can alternate between the two as needed as environmental conditions change.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In 1988, research confirmed thiotrophic (sulfide-oxidizing) bacteria in Alviniconcha hessleri, a large vent mollusk.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In order to circumvent the toxicity of sulfide, mussels first convert it to thiosulfate before carrying it over to the symbionts.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In the case of motile organisms such as alvinocarid shrimp, they must track oxic (oxygen-rich) / anoxic (oxygen-poor) environments as they fluctuate in the environment.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Organisms living at the edge of hydrothermal vent fields, such as pectinid scallops, also carry endosymbionts in their gills, and as a result their bacterial density is low relative to organisms living nearer to the vent. However, the scallop's dependence on the microbial endosymbiont for obtaining their nutrition is therefore also lessened.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Furthermore, not all host animals have endosymbionts; some have episymbionts—symbionts living on the animal as opposed to inside the animal. Shrimp found at vents in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge were once thought of as an exception to the necessity of symbiosis for macroinvertebrate survival at vents. That changed in 1988 when they were discovered to carry episymbionts.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Since then, other organisms at vents have been found to carry episymbionts as well,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> such as Lepetodrilis fucensis.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Furthermore, while some symbionts reduce sulfur compounds, others are known as "<a href="/wiki/Methanotroph" title="Methanotroph">methanotrophs</a>" and reduce carbon compounds, namely methane. Bathmodiolid mussels are an example of a host that contains methanotrophic endosymbionts; however, the latter mostly occur in cold seeps as opposed to hydrothermal vents.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] While chemosynthesis occurring at the deep ocean allows organisms to live without sunlight in the immediate sense, they technically still rely on the sun for survival, since oxygen in the ocean is a byproduct of photosynthesis. However, if the sun were to suddenly disappear and photosynthesis ceased to occur on our planet, life at the deep-sea hydrothermal vents could continue for millennia (until the oxygen was depleted).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_hydrothermal_origin_of_life">Theory of hydrothermal origin of life</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Theory of hydrothermal origin of life">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis#Deep_sea_hydrothermal_vents" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis § Deep sea hydrothermal vents</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_cycle" title="Sulfur cycle">Sulfur cycle</a></div> The chemical and thermal dynamics in hydrothermal vents makes such environments highly suitable thermodynamically for chemical evolution processes to take place. Therefore, thermal energy flux is a permanent agent and is hypothesized to have contributed to the evolution of the planet, including prebiotic chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-Colín-García_2016-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_W%C3%A4chtersh%C3%A4user" title="Günter Wächtershäuser">Günter Wächtershäuser</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Iron-sulfur_world_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron-sulfur world theory">iron-sulfur world theory</a> and suggested that life might have <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">originated</a> at hydrothermal vents. Wächtershäuser proposed that an early form of metabolism predated genetics. By metabolism he meant a cycle of chemical reactions that release energy in a form that can be harnessed by other processes.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> It has been proposed that <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> synthesis could have occurred deep in the Earth's crust and that these amino acids were subsequently shot up along with hydrothermal fluids into cooler waters, where lower temperatures and the presence of clay minerals would have fostered the formation of peptides and <a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">protocells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> This is an attractive hypothesis because of the abundance of CH4 (<a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>) and NH3 (<a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>) present in hydrothermal vent regions, a condition that was not provided by the Earth's primitive atmosphere. A major limitation to this hypothesis is the lack of stability of organic molecules at high temperatures, but some have suggested that life would have originated outside of the zones of highest temperature.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> There are numerous species of <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophiles</a> and other organisms currently living immediately around deep-sea vents, suggesting that this is indeed a possible scenario.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Experimental research and computer modeling indicate that the surfaces of mineral particles inside hydrothermal vents have similar catalytic properties to enzymes and are able to create simple organic molecules, such as <a href="/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a> (CH3OH) and <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a> (HCO2H), out of the dissolved CO2 in the water.<a href="#cite_note-organics-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Additionally, the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide" title="Supercritical carbon dioxide">supercritical CO2</a> at some sites has been used to further support the theory of hydrothermal origin of life given that it can increase organic reaction rates. Its high solvation power and diffusion rate allow it to promote amino and <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a> synthesis, as well as the synthesis of other organic compounds, polymers, and the four amino acids: alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, and glycine. In situ experiments have revealed the convergence of high N2 content and supercritical CO2 at some sites, as well as evidence for complex organic material (amino acids) within supercritical CO2 bubbles.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Proponents of this theory for the origin of life also propose the presence of supercritical CO2 as a solution to the “water paradox” that pervades theories on the origin of life in aquatic settings. This paradox encompasses the fact that water is both required for life and will, in abundance, hydrolyze organic molecules and prevent <a href="/wiki/Dehydration_reaction" title="Dehydration reaction">dehydration synthesis</a> reactions necessary to chemical and biological evolution.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Supercritical CO2, being hydrophobic, acts as a solvent that facilitates an environment conducive to dehydration synthesis. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that the presence of supercritical CO2 in <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a> hydrothermal vents played an important role in the origin of life.<a href="#cite_note-:6-61">[61]</a> There is some evidence that links the origin of life to alkaline hydrothermal vents in particular. The pH conditions of these vents may have made them more suitable for emerging life.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-NLane_Funke-65">[65]</a> One current theory is that the naturally occurring proton gradients at these deep sea vents supplemented the lack of phospholipid bilayer membranes and proton pumps in early organisms, allowing ion gradients to form despite the lack of cellular machinery and components present in modern cells.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> There is some discourse around this topic.<a href="#cite_note-:7-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-68">[68]</a> It has been argued that the natural pH gradients of these vents playing a role in the origin of life is actually implausible. The counter argument relies, among other points, on what the author describes as the unlikelihood of the formation of machinery which produces energy from the pH gradients found in hydrothermal vents without/before the existence of genetic information.<a href="#cite_note-:8-68">[68]</a> This counterpoint has been responded to by <a href="/wiki/Nick_Lane" title="Nick Lane">Nick Lane</a>, one of the researchers whose work it focuses on. He argues that the counterpoint largely misinterprets both his work and the work of others.<a href="#cite_note-:7-67">[67]</a> Another reason that the view of deep sea hydrothermal vents as an ideal environment for the origin of life remains controversial is the absence of wet-dry cycles and exposure to UV light, which promote the formation of membranous vesicles and synthesis of many biomolecules.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The ionic concentrations of hydrothermal vents differs from the intracellular fluid within the majority of life. It has instead been suggested that terrestrial freshwater environments are more likely to be an ideal environment for the formation of early cells.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Meanwhile, proponents of the deep sea hydrothermal vent hypothesis suggest thermophoresis in mineral cavities to be an alternative compartment for polymerization of biopolymers.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> How thermophoresis within mineral cavities could promote coding and metabolism is unknown. Nick Lane suggests that nucleotide polymerization at high concentrations of nucleotides within self-replicating protocells, where "Molecular crowding and phosphorylation in such confined, high-energy protocells could potentially promote the polymerization of nucleotides to form RNA".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Acetyl phosphate could possibly promote polymerization at mineral surfaces or at low water activity.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> A computational simulation shows that nucleotide concentration of nucleotide catalysis of "the energy currency pathway is favored, as energy is limiting; favoring this pathway feeds forward into a greater nucleotide synthesis". Fast nucleotide catalysis of CO2 fixation lowers nucleotide concentration as protocell growth and division is rapid which then leads to halving of nucleotide concentration, weak nucleotide catalysis of CO2 fixation promotes little to protocell growth and division.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In biochemistry, reactions with CO2 and H2 produce precursors to biomolecules that are also produced from the acetyl-CoA pathway and <a href="/wiki/Krebs_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Krebs cycle">Krebs cycle</a> which would support an origin of life at deep sea alkaline vents. Acetyl phosphate produced from the reactions are capable of phosphorylating ADP to ATP,<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> with maximum synthesis occurring at high water activity and low concentrations of ions, the Hadean ocean likely had lower concentrations of ions than modern oceans. The concentrations of Mg2+ and Ca2+ at alkaline hydrothermal systems are lower than the at the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The high concentration of potassium within most life forms could be readily explained that protocells might have evolved sodium-hydrogen antiporters to pump out Na+ as prebiotic lipid membranes are less permeable to Na+ than H+.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> If cells originated at these environments, they would have been autotrophs with a Wood-Ljungdahl pathway and incomplete reverse Krebs cycle.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Mathematical modelling of organic synthesis of carboxylic acids to lipids, nucleotides, amino acids, and sugars, and polymerization reactions are favorable at alkaline hydrothermal vents.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere">The Deep Hot Biosphere</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Deep Hot Biosphere">edit</a>]</div> At the beginning of his 1992 paper The Deep Hot Biosphere, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gold" title="Thomas Gold">Thomas Gold</a> referred to ocean vents in support of his theory that the lower levels of the earth are rich in living biological material that finds its way to the surface.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> He further expanded his ideas in the book <a href="/wiki/The_Deep_Hot_Biosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="The Deep Hot Biosphere">The Deep Hot Biosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> An article on abiogenic hydrocarbon production in the February 2008 issue of <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a> journal used data from experiments at the <a href="/wiki/Lost_City_(hydrothermal_field)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lost City (hydrothermal field)">Lost City hydrothermal field</a> to report how the abiotic synthesis of low molecular mass hydrocarbons from mantle derived carbon dioxide may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks, water, and moderate amounts of heat.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery_and_exploration">Discovery and exploration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Discovery and exploration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit</a></div> In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>. Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor <a href="/wiki/Rift_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rift (geology)">rift</a>. The highly saline character of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The brines and associated muds are currently under investigation as a source of mineable precious and base metals. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BlackSmoker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/BlackSmoker.jpg/220px-BlackSmoker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/BlackSmoker.jpg/330px-BlackSmoker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/BlackSmoker.jpg/440px-BlackSmoker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2669" /></a><figcaption>Black smokers were first discovered in 1979 on the East Pacific Rise at 21° north latitude.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ALVIN_submersible.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ALVIN_submersible.jpg/220px-ALVIN_submersible.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ALVIN_submersible.jpg/330px-ALVIN_submersible.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/ALVIN_submersible.jpg/440px-ALVIN_submersible.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="1197" /></a><figcaption>Alvin in 1978, a year after first exploring hydrothermal vents. The rack hanging at the bow holds sample containers.</figcaption></figure> In June 1976, scientists from the <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a> obtained the first evidence for submarine hydrothermal vents along the Galápagos Rift, a spur of the <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a>, on the Pleiades II expedition, using the Deep-Tow seafloor imaging system.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In 1977, the first scientific papers on hydrothermal vents were published<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> by scientists from the <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>; research scientist Peter Lonsdale published photographs taken from deep-towed cameras,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> and PhD student <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Crane" title="Kathleen Crane">Kathleen Crane</a> published maps and temperature anomaly data.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Transponders were deployed at the site, which was nicknamed "Clam-bake", to enable an expedition to return the following year for direct observations with the <a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a>. Chemosynthetic ecosystems surrounding the Galápagos Rift submarine hydrothermal vents were first directly observed in 1977, when a group of marine geologists funded by the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> returned to the Clambake sites. The principal investigator for the submersible study was <a href="/wiki/Jack_Corliss" title="Jack Corliss">Jack Corliss</a> of <a href="/wiki/Oregon_State_University" title="Oregon State University">Oregon State University</a>. Corliss and Tjeerd van Andel from <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> observed and sampled the vents and their ecosystem on February 17, 1977, while diving in the DSV Alvin, a research submersible operated by the <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI).<a href="#cite_note-divediscover.whoi.edu-92">[92]</a> Other scientists on the research cruise included <a href="/wiki/Richard_P._Von_Herzen" title="Richard P. Von Herzen">Richard (Dick) Von Herzen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ballard" title="Robert Ballard">Robert Ballard</a> of WHOI, Jack Dymond and Louis Gordon of Oregon State University, <a href="/wiki/John_M._Edmond" title="John M. Edmond">John Edmond</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanya_Atwater" title="Tanya Atwater">Tanya Atwater</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>, Dave Williams of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Geological Survey">U.S. Geological Survey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Crane" title="Kathleen Crane">Kathleen Crane</a> of <a href="/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography" title="Scripps Institution of Oceanography">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-divediscover.whoi.edu-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> This team published their observations of the vents, organisms, and the composition of the vent fluids in the journal Science.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In 1979, a team of biologists led by J. Frederick Grassle, at the time at <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">WHOI</a>, returned to the same location to investigate the biological communities discovered two year earlier. High temperature hydrothermal vents, the "black smokers", were discovered in spring 1979 by a team from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography using the submersible Alvin. The RISE expedition explored the East Pacific Rise at 21° N with the goals of testing geophysical mapping of the sea floor with the Alvin and finding another hydrothermal field beyond the Galápagos Rift vents. The expedition was led by <a href="/wiki/Fred_Spiess" title="Fred Spiess">Fred Spiess</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_C._Macdonald" title="Kenneth C. Macdonald">Ken Macdonald</a> and included participants from the U.S., Mexico and France.<a href="#cite_note-Spiess_et_al_1980-17">[17]</a> The dive region was selected based on the discovery of sea floor mounds of sulfide minerals by the French CYAMEX expedition in 1978.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Prior to dive operations, expedition member Robert Ballard located near-bottom water temperature anomalies using a deeply towed instrument package. The first dive was targeted at one of those anomalies. On Easter Sunday April 15, 1979 during a dive of Alvin to 2,600 meters, Roger Larson and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_P._Luyendyk" title="Bruce P. Luyendyk">Bruce Luyendyk</a> found a hydrothermal vent field with a biological community similar to the Galápagos vents. On a subsequent dive on April 21, William Normark and Thierry Juteau discovered the high temperature vents emitting black mineral particle jets from chimneys; the black smokers.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Following this Macdonald and Jim Aiken rigged a temperature probe to Alvin to measure the water temperature at the black smoker vents. This observed the highest temperatures then recorded at deep sea hydrothermal vents (380±30 °C).<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Analysis of black smoker material and the chimneys that fed them revealed that iron sulfide precipitates are the common minerals in the "smoke" and walls of the chimneys.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a>  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg/220px-Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg/330px-Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg/440px-Brothers_blacksmoker_hires.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>A black smoker known as <a href="/wiki/Brothers_Seamount" title="Brothers Seamount">The Brothers</a></figcaption></figure> In 2005, Neptune Resources NL, a mineral exploration company, applied for and was granted 35,000 km2 of exploration rights over the Kermadec Arc in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">Exclusive Economic Zone</a> to explore for <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_massive_sulfide_deposits" title="Seafloor massive sulfide deposits">seafloor massive sulfide deposits</a>, a potential new source of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>-<a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>-<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> sulfides formed from modern hydrothermal vent fields. The discovery of a vent in the Pacific Ocean offshore of <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>, named the Medusa hydrothermal vent field (after the serpent-haired <a href="/wiki/Medusa" title="Medusa">Medusa</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>), was announced in April 2007.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The Ashadze hydrothermal field (13°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, elevation -4200 m) was the deepest known high-temperature hydrothermal field until 2010, when a hydrothermal plume emanating from the Beebe<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> site (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Hydrothermal_vent&params=18_33_N_81_43_W_">18°33′N 81°43′W / 18.550°N 81.717°W / 18.550; -81.717</a>, elevation -5000 m) was detected by a group of scientists from NASA <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a>. This site is located on the 110 km long, ultraslow spreading Mid-Cayman Rise within the <a href="/wiki/Cayman_Trough" title="Cayman Trough">Cayman Trough</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In early 2013, the deepest known hydrothermal vents were discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> at a depth of almost 5,000 metres (16,000 ft).<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Oceanographers are studying the volcanoes and hydrothermal vents of the <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Juan de Fuca Plate">Juan de Fuca</a> mid ocean ridge where <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plates</a> are moving away from each other.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Hydrothermal vents and other geothermal manifestations are currently being explored in the Bahía de Concepción, Baja California Sur, Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Distribution">edit</a>]</div> Hydrothermal vents are distributed along the Earth's plate boundaries, although they may also be found at intra-plate locations such as hotspot volcanoes. As of 2009 there were approximately 500 known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields, with about half visually observed at the seafloor and the other half suspected from water column indicators and/or seafloor deposits.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png/440px-Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png/660px-Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png/880px-Distribution_of_hydrothermal_vent_fields.png 2x" data-file-width="7829" data-file-height="4651" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of hydrothermal vents</figcaption></figure> Rogers et al. (2012)<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> recognized at least 11 <a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogeographic province">biogeographic provinces</a> of hydrothermal vent systems: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> province,</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Scotia_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="East Scotia Ridge">East Scotia Ridge</a> province,</li> <li>northern <a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a> province,</li> <li>central East Pacific Rise province,</li> <li>southern East Pacific Rise province,</li> <li>south of the <a href="/wiki/Easter_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Easter Plate">Easter Microplate</a>,</li> <li>Indian Ocean province,</li> <li>four provinces in the western Pacific and many more.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploitation">Exploitation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Exploitation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Minerals_sediments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Minerals_sediments.jpg/220px-Minerals_sediments.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Minerals_sediments.jpg/330px-Minerals_sediments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Minerals_sediments.jpg/440px-Minerals_sediments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Hydrothermal fluids contain dissolved minerals that cool and react with seawater and then precipitate as sediment on the surrounding seabed.</figcaption></figure> Hydrothermal vents, in some instances, have led to the formation of exploitable mineral resources via the deposition of <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_massive_sulfide_deposits" title="Seafloor massive sulfide deposits">seafloor massive sulfide deposits</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mount_Isa" title="Mount Isa">Mount Isa</a> orebody, located in <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, is an excellent example.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Many hydrothermal vents are rich in <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth element">rare earth metals</a> essential for electronic components.<a href="#cite_note-Mining_2015-108">[108]</a> Hydrothermal venting on the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> seafloor is considered to have formed <a href="/wiki/Algoma-type" class="mw-redirect" title="Algoma-type">Algoma-type</a> <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">banded iron formations</a>, which have been a source of <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Recently, mineral exploration companies, driven by the elevated price activity in the base metals sector during the mid-2000s, have turned their attention to the extraction of mineral resources from hydrothermal fields on the seafloor. Significant cost reductions are, in theory, possible.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In countries such as <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, where mineral resources are primarily derived from international imports,<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> there is a particular push for the extraction of seafloor mineral resources.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The world's first "large-scale" mining of hydrothermal vent mineral deposits was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Japan_Oil,_Gas_and_Metals_National_Corporation" title="Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation">Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation</a> (JOGMEC) in August – September, 2017. JOGMEC carried out this operation using the Research Vessel <a href="/wiki/List_of_research_vessels_by_country" title="List of research vessels by country">Hakurei</a>. This mining was carried out at the 'Izena hole/cauldron' vent field within the hydrothermally active back-arc basin known as the <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Trough" title="Okinawa Trough">Okinawa Trough</a>, which contains 15 confirmed vent fields according to the InterRidge Vents Database. Two companies are currently engaged in the late stages of commencing to mine seafloor massive sulfides (SMS). <a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Minerals" title="Nautilus Minerals">Nautilus Minerals</a> is in the advanced stages of commencing extraction from its Solwarra deposit, in the <a href="/wiki/Bismarck_Archipelago" title="Bismarck Archipelago">Bismarck Archipelago</a>, and Neptune Minerals is at an earlier stage with its Rumble II West deposit, located on the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Arc" class="mw-redirect" title="Kermadec Arc">Kermadec Arc</a>, near the <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</a>. Both companies are proposing using modified existing technology. Nautilus Minerals, in partnership with <a href="/wiki/Placer_Dome" title="Placer Dome">Placer Dome</a> (now part of <a href="/wiki/Barrick_Gold" title="Barrick Gold">Barrick Gold</a>), succeeded in 2006 in returning over 10 metric tons of mined SMS to the surface using modified drum cutters mounted on an ROV, a world first.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Neptune Minerals in 2007 succeeded in recovering SMS sediment samples using a modified oil industry suction pump mounted on an ROV, also a world first.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Potential seafloor mining has environmental impacts, including dust plumes from mining machinery affecting filter-feeding organisms,<a href="#cite_note-Mining_2015-108">[108]</a> collapsing or reopening vents, <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane clathrate</a> release, or even sub-oceanic land slides.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alvinocaris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Alvinocaris.jpg/220px-Alvinocaris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Alvinocaris.jpg/330px-Alvinocaris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Alvinocaris.jpg/440px-Alvinocaris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>A swarm of shrimp from the genus Alvinocaris near a vent in the Pacific Ring of Fire</figcaption></figure> There are also potential environmental effects from the tools needed for mining these hydrothermal vent ecosystems, including noise pollution and anthropogenic light. Hydrothermal vent system mining would require the use of both submerged mining tools on the seafloor, including <a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely operated underwater vehicles</a> (ROVs), as well as surface support vessels on the ocean surface.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> Inevitably, through the operation of these machines, some level of noise will be created, which presents a problem for hydrothermal vent organisms because, as they are up to 12,000 feet below the surface of the ocean, they experience very little sound.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> As a result of this, these organisms have evolved to have highly sensitive hearing organs, so if there is a sudden increase in noise, such as that created by mining machinery, there is potential to damage these auditory organs and harm the vent organisms.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> It is also important to consider that many studies have been able to show that a large percent of <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic</a> organisms communicate using very low-frequency sounds; therefore, increasing ambient noise levels on the seafloor could potentially mask communication between the organisms and alter behavioral patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> Similar to how deep-sea SMS mining tools create noise pollution, they also create anthropogenic light sources on the seafloor (from mining tools) and the ocean surface (from surface support vessels). Organisms at these hydrothermal vent systems are in the <a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">aphotic zone</a> of the ocean and have adapted to very low light conditions. Studies on deep sea shrimp have shown the potential for flood lights used on the sea floor used in studying the vent systems to cause permanent retinal damage,<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> warranting further research into the potential risk to other vent organisms. On top of the risk presented to deep-sea organisms, the surface support vessels use nocturnal <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic effect">anthropogenic</a> lighting.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> Research has shown that this type of lighting on the ocean surface can disorient seabirds and cause fallout, where they fly toward the anthropogenic light and become exhausted or collide with man-made objects, resulting in injury or death.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> There is consideration for both aquatic and land organisms when evaluating the environmental effects of hydrothermal vent mining. There are three mining waste processes, known as the side cast sediment release, dewatering process, and sediment shift or disturbance, that would be expected with the deep-sea mining processes and could result in the accumulation of a sediment plume or cloud, which can have substantial environmental implications. The side cast sediment release is a process that would occur at the seafloor and would involve the move of material at the seafloor by the submerged ROV's and would most likely contribute to the formation of sediment plumes at the seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> The idea of side cast release is that the ROV's would discard economically invaluable material to the side of the mining sight before transporting the sulfide material to the supporting vessel at the surface. The goal of this process is to reduce the amount of material being transferred to the surface and minimize land-based.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> The dewatering process is a mining waste process that would most likely contribute to the formation of sediment plumes from the surface. The method of mine waste disposal releases water from the ship that may have been obtained during the extraction and transport of the material from the seafloor to the surface. The third contribution to the formation of the sediment plume or cloud would be sediment disturbance and release. This mining waste contribution is mainly associated with the mining activity on the seafloor associated with the movement of the ROVs and the destructive disturbance of the seafloor as part of the mining process itself.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> The two main environmental concerns as a result of these waste mining processes that contribute to the formation of the sediment plume would be the release of heavy metals and increased amounts of sediment released. The release of heavy metals is mainly associated with the dewatering process that would take place on board the ship at the surface of the water.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> The main problem associated with dewatering is that it is not just the release of seawater re-entering the water column. Heavy metals such as copper and cobalt that would be sourced from the material extracted on the seafloor are also mixed in with the water that is released into the water column. The first environmental concern associated with the release of heavy metals is that it has the potential to change ocean chemistry within that localized water column area. The second concern would be that some of the heavy metals that could be released can have some level of toxicity to not only organisms inhabiting that area but also organisms passing through the mining site area.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> The concerns surrounding increased sediment release are mainly related to the other two mining waste processes, side cast sediment and seafloor sediment disturbance. The main environmental concern would be the smothering of organisms below as a result of redistributing large amounts of sediment to other areas on the seafloor, which could potentially threaten the population of organisms inhabiting the area. Redistribution of large quantities of sediment can also affect the feeding and gas exchange processes between organisms, posing a serious threat to the population. Finally, these processes can also increase the sedimentation rate on the seafloor, resulting in a predicted minimum of 500 m per every 1–10 km.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> A large amount of work is currently being engaged in by both of the above-mentioned companies to ensure that the potential environmental impacts of seafloor mining are well understood and control measures are implemented before exploitation commences.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> However, this process has been arguably hindered by the disproportionate distribution of research effort among vent ecosystems; the best studied and understood hydrothermal vent ecosystems are not representative of those targeted for mining.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Attempts have been made in the past to exploit minerals from the seafloor. The 1960s and 1970s saw a great deal of activity (and expenditure) in the recovery of <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">manganese nodules</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</a>, with varying degrees of success. This does demonstrate, however, that the recovery of minerals from the seafloor is possible and has been possible for some time. Mining of manganese nodules served as a cover story for the elaborate attempt in 1974 by the CIA to raise the sunken <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-129_(1960)" title="Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)">Soviet submarine K-129</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Glomar_Explorer" title="Glomar Explorer">Glomar Explorer</a>, a ship purpose-built for the task by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Hughes" title="Howard Hughes">Howard Hughes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The operation was known as <a href="/wiki/Project_Azorian" title="Project Azorian">Project Azorian</a>, and the cover story of seafloor mining of manganese nodules may have served as the impetus to propel other companies to make the attempt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conservation">Conservation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Conservation">edit</a>]</div> The conservation of hydrothermal vents has been the subject of sometimes heated discussion in the oceanographic community for the last 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> It has been pointed out that it may be that those causing the most damage to these fairly rare habitats are scientists.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> There have been attempts to forge agreements over the behaviour of scientists investigating vent sites, but, although there is an agreed code of practice, there is no formal international and legally binding agreement.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Conservation of hydrothermal vent ecosystems after the fact of mining of an active system would depend on the recolonization of chemosynthetic bacteria, and therefore the continuation of the hydrothermal vent fluid as it is the main hydrothermal <a href="/wiki/Energy_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy source">energy source</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> It is very difficult to get an idea of the effects of mining on the hydrothermal vent fluid because there have been no large scale studies done.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> However, there have been studies on the recolonization of these vent ecosystems after volcanic destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Lauren_S_2018-124">[124]</a> From these we can develop insight on the potential effects of <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">mining destruction</a>, and have learned it took 3–5 years for bacteria to recolonize the area, and around 10 years for megafauna to return.<a href="#cite_note-Lauren_S_2018-124">[124]</a> It was also found that there was a shift in the composition of species in the ecosystem compared to before the destruction, and the presence of immigrant species.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-116">[116]</a> Though further research into the effects of sustained seafloor SMS mining on species recolonization is needed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geochronological_dating">Geochronological dating</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Geochronological dating">edit</a>]</div> Common methods to find out the ages of hydrothermal vents are to date the <a href="/wiki/Sulfide_mineral" title="Sulfide mineral">sulfide</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_mineral" title="Sulfate mineral">sulphate minerals</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Baryte" title="Baryte">baryte</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:0-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-129">[129]</a> Common dating methods include <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-126">[126]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance_dating" title="Electron spin resonance dating">electron spin resonance dating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-129">[129]</a> Different dating methods have their own limitations, assumptions and challenges. General challenges include the high purity of extracted <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> required for dating, the age range of each dating method, heating above <a href="/wiki/Closure_temperature" title="Closure temperature">closure temperatures</a> erasing ages of older minerals, and multiple episodes of mineral formation resulting in a mixture of ages. In environments with multiple phases of <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> formation, generally, <a href="/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance_dating" title="Electron spin resonance dating">electron spin resonance dating</a> gives the average age of the bulk mineral while <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dates</a> are biased to the ages of younger phases because of the decay of <a href="/wiki/Parent_nuclide" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent nuclide">parent nuclei</a>. These explain why different methods can give different ages to the same sample and why the same hydrothermal chimney can have samples with different ages.<a href="#cite_note-:3-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/48px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/64px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/28px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/42px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, 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matter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">Brine pool</a> – Accumulation of brine in a seafloor depression</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endeavour_Hydrothermal_Vents" title="Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents">Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents</a> – Group of Pacific Ocean hydrothermal vents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremophiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Extremophiles">Extremophiles</a> – Organisms capable of living in extreme environmentsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide_chemosynthesis" title="Hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis">Hydrogen sulfide chemosynthesis</a> - system of generating energy used in hydrothermal vents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_City_Hydrothermal_Field" title="Lost City Hydrothermal Field">Lost City Hydrothermal Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_Mountain_(British_Columbia)" title="Magic Mountain (British Columbia)">Magic Mountain (British Columbia)</a> – Hydrothermal vent field on the Southern Explorer Ridge, west of Vancouver Island, British Columbia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/9_North" title="9 North">9° North</a> – Region of hydrothermal vents on the East Pacific Rise in the Pacific Ocean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pito_Seamount" title="Pito Seamount">Pito Seamount</a> – Seamount in the Pacific Ocean north-northwest of Easter Island</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a> – Underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanogenic_massive_sulfide_ore_deposit" title="Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit">Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit</a>, also known as VMS deposit – Metal sulfide ore deposit</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div 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Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences. 106 (1): 26–35. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JMPeS.106...26N">2011JMPeS.106...26N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2465%2Fjmps.090825">10.2465/jmps.090825</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1345-6296">1345-6296</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129266361">129266361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Mineralogical+and+Petrological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Barite+geochemistry+from+hydrothermal+chimneys+of+the+Okinawa+Trough%3A+insight+into+chimney+formation+and+fluid%2Fsediment+interaction&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-35&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2465%2Fjmps.090825&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129266361%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1345-6296&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JMPeS.106...26N&rft.aulast=Noguchi&rft.aufirst=Takuroh&rft.au=Shinjo%2C+Ryuichi&rft.au=Ito%2C+Michihiro&rft.au=Takada%2C+Jitsuya&rft.au=Oomori%2C+Tamotsu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fjmps%2F106%2F1%2F106_090825%2F_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_127-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakamasaNakaiSatoToyoda2013" class="citation journal cs1">Takamasa, Asako; Nakai, Shun'ichi; Sato, Fumihiro; Toyoda, Shin; Banerjee, Debabrata; Ishibashi, Junichiro (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1871101412001896">"U–Th radioactive disequilibrium and ESR dating of a barite-containing sulfide crust from South Mariana Trough"</a>. Quaternary Geochronology. 15: 38–46. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013QuGeo..15...38T">2013QuGeo..15...38T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quageo.2012.12.002">10.1016/j.quageo.2012.12.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129020357">129020357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Geochronology&rft.atitle=U%E2%80%93Th+radioactive+disequilibrium+and+ESR+dating+of+a+barite-containing+sulfide+crust+from+South+Mariana+Trough&rft.volume=15&rft.pages=38-46&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129020357%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quageo.2012.12.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013QuGeo..15...38T&rft.aulast=Takamasa&rft.aufirst=Asako&rft.au=Nakai%2C+Shun%27ichi&rft.au=Sato%2C+Fumihiro&rft.au=Toyoda%2C+Shin&rft.au=Banerjee%2C+Debabrata&rft.au=Ishibashi%2C+Junichiro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1871101412001896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_128-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_128-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFujiwaraToyodaUchidaIshibashi2015" class="citation cs2">Fujiwara, Taisei; Toyoda, Shin; Uchida, Ai; Ishibashi, Jun-ichiro; Nakai, Shun’ichi; Takamasa, Asako (2015), Ishibashi, Jun-ichiro; Okino, Kyoko; Sunamura, Michinari (eds.), "ESR Dating of Barite in Sea-Floor Hydrothermal Sulfide Deposits in the Okinawa Trough", Subseafloor Biosphere Linked to Hydrothermal Systems, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 369–386, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-4-431-54865-2_29">10.1007/978-4-431-54865-2_29</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-431-54864-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-431-54864-5"><bdi>978-4-431-54864-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Subseafloor+Biosphere+Linked+to+Hydrothermal+Systems&rft.atitle=ESR+Dating+of+Barite+in+Sea-Floor+Hydrothermal+Sulfide+Deposits+in+the+Okinawa+Trough&rft.pages=369-386&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-4-431-54865-2_29&rft.isbn=978-4-431-54864-5&rft.aulast=Fujiwara&rft.aufirst=Taisei&rft.au=Toyoda%2C+Shin&rft.au=Uchida%2C+Ai&rft.au=Ishibashi%2C+Jun-ichiro&rft.au=Nakai%2C+Shun%E2%80%99ichi&rft.au=Takamasa%2C+Asako&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_129-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsangToyodaTomitaYamamoto2022" class="citation journal cs1">Tsang, Man-Yin; Toyoda, Shin; Tomita, Makiko; Yamamoto, Yuzuru (2022-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quageo.2022.101332">"Thermal stability and closure temperature of barite for electron spin resonance dating"</a>. Quaternary Geochronology. 71: 101332. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022QuGeo..7101332T">2022QuGeo..7101332T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quageo.2022.101332">10.1016/j.quageo.2022.101332</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1871-1014">1871-1014</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248614826">248614826</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Geochronology&rft.atitle=Thermal+stability+and+closure+temperature+of+barite+for+electron+spin+resonance+dating&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=101332&rft.date=2022-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quageo.2022.101332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248614826%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1871-1014&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022QuGeo..7101332T&rft.aulast=Tsang&rft.aufirst=Man-Yin&rft.au=Toyoda%2C+Shin&rft.au=Tomita%2C+Makiko&rft.au=Yamamoto%2C+Yuzuru&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.quageo.2022.101332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUchidaToyodaIshibashiNakai2015" class="citation cs2">Uchida, Ai; Toyoda, Shin; Ishibashi, Jun-ichiro; Nakai, Shun’ichi (2015), Ishibashi, Jun-ichiro; Okino, Kyoko; Sunamura, Michinari (eds.), "226Ra-210Pb and 228Ra-228Th Dating of Barite in Submarine Hydrothermal Sulfide Deposits Collected at the Okinawa Trough and the Southern Mariana Trough", Subseafloor Biosphere Linked to Hydrothermal Systems: TAIGA Concept, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 607–615, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-4-431-54865-2_47">10.1007/978-4-431-54865-2_47</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-431-54865-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-431-54865-2"><bdi>978-4-431-54865-2</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129751032">129751032</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Subseafloor+Biosphere+Linked+to+Hydrothermal+Systems%3A+TAIGA+Concept&rft.atitle=226Ra-210Pb+and+228Ra-228Th+Dating+of+Barite+in+Submarine+Hydrothermal+Sulfide+Deposits+Collected+at+the+Okinawa+Trough+and+the+Southern+Mariana+Trough&rft.pages=607-615&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129751032%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-4-431-54865-2_47&rft.isbn=978-4-431-54865-2&rft.aulast=Uchida&rft.aufirst=Ai&rft.au=Toyoda%2C+Shin&rft.au=Ishibashi%2C+Jun-ichiro&rft.au=Nakai%2C+Shun%E2%80%99ichi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaymon2014" class="citation book cs1">Haymon, R.M. (2014). "Hydrothermal Vents at Mid-Ocean Ridges". Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.09050-3">10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09050-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-409548-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-409548-9"><bdi>978-0-12-409548-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+Vents+at+Mid-Ocean+Ridges&rft.btitle=Reference+Module+in+Earth+Systems+and+Environmental+Sciences&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.09050-3&rft.isbn=978-0-12-409548-9&rft.aulast=Haymon&rft.aufirst=R.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_DoverHumphrisFornariCavanaugh2001" class="citation journal cs1">Van Dover, C. L.; Humphris, SE; Fornari, D; Cavanaugh, CM; Collier, R; Goffredi, SK; Hashimoto, J; Lilley, MD; Reysenbach, AL; Shank, TM; Von Damm, KL; Banta, A; Gallant, RM; Gotz, D; Green, D; Hall, J; Harmer, TL; Hurtado, LA; Johnson, P; McKiness, ZP; Meredith, C; Olson, E; Pan, IL; Turnipseed, M; Won, Y; Young CR, 3rd; Vrijenhoek, RC (13 September 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1064574">"Biogeography and Ecological Setting of Indian Ocean Hydrothermal Vents"</a>. Science. 294 (5543): 818–823. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...294..818V">2001Sci...294..818V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1064574">10.1126/science.1064574</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11557843">11557843</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:543841">543841</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Biogeography+and+Ecological+Setting+of+Indian+Ocean+Hydrothermal+Vents&rft.volume=294&rft.issue=5543&rft.pages=818-823&rft.date=2001-09-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1064574&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A543841%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11557843&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Sci...294..818V&rft.aulast=Van+Dover&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rft.au=Humphris%2C+SE&rft.au=Fornari%2C+D&rft.au=Cavanaugh%2C+CM&rft.au=Collier%2C+R&rft.au=Goffredi%2C+SK&rft.au=Hashimoto%2C+J&rft.au=Lilley%2C+MD&rft.au=Reysenbach%2C+AL&rft.au=Shank%2C+TM&rft.au=Von+Damm%2C+KL&rft.au=Banta%2C+A&rft.au=Gallant%2C+RM&rft.au=Gotz%2C+D&rft.au=Green%2C+D&rft.au=Hall%2C+J&rft.au=Harmer%2C+TL&rft.au=Hurtado%2C+LA&rft.au=Johnson%2C+P&rft.au=McKiness%2C+ZP&rft.au=Meredith%2C+C&rft.au=Olson%2C+E&rft.au=Pan%2C+IL&rft.au=Turnipseed%2C+M&rft.au=Won%2C+Y&rft.au=Young+CR%2C+3rd&rft.au=Vrijenhoek%2C+RC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1064574&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_DoverCindy_Lee2000" class="citation book cs1">Van Dover; Cindy Lee (2000). The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04929-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04929-8"><bdi>978-0-691-04929-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Deep-Sea+Hydrothermal+Vents&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-04929-8&rft.au=Van+Dover&rft.au=Cindy+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeattyOvermannLinceManske2005" class="citation journal cs1">Beatty, J. T.; Overmann, J.; Lince, M. T.; Manske, A. K.; Lang, A. S.; <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Blankenship" title="Robert E. Blankenship">Blankenship, R. E.</a>; Van Dover, C. L.; Martinson, T. A.; Plumley, F. G. (20 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166624">"An obligately photosynthetic bacterial anaerobe from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (26): 9306–9310. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.9306B">2005PNAS..102.9306B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0503674102">10.1073/pnas.0503674102</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166624">1166624</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15967984">15967984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=An+obligately+photosynthetic+bacterial+anaerobe+from+a+deep-sea+hydrothermal+vent&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=9306-9310&rft.date=2005-06-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1166624%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15967984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0503674102&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005PNAS..102.9306B&rft.aulast=Beatty&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rft.au=Overmann%2C+J.&rft.au=Lince%2C+M.+T.&rft.au=Manske%2C+A.+K.&rft.au=Lang%2C+A.+S.&rft.au=Blankenship%2C+R.+E.&rft.au=Van+Dover%2C+C.+L.&rft.au=Martinson%2C+T.+A.&rft.au=Plumley%2C+F.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1166624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198205/silver.from.the.sea.htm">Glyn Ford and Jonathan Simnett, Silver from the Sea, September/October 1982, Volume 33, Number 5, Saudi Aramco World</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061112170550/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198205/silver.from.the.sea.htm">Archived</a> 2006-11-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Accessed 17 October 2005</li> <li>Ballard, Robert D., 2000, The Eternal Darkness, Princeton University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCsotonyiStackebrandtYurkov2006" class="citation journal cs1">Csotonyi, J. T.; Stackebrandt, E.; Yurkov, V. (4 July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1489322">"Anaerobic Respiration on Tellurate and Other Metalloids in Bacteria from Hydrothermal Vent Fields in the Eastern Pacific Ocean"</a>. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 72 (7): 4950–4956. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ApEnM..72.4950C">2006ApEnM..72.4950C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.00223-06">10.1128/AEM.00223-06</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1489322">1489322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16820492">16820492</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+and+Environmental+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Anaerobic+Respiration+on+Tellurate+and+Other+Metalloids+in+Bacteria+from+Hydrothermal+Vent+Fields+in+the+Eastern+Pacific+Ocean&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=4950-4956&rft.date=2006-07-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1489322%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16820492&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.00223-06&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006ApEnM..72.4950C&rft.aulast=Csotonyi&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rft.au=Stackebrandt%2C+E.&rft.au=Yurkov%2C+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1489322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoschinskyGarbe-SchönbergSanderSchmidt2008" class="citation journal cs1">Koschinsky, Andrea; Garbe-Schönberg, Dieter; Sander, Sylvia; Schmidt, Katja; Gennerich, Hans-Hermann; Strauss, Harald (2008). "Hydrothermal venting at pressure-temperature conditions above the critical point of seawater, 5°S on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge". Geology. 36 (8): 615. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Geo....36..615K">2008Geo....36..615K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG24726A.1">10.1130/G24726A.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Hydrothermal+venting+at+pressure-temperature+conditions+above+the+critical+point+of+seawater%2C+5%C2%B0S+on+the+Mid-Atlantic+Ridge&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=615&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG24726A.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Geo....36..615K&rft.aulast=Koschinsky&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft.au=Garbe-Sch%C3%B6nberg%2C+Dieter&rft.au=Sander%2C+Sylvia&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+Katja&rft.au=Gennerich%2C+Hans-Hermann&rft.au=Strauss%2C+Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCatherine_Brahic2008" class="citation web cs1">Catherine Brahic (4 August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth.html">"Found: The hottest water on Earth"</a>. New Scientist. Retrieved 18 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Found%3A+The+hottest+water+on+Earth&rft.pub=New+Scientist&rft.date=2008-08-04&rft.au=Catherine+Brahic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn14456-found-the-hottest-water-on-earth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHydrothermal+vent" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_vent&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output 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title="toolforge:scholia/topic/Q867648">Hydrothermal vent</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vents-data.interridge.org/">InterRidge Vents Database</a> – global database of the locations of known active submarine hydrothermal vent fields, hosted by <a href="/wiki/InterRidge" title="InterRidge">InterRidge</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov">Ocean Explorer</a> – public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Ocean_Exploration_and_Research" title="Office of Ocean Exploration and Research">US Office of Ocean Exploration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QH5keLsOM2o">Video</a> by <a href="/wiki/EV_Nautilus" title="EV Nautilus">EV Nautilus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-amsWf-_-Go">Video</a> by <a href="/wiki/Schmidt_Ocean_Institute" 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href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Biological_communities">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense, counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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