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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preclassic_period_(c._2000_BC_–_250_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preclassic_period_(c._2000_BC_–_250_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Preclassic period (c. 2000 BC – 250 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preclassic_period_(c._2000_BC_–_250_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classic_period_(c._250–900_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classic_period_(c._250–900_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Classic period (c. 250–900 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classic_period_(c._250–900_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classic_Maya_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classic_Maya_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Classic Maya collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classic_Maya_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postclassic_period_(c._950–1539_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postclassic_period_(c._950–1539_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Postclassic period (c. 950–1539 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postclassic_period_(c._950–1539_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contact_period_and_Spanish_conquest_(1511–1697_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_period_and_Spanish_conquest_(1511–1697_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Contact period and Spanish conquest (1511–1697 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contact_period_and_Spanish_conquest_(1511–1697_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persistence_of_Maya_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persistence_of_Maya_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Persistence of Maya culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persistence_of_Maya_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investigation_of_Maya_civilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investigation_of_Maya_civilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Investigation of Maya civilization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investigation_of_Maya_civilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-King_and_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King_and_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 King and court </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King_and_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commoners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commoners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Commoners </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commoners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Warfare </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Warfare subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Warriors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warriors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Warriors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warriors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Trade </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Trade-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Trade subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Merchants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merchants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Merchants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merchants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marketplaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marketplaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Marketplaces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marketplaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Architecture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Architecture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urban_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Urban design </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Building_materials_and_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Building_materials_and_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Building materials and methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Building_materials_and_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principal_construction_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principal_construction_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Principal construction types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principal_construction_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Palaces_and_acropoleis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaces_and_acropoleis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Palaces and acropoleis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaces_and_acropoleis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pyramids_and_temples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pyramids_and_temples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Pyramids and temples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pyramids_and_temples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-E-Groups_and_observatories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#E-Groups_and_observatories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.3 E-Groups and observatories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-E-Groups_and_observatories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Triadic_pyramids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triadic_pyramids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.4 Triadic pyramids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triadic_pyramids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballcourts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballcourts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.5 Ballcourts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballcourts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_architectural_styles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_architectural_styles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Regional architectural styles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_architectural_styles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Central_Petén" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Petén"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.1 Central Petén </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Petén-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puuc" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puuc"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.2 Puuc </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puuc-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chenes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chenes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.3 Chenes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chenes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Río_Bec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Río_Bec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.4 Río Bec </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Río_Bec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usumacinta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usumacinta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.5 Usumacinta </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usumacinta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_and_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_and_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Writing and literacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_and_literacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writing and literacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_and_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Writing system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logosyllabic_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logosyllabic_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Logosyllabic script </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logosyllabic_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Writing tools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scribes_and_literacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scribes_and_literacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Scribes and literacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scribes_and_literacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calendar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calendar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Calendar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Calendar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Calendar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Calendar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Correlation_of_the_Long_Count_calendar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Correlation_of_the_Long_Count_calendar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Correlation of the Long Count calendar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Correlation_of_the_Long_Count_calendar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_mythology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_mythology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Religion and mythology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion_and_mythology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religion and mythology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_mythology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_sacrifice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_sacrifice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Human sacrifice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_sacrifice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maya_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maya_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 Maya sites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maya_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Museum_collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Museum_collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 Museum collections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Museum_collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 21 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 22 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 23 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 24 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Maya civilization</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 124 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-124" aria-hidden="true" > 124 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja" title="Maja – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Maja" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="حضارة المايا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حضارة المايا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_maya" title="Cultura maya – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cultura maya" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A8" title="Մայաներու քաղաքակրթութիւնը – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մայաներու քաղաքակրթութիւնը" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="মায়া সভ্যতা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মায়া সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizaci%C3%B3n_maya" title="Civilización maya – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Civilización maya" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majaku%C3%A9ra" title="Majakuéra – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Majakuéra" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayya_sivilizasiyas%C4%B1" title="Mayya sivilizasiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mayya sivilizasiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ماییا مدنیتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ماییا مدنیتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="মায়া সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মায়া সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_b%C3%BBn-b%C3%AAng" title="Maya bûn-bêng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Maya bûn-bêng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8F_(%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Майя (цивилизация) – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Майя (цивилизация)" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Цывілізацыя мая – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цывілізацыя мая" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%8F" title="Мая – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мая" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Цивилизация на маите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цивилизация на маите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya-Klassik" title="Maya-Klassik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Maya-Klassik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%A0%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BC%8D" title="གནའ་རབས་མ་ཡ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གནའ་རབས་མ་ཡ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maje" title="Maje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Maje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevenadurezh_vaya" title="Sevenadurezh vaya – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sevenadurezh vaya" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BB" title="Майя соёл – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Майя соёл" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilitzaci%C3%B3_maia" title="Civilització maia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Civilització maia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maysk%C3%A1_civilizace" title="Mayská civilizace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mayská civilizace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwareiddiad_y_Maya" title="Gwareiddiad y Maya – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwareiddiad y Maya" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya-Zivilisation" title="Maya-Zivilisation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Maya-Zivilisation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiade_tsivilisatsioon" title="Maiade tsivilisatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maiade tsivilisatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Πολιτισμός των Μάγια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιτισμός των Μάγια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_maya" title="Cultura maya – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cultura maya" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majaoj" title="Majaoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Majaoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maien_zibilizazioa" title="Maien zibilizazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Maien zibilizazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="تمدن مایا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تمدن مایا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_sabhyata" title="Maya sabhyata – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Maya sabhyata" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayar%C3%ADki%C3%B0" title="Mayaríkið – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Mayaríkið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilisation_maya" title="Civilisation maya – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Civilisation maya" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na_M%C3%A1ighigh" title="Na Máighigh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Na Máighigh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACobhaltas_nam_Maya" title="Sìobhaltas nam Maya – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Sìobhaltas nam Maya" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizaci%C3%B3n_maia" title="Civilización maia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Civilización maia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A4%D9%86" title="مايا تمدؤن – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="مايا تمدؤن" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EC%95%BC_%EB%AC%B8%EB%AA%85" title="마야 문명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마야 문명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մայաների քաղաքակրթություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մայաների քաղաքակրթություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="माया सभ्यता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="माया सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_Indijanci" title="Maya Indijanci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Maya Indijanci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peradaban_Maya" title="Peradaban Maya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peradaban Maya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilisation_Maya" title="Civilisation Maya – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Civilisation Maya" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majaveldi%C3%B0" title="Majaveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Majaveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%99%D7%94" title="מאיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מאיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86" title="ಮಾಯಾ ನಾಗರಿಕತೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾಯಾ ನಾಗರಿಕತೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მაიას ცივილიზაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მაიას ცივილიზაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8F_%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Майя өркениеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Майя өркениеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayas" title="Mayas – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Mayas" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_Mayana" title="Cultura Mayana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cultura Mayana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiju_civiliz%C4%81cija" title="Maiju civilizācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Maiju civilizācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majai" title="Majai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Majai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maia_(sivilia)" title="Maia (sivilia) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Maia (sivilia)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja_civiliz%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Maja civilizáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Maja civilizáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Мајанска цивилизација – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мајанска цивилизација" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivilizasi%C3%B4na_maia" title="Sivilizasiôna maia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Sivilizasiôna maia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="മായൻ സംസ്കാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മായൻ സംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maja" title="Maja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Maja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="माया संस्कृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="माया संस्कृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="მაიაშ ცივილიზაცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მაიაშ ცივილიზაცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="مایا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="مایا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamadun_Maya" title="Tamadun Maya – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tamadun Maya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_%C3%B9ng-m%C3%ACng" title="Maya ùng-mìng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Maya ùng-mìng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebeliza%C3%A7on_maia" title="Cebelizaçon maia – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Cebelizaçon maia" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%B0" title="Маяа – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Маяа" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%9A%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF_%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80" title="မာယာ ယဉ်ကျေးမှု လောက – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မာယာ ယဉ်ကျေးမှု လောက" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayacultuur" title="Mayacultuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mayacultuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olde_maja-beskaving" title="Olde maja-beskaving – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Olde maja-beskaving" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="माया लहना – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="माया लहना" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%A4%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="マヤ文明 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マヤ文明" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8F_(%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8)" title="Майя (цивилизаци) – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Майя (цивилизаци)" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayakulturen" title="Mayakulturen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mayakulturen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayaer" title="Mayaer – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mayaer" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizacion_maia" title="Civilizacion maia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Civilizacion maia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%AD%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BE" title="ମାୟା ସଭ୍ୟତା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମାୟା ସଭ୍ୟତା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_sivilizatsiyasi" title="Maya sivilizatsiyasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Maya sivilizatsiyasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%86_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE" title="ਮਾਇਆ ਸੱਭਿਅਤਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਾਇਆ ਸੱਭਿਅਤਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%B1%DB%81%D8%AA%D9%84" title="مایا رہتل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مایا رہتل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_(Indianers)" title="Maya (Indianers) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Maya (Indianers)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cywilizacja_Maj%C3%B3w" title="Cywilizacja Majów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cywilizacja Majów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civiliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_maia" title="Civilização maia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Civilização maia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_tsivilizatsiyas%C4%B1" title="Maya tsivilizatsiyası – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Maya tsivilizatsiyası" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civiliza%C8%9Bia_maya%C8%99%C4%83" title="Civilizația mayașă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Civilizația mayașă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_hawaykawsay" title="Maya hawaykawsay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Maya hawaykawsay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8F_(%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Майя (цивилизация) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Майя (цивилизация)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tziviltade_Maya" title="Tziviltade Maya – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tziviltade Maya" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_ceevilisation" title="Maya ceevilisation – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Maya ceevilisation" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qytet%C3%ABrimi_Maja" title="Qytetërimi Maja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Qytetërimi Maja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="මායා ශිෂ්ටාචාරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මායා ශිෂ්ටාචාරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_civilization" title="Mayan civilization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mayan civilization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maysk%C3%A1_civiliz%C3%A1cia" title="Mayská civilizácia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mayská civilizácia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maji" title="Maji – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Maji" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="شارستانیەتیی مایا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شارستانیەتیی مایا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Цивилизација Маја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Цивилизација Маја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peradaban_Maya" title="Peradaban Maya – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Peradaban Maya" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayojen_korkeakulttuuri" title="Mayojen korkeakulttuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mayojen korkeakulttuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayakulturen" title="Mayakulturen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mayakulturen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabihasnang_Maya" title="Kabihasnang Maya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kabihasnang Maya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மாயா நாகரிகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மாயா நாகரிகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8F_(%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Майя (цивилизация) – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Майя (цивилизация)" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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(цивілізація)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%B0%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="مایا تہذیب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مایا تہذیب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya" title="Maya – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Maya" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_minh_Maya" title="Văn minh Maya – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn minh Maya" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_(civiliz%C3%A5cion)" title="Maya (civilizåcion) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Maya (civilizåcion)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%9B%85" title="馬雅 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="馬雅" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibilisasyon_Maya" title="Sibilisasyon Maya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sibilisasyon Maya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" 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1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Mesoamerican civilization (c. 2000 BC – 1697 AD)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Maya civilization</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mayamap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map showing the extent of the Maya civilization" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mayamap.png/220px-Mayamap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mayamap.png/330px-Mayamap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Mayamap.png/440px-Mayamap.png 2x" data-file-width="1074" data-file-height="789" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Maya_Region" title="Maya Region">Maya Region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Preclassic_Era_or_Formative_Period" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican Preclassic Period</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Colonial_Period,_1521–1821" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Colonial Period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 BC–1697 AD</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Type_site" title="Type site">Type site</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Uaxactun" title="Uaxactun">Uaxactun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dzibilchaltun" title="Dzibilchaltun">Dzibilchaltun</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Period_in_Mesoamerica" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic Period in Mesoamerica"> Archaic Period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of collapse</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish conquest of the Maya</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Maya_civilization" title="Category:Maya civilization">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #50C578;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Maya civilization</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Drawing of a Mayan stone carving with elaborate decoration." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg/260px-MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg/390px-MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg/520px-MA_D293_Maya_stone_carving_from_Copan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1774" data-file-height="521" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Sacrifice in Maya culture">Sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_cities" title="Mayan cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_stelae" title="Maya stelae">Stelae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_textiles" title="Maya textiles">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_dance" title="Maya dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_medicine" title="Maya medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_cuisine" title="Ancient Maya cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="History of the Maya civilization">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preclassic_Maya" title="Preclassic Maya">Preclassic Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_collapse" title="Classic Maya collapse">Classic Maya collapse</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish conquest of the Maya</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/M%C3%A1scara_de_Xiuhtecuhtli_Cultura_Azteza-Mixteca_Ars_Summum.JPG/12px-M%C3%A1scara_de_Xiuhtecuhtli_Cultura_Azteza-Mixteca_Ars_Summum.JPG" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/M%C3%A1scara_de_Xiuhtecuhtli_Cultura_Azteza-Mixteca_Ars_Summum.JPG/18px-M%C3%A1scara_de_Xiuhtecuhtli_Cultura_Azteza-Mixteca_Ars_Summum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/M%C3%A1scara_de_Xiuhtecuhtli_Cultura_Azteza-Mixteca_Ars_Summum.JPG/24px-M%C3%A1scara_de_Xiuhtecuhtli_Cultura_Azteza-Mixteca_Ars_Summum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="1296" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Mesoamerica" title="Portal:Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg/375px-Chichen_Itza_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg/500px-Chichen_Itza_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9771" data-file-height="5197" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/El_Castillo,_Chichen_Itza" title="El Castillo, Chichen Itza">El Castillo</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_(6782073775).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_%286782073775%29.jpg/250px-The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_%286782073775%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_%286782073775%29.jpg/375px-The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_%286782073775%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_%286782073775%29.jpg/500px-The_Temple_of_The_Grand_Jaguar_%286782073775%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Tikal_Temple_I" title="Tikal Temple I">Temple of the Great Jaguar</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></div></div></div></div></div> The Maya civilization (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈmaɪə/</a>) was a <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerican</a> civilization that existed from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>. It is known by <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture#Pyramids_and_temples" title="Maya architecture">its ancient temples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glyph" title="Glyph">glyphs</a> (script). The <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> is the most sophisticated and highly developed <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-Columbian</a> <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>. The civilization is also noted for <a href="/wiki/Maya_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya art">its art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">calendar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">astronomical system</a>. The Maya civilization developed in the <a href="/wiki/Maya_Region" title="Maya Region">Maya Region</a>, an area that today comprises southeastern <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, all of <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>, and the western portions of <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>. It includes the <a href="/wiki/Mayan_Lowlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayan Lowlands">northern lowlands</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Highlands" title="Guatemalan Highlands">Guatemalan Highlands</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Madre_de_Chiapas" title="Sierra Madre de Chiapas">Sierra Madre</a>, the Mexican state of <a href="/wiki/Chiapas" title="Chiapas">Chiapas</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, El Salvador, and the southern lowlands of the Pacific littoral plain. Today, their descendants, known collectively as the Maya, number well over 6 million individuals, speak more than twenty-eight surviving <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a>, and reside in nearly the same area as their ancestors. The <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Archaic_Era" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Archaic period</a>, before 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture and the earliest villages. The Preclassic period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 BC to 250 AD) saw the establishment of the first complex societies in the Maya region, and the cultivation of the staple crops of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya cuisine">Maya diet</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phaseolus_vulgaris" title="Phaseolus vulgaris">beans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">squashes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chili_pepper" title="Chili pepper">chili peppers</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/Maya_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya city">Maya cities</a> developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC. In the Late Preclassic, a number of large cities developed in the <a href="/wiki/Pet%C3%A9n_Basin" title="Petén Basin">Petén Basin</a>, and the city of <a href="/wiki/Kaminaljuyu" title="Kaminaljuyu">Kaminaljuyu</a> rose to prominence in the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Highlands" title="Guatemalan Highlands">Guatemalan Highlands</a>. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is largely defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count dates</a>. This period saw the Maya civilization develop many <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> linked by a complex <a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">trade network</a>. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, the cities of <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a>, became powerful. The Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a> in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a widespread <a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_collapse" title="Classic Maya collapse">political collapse</a> in the central Maya region, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Internecine_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Internecine war">civil wars</a>, the abandonment of cities, and a northward shift of population. The Postclassic period saw the rise of <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a> in the north, and the expansion of the aggressive <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_kingdom_of_Q%CA%BCumarkaj" title="Kʼicheʼ kingdom of Qʼumarkaj">Kʼicheʼ kingdom</a> in the Guatemalan Highlands. In the 16th century, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> colonised the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of <a href="/wiki/Nojpet%C3%A9n" title="Nojpetén">Nojpetén</a>, the last Maya city, in 1697. Rule during the Classic period centred on the concept of the "divine king", who was thought to act as a mediator between mortals and the supernatural realm. Kingship was usually (but not exclusively)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal">patrilineal</a>, and power normally <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">passed to the eldest son</a>. A prospective king was expected to be a successful war leader as well as a ruler. Closed patronage systems were the dominant force in Maya politics, although how patronage affected the political makeup of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic period, the aristocracy had grown in size, reducing the previously exclusive power of the king. The Maya developed sophisticated art forms using both perishable and non-perishable materials, including <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jade_use_in_Mesoamerica" title="Jade use in Mesoamerica">jade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obsidian_use_in_Mesoamerica" title="Obsidian use in Mesoamerica">obsidian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_ceramics" title="Maya ceramics">ceramics</a>, sculpted stone monuments, stucco, and finely painted murals. Maya cities tended to expand organically. The city centers comprised ceremonial and administrative complexes, surrounded by an irregularly shaped sprawl of residential districts. Different parts of a city were often linked by <a href="/wiki/Sacbe" title="Sacbe">causeways</a>. Architecturally, city buildings included <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_pyramids" title="Mesoamerican pyramids">pyramid-temples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ceremonial ballcourts</a>, and structures specially aligned for astronomical observation. The Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing. Theirs was the most advanced writing system in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in <a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">screenfold books</a>, of which only three uncontested examples remain, the rest having been destroyed by the Spanish. In addition, a great many examples of Maya texts can be found on <a href="/wiki/Maya_stelae" title="Maya stelae">stelae</a> and ceramics. The Maya developed a highly complex series of interlocking ritual calendars, and employed mathematics that included one of the earliest known instances of the explicit <a href="/wiki/0_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="0 (number)">zero</a> in human history. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">human sacrifice</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> "Maya" is a modern term used to refer collectively to the various peoples that inhabited this area, as Maya peoples have not had a sense of a common ethnic identity or political unity for the vast majority of their history.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Early Spanish and <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan-language</a> colonial sources in the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> used the term "Maya" to denote both the language spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya" class="mw-redirect" title="Yucatec Maya">Yucatec Maya</a> and the area surrounding the then-abandoned city of <a href="/wiki/Mayapan" title="Mayapan">Mayapán</a>. The term "Maya" was derived from the city of Mayapán.<a href="#cite_note-Restall,_Matthew_2004-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Restall_2017._pp._91–130-4">[4]</a> Some colonial Mayan-language sources also used "Maya" to refer to other Maya groups, sometimes pejoratively in reference to Maya groups more resistant to Spanish rule.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_Region" title="Maya Region">Maya Region</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg/220px-Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg/330px-Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg/440px-Maya_civilization_location_map_-_geography.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Maya area</figcaption></figure> The Maya civilization occupied a wide territory that included southeastern Mexico and northern Central America. This area included the entire Yucatán Peninsula and all of the territory now in the modern countries of Guatemala and Belize, as well as the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p26-6">[6]</a> Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains and a generally low coastline.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson_1966,_p._25-7">[7]</a> The territory of the Maya covered a third of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p5-8">[8]</a> and the Maya were engaged in a dynamic relationship with neighbouring cultures that included the <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmecs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mixtec" title="Mixtec">Mixtecs</a>, Teotihuacan, and <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> During the Early Classic period, the Maya cities of Tikal and Kaminaljuyu were key Maya foci in a network that extended into the highlands of central Mexico;<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> there was a strong Maya presence at the Tetitla compound of Teotihuacan.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The Maya city of Chichen Itza and the distant <a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Tula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Tula (Mesoamerican site)">Tula</a> had an especially <a href="/wiki/Maya-Toltec_controversy_at_Chichen_Itza" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya-Toltec controversy at Chichen Itza">close relationship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The Petén region consists of densely forested low-lying limestone plain;<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> a chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> To the south the plain gradually rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The dense <a href="/wiki/Maya_Forest" title="Maya Forest">Maya forest</a> covers northern Petén and Belize, most of <a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo" title="Quintana Roo">Quintana Roo</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Campeche" title="Campeche">Campeche</a>, and a portion of the south of <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Yucatán">Yucatán</a> state. Farther north, the vegetation turns to lower forest consisting of dense scrub.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral zone</a> of <a href="/wiki/Soconusco" title="Soconusco">Soconusco</a> lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The Maya highlands extend eastwards from Chiapas into Guatemala, reaching their highest in the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_de_los_Cuchumatanes" title="Sierra de los Cuchumatanes">Sierra de los Cuchumatanes</a>. Their major pre-Columbian population centres were in the largest highland valleys, such as the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Guatemala" title="Valley of Guatemala">Valley of Guatemala</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Quetzaltenango" title="Quetzaltenango">Quetzaltenango</a> Valley. In the southern highlands, a belt of volcanic cones runs parallel to the Pacific coast. The highlands extend northwards into <a href="/wiki/Verapaz,_Guatemala" title="Verapaz, Guatemala">Verapaz</a>, and gradually descend to the east.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="History of the Maya civilization">History of the Maya civilization</a></div> The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic, and Postclassic.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> These were preceded by the Archaic Period, during which the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture emerged.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of Maya chronology, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decline.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <table align="center" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Maya chronology<a href="#cite_note-Estrada-Belli11p3-24">[24]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Period </th> <th colspan="2">Division </th> <th>Dates </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Archaic </td> <td>8000–2000 BC<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">Preclassic </td> <td colspan="2">Early Preclassic </td> <td>2000–1000 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Middle Preclassic </td> <td>Early Middle Preclassic </td> <td>1000–600 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Late Middle Preclassic </td> <td>600–350 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Late Preclassic </td> <td>Early Late Preclassic </td> <td>350–1 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Late Late Preclassic </td> <td>1 BC – AD 159 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Terminal Preclassic </td> <td>AD 159–250 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Classic </td> <td colspan="2">Early Classic </td> <td>AD 250–550 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Late Classic </td> <td>AD 550–830 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Terminal Classic </td> <td>AD 830–950 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Postclassic </td> <td colspan="2">Early Postclassic </td> <td>AD 950–1200 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Late Postclassic </td> <td>AD 1200–1539 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Contact period </td> <td>AD 1511–1697<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preclassic_period_(c._2000_BC_–_250_AD)">Preclassic period (c. 2000 BC – 250 AD)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Preclassic_Maya" title="Preclassic Maya">Preclassic Maya</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:430px;max-width:430px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg/200px-Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg/300px-Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg/400px-Kaminaljuyu_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Mirador_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/El_Mirador_5.jpg/222px-El_Mirador_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/El_Mirador_5.jpg/333px-El_Mirador_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/El_Mirador_5.jpg/444px-El_Mirador_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Kaminaljuyu" title="Kaminaljuyu">Kaminaljuyu</a>, in the highlands, and <a href="/wiki/El_Mirador" title="El Mirador">El Mirador</a>, in the lowlands, were both important cities in the Late Preclassic.</div></div></div></div> The Maya developed their first civilization in the Preclassic period.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Scholars continue to discuss when this era of Maya civilization began. Maya occupation at <a href="/wiki/Cuello" title="Cuello">Cuello</a> (modern Belize) has been carbon dated to around 2600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Settlements were established around 1800 BC in the Soconusco region of the Pacific coast, and the Maya were already cultivating the staple crops of maize, beans, squash, and chili pepper.<a href="#cite_note-Drew99p6-29">[29]</a> This period was characterised by <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">sedentary</a> communities and the introduction of pottery and fired clay figurines.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Middle Preclassic Period</a>, small villages began to grow to form cities.<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p26-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nakbe" title="Nakbe">Nakbe</a> in the Petén department of Guatemala is the earliest well-documented city in the Maya lowlands,<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p214-32">[32]</a> where large structures have been dated to around 750 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p26-31">[31]</a> The northern lowlands of Yucatán were widely settled by the Middle Preclassic.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> By approximately 400 BC, early Maya rulers were raising stelae.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> A developed script was already being used in Petén by the 3rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-Saturno2006-35">[35]</a> In the Late Preclassic Period, the enormous city of <a href="/wiki/El_Mirador" title="El Mirador">El Mirador</a> grew to cover approximately 16 square kilometres (6.2 sq mi).<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p28-36">[36]</a> Although not as large, Tikal was already a significant city by around 350 BC.<a href="#cite_note-MartinGrube00p25-26-37">[37]</a> In the highlands, <a href="/wiki/Kaminaljuyu" title="Kaminaljuyu">Kaminaljuyu</a> emerged as a principal centre in the Late Preclassic.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Takalik_Abaj" title="Takalik Abaj">Takalik Abaj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chocol%C3%A1" title="Chocolá">Chocolá</a> were two of the most important cities on the Pacific coastal plain,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Komchen" title="Komchen">Komchen</a> grew to become an important site in northern Yucatán.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The Late Preclassic cultural florescence collapsed in the 1st century AD and many of the great Maya cities of the epoch were abandoned; the cause of this collapse is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-MartinGrube00p8-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classic_period_(c._250–900_AD)">Classic period (c. 250–900 AD)</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:QuiriguaStela1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/QuiriguaStela1.jpg/170px-QuiriguaStela1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/QuiriguaStela1.jpg/255px-QuiriguaStela1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/QuiriguaStela1.jpg/340px-QuiriguaStela1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Stela D from <a href="/wiki/Quirigu%C3%A1" title="Quiriguá">Quiriguá</a>, representing king <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCak%CA%BC_Tiliw_Chan_Yopaat" title="Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat">Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></figcaption></figure> The Classic period is largely defined as the period during which the lowland Maya raised dated monuments using the Long Count calendar.<a href="#cite_note-Coe_1999,_p._81-43">[43]</a> This period marked the peak of large-scale construction and <a href="/wiki/Urbanism" title="Urbanism">urbanism</a>, the recording of monumental inscriptions, and demonstrated significant intellectual and artistic development, particularly in the southern lowland regions.<a href="#cite_note-Coe_1999,_p._81-43">[43]</a> The Classic period Maya political landscape has been likened to that of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance Italy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>, with multiple city-states engaged in a complex network of alliances and enmities.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The largest cities had 50,000 to 120,000 people and were linked to networks of subsidiary sites.<a href="#cite_note-Masson_2012,_p._18237-45">[45]</a> During the Early Classic, cities throughout the Maya region were influenced by the great metropolis of <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a> in the distant <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico" title="Valley of Mexico">Valley of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MartinGrube00p9-46">[46]</a> In AD 378, Teotihuacan decisively intervened at Tikal and other nearby cities, deposed their rulers, and installed a new Teotihuacan-backed dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> This intervention was led by <a href="/wiki/Siyaj_K%CA%BCak%CA%BC" title="Siyaj Kʼakʼ">Siyaj Kʼakʼ</a> ("Born of Fire"), who arrived at Tikal in early 378. The king of Tikal, <a href="/wiki/Chak_Tok_Ich%CA%BCaak_I" title="Chak Tok Ichʼaak I">Chak Tok Ichʼaak I</a>, died on the same day, suggesting a violent takeover.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> A year later, Siyaj Kʼakʼ oversaw the installation of a new king, <a href="/wiki/Yax_Nuun_Ahiin_I" title="Yax Nuun Ahiin I">Yax Nuun Ahiin I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._324-49">[49]</a> This led to a period of political dominance when Tikal became the most powerful city in the central lowlands.<a href="#cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._324-49">[49]</a> Tikal's great rival was Calakmul, another powerful city in the Petén Basin.<a href="#cite_note-Olmeda97p36-50">[50]</a> Tikal and Calakmul both developed extensive systems of allies and vassals; lesser cities that entered one of these networks gained prestige from their association with the top-tier city, and maintained peaceful relations with members of the network.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Tikal and Calakmul engaged in the manoeuvering of their alliance networks against each other. At various points during the Classic period, one or other of these powers would gain a strategic victory over its great rival, resulting in respective periods of florescence and decline.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg/220px-Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg/330px-Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg/440px-Calakmul_-_Structure_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a> was one of the most important Classic period cities.</figcaption></figure> In 629, <a href="/wiki/B%CA%BCalaj_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Bʼalaj Chan Kʼawiil">Bʼalaj Chan Kʼawiil</a>, a son of the Tikal king Kʼinich Muwaan Jol II, was sent to found a new city at <a href="/wiki/Dos_Pilas" title="Dos Pilas">Dos Pilas</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Petexbat%C3%BAn_Lake" title="Petexbatún Lake">Petexbatún</a> region, apparently as an outpost to extend Tikal's power beyond the reach of Calakmul.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> For the next two decades he fought loyally for his brother and overlord at Tikal. In 648, king <a href="/wiki/Yuknoom_Ch%CA%BCeen_II" title="Yuknoom Chʼeen II">Yuknoom Chʼeen II</a> of Calakmul captured Balaj Chan Kʼawiil. Yuknoom Chʼeen II then reinstated Balaj Chan Kʼawiil upon the throne of Dos Pilas as his vassal.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> He thereafter served as a loyal ally of Calakmul.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In the southeast, <a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a> was the most important city.<a href="#cite_note-Olmeda97p36-50">[50]</a> Its Classic-period dynasty was founded in 426 by <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Yax_K%CA%BCuk%CA%BC_Mo%CA%BC" title="Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ">Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ</a>. The new king had strong ties with central Petén and Teotihuacan.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Copán reached the height of its cultural and artistic development during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Uaxaclajuun_Ub%CA%BCaah_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil">Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil</a>, who ruled from 695 to 738.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> His reign ended catastrophically when he was captured by his vassal, king <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCak%CA%BC_Tiliw_Chan_Yopaat" title="Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat">Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat</a> of <a href="/wiki/Quirigu%C3%A1" title="Quiriguá">Quiriguá</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The captured lord of Copán was taken back to Quiriguá and was decapitated in a public ritual.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-59">[59]</a> It is likely that this coup was backed by Calakmul, in order to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Palenque" title="Palenque">Palenque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yaxchilan" title="Yaxchilan">Yaxchilan</a> were the most powerful cities in the <a href="/wiki/Usumacinta_River" title="Usumacinta River">Usumacinta</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-Olmeda97p36-50">[50]</a> In the highlands, <a href="/wiki/Kaminaljuyu" title="Kaminaljuyu">Kaminaljuyu</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Guatemala" title="Valley of Guatemala">Valley of Guatemala</a> was already a sprawling city by 300.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In the north of the Maya area, <a href="/wiki/Coba" title="Coba">Coba</a> was the most important capital.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p554-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classic_Maya_collapse">Classic Maya collapse</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_collapse" title="Classic Maya collapse">Classic Maya collapse</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg/220px-Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg/330px-Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg/440px-Chichen_Itza_ruins_in_Mexico_--_by_John_Romkey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a> was the most important city in the northern Maya region.</figcaption></figure> During the 9th century AD, the central Maya region suffered major political collapse, marked by the abandonment of cities, the ending of dynasties, and a northward shift in activity.<a href="#cite_note-MartinGrube00p9-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> No universally accepted theory explains this collapse, but it likely had a combination of causes, including endemic internecine warfare, overpopulation resulting in severe <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">environmental degradation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>.<a href="#cite_note-coe-64">[64]</a> During this period, known as the Terminal Classic, the northern cities of Chichen Itza and <a href="/wiki/Uxmal" title="Uxmal">Uxmal</a> showed increased activity.<a href="#cite_note-MartinGrube00p9-46">[46]</a> Major cities in the northern Yucatán Peninsula were inhabited long after the cities of the southern lowlands ceased to raise monuments.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Classic Maya social organization was based on the ritual authority of the ruler, rather than central control of trade and food distribution. This model was poorly structured to respond to changes, because the ruler's actions were limited by <a href="/wiki/Traditional_society" title="Traditional society">tradition</a> to such activities as construction, ritual, and warfare. This only served to exacerbate systemic problems.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> By the 9th and 10th centuries, this resulted in collapse of this system of rulership. In the northern Yucatán, individual rule was replaced by a ruling council formed from elite lineages. In the southern Yucatán and central Petén, kingdoms declined; in western Petén and some other areas, the changes were catastrophic and resulted in the rapid depopulation of cities.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Within a couple of generations, large swathes of the central Maya area were all but abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Both the capitals and their secondary centres were generally abandoned within a period of 50 to 100 years.<a href="#cite_note-Masson_2012,_p._18237-45">[45]</a> One by one, cities stopped sculpting dated monuments; the last Long Count date was inscribed at <a href="/wiki/Tonin%C3%A1" title="Toniná">Toniná</a> in 909. Stelae were no longer raised, and squatters moved into abandoned royal palaces. Mesoamerican trade routes shifted and bypassed Petén.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postclassic_period_(c._950–1539_AD)">Postclassic period (c. 950–1539 AD)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/League_of_Mayapan" title="League of Mayapan">League of Mayapan</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zacuelu2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Zacuelu2.jpg/220px-Zacuelu2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Zacuelu2.jpg/330px-Zacuelu2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Zacuelu2.jpg/440px-Zacuelu2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4664" data-file-height="3031" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zaculeu" title="Zaculeu">Zaculeu</a> was capital of the Postclassic <a href="/wiki/Mam_people" title="Mam people">Mam</a> kingdom in the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Highlands" title="Guatemalan Highlands">Guatemalan Highlands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> Although much reduced, a significant Maya presence remained into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Unlike during previous cycles of contraction, abandoned lands were not quickly resettled in the Postclassic.<a href="#cite_note-Masson_2012,_p._18237-45">[45]</a> Activity shifted to the northern lowlands and the Maya Highlands; this may have involved migration from the southern lowlands, because many Postclassic Maya groups had migration myths.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Chichen Itza and its <a href="/wiki/Puuc" title="Puuc">Puuc</a> neighbours declined dramatically in the 11th century, and this may represent the final episode of Classic Period collapse. After the decline of Chichen Itza, the Maya region lacked a dominant power until the rise of the city of <a href="/wiki/Mayapan" title="Mayapan">Mayapan</a> in the 12th century. New cities arose near the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf</a> coasts, and new trade networks were formed.<a href="#cite_note-Masson2012p18238-73">[73]</a> The Postclassic Period was marked by changes from the preceding Classic Period.<a href="#cite_note-Arroyo01p38-74">[74]</a> The once-great city of Kaminaljuyu in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Guatemala" title="Valley of Guatemala">Valley of Guatemala</a> was abandoned after continuous occupation of almost 2,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p618-75">[75]</a> Across the highlands and neighbouring Pacific coast, long-occupied cities in exposed locations were relocated, apparently due to a proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">warfare</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Cities came to occupy more-easily defended hilltop locations surrounded by deep ravines, with ditch-and-wall defences sometimes supplementing the natural terrain.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p618-75">[75]</a> One of the most important cities in the Guatemalan Highlands at this time was <a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCumarkaj" title="Qʼumarkaj">Qʼumarkaj</a>, the capital of the aggressive <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_kingdom_of_Q%CA%BCumarkaj" title="Kʼicheʼ kingdom of Qʼumarkaj">Kʼicheʼ kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Arroyo01p38-74">[74]</a> The government of Maya states, from the Yucatán to the Guatemalan highlands, was often organised as joint rule by a council. However, in practice one member of the council could act as a supreme ruler, while the other members served him as advisors.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mayapan_chac.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mayapan_chac.JPG/220px-Mayapan_chac.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mayapan_chac.JPG/330px-Mayapan_chac.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mayapan_chac.JPG/440px-Mayapan_chac.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mayapan" title="Mayapan">Mayapan</a> was an important Postclassic city in the northern <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>.</figcaption></figure> Mayapan was abandoned around 1448, after a period of political, social and environmental turbulence that in many ways echoed the Classic period collapse in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Maya_area" title="Southern Maya area">southern Maya region</a>. The abandonment of the city was followed by a period of prolonged warfare, disease and natural disasters in the Yucatán Peninsula, which ended only shortly before Spanish contact in 1511.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Even without a dominant regional capital, the early Spanish explorers reported wealthy coastal cities and thriving marketplaces.<a href="#cite_note-Masson2012p18238-73">[73]</a> During the Late Postclassic, the Yucatán Peninsula was divided into a number of independent provinces that shared a common culture but varied in internal sociopolitical organization.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> On the eve of the Spanish conquest, the highlands of Guatemala were dominated by several powerful Maya states.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCiche%CA%BC_people" title="Kʼicheʼ people">Kʼicheʼ</a> had carved out a small empire covering a large part of the western Guatemalan Highlands and the neighbouring Pacific coastal plain. However, in the decades before the Spanish conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Kaqchikel_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaqchikel kingdom">Kaqchikel kingdom</a> had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the Kʼicheʼ.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contact_period_and_Spanish_conquest_(1511–1697_AD)">Contact period and Spanish conquest (1511–1697 AD)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish conquest of the Maya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Spanish conquest of Honduras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif/220px-Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif/330px-Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif/440px-Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala_Iximche.gif 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption>Page from the <a href="/wiki/Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala" class="mw-redirect" title="Lienzo de Tlaxcala">Lienzo de Tlaxcala</a> showing the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish conquest</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iximche" title="Iximche">Iximche</a>, known as Cuahtemallan in the <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> language</figcaption></figure> In 1511, a Spanish <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a> was wrecked in the Caribbean, and about a dozen survivors made landfall on the coast of Yucatán. They were seized by a Maya lord, and most were <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">sacrificed</a>, although two escaped. From 1517 to 1519, three separate Spanish expeditions explored the Yucatán coast, and engaged in a number of battles with the Maya inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> After the Aztec capital <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> fell to the Spanish in 1521, <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> despatched <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> to Guatemala with 180 cavalry, 300 infantry, 4 cannons, and thousands of allied warriors from central Mexico;<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> they arrived in Soconusco in 1523.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The Kʼicheʼ capital, Qʼumarkaj, fell to Alvarado in 1524.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Shortly afterwards, the Spanish were invited as allies into <a href="/wiki/Iximche" title="Iximche">Iximche</a>, the capital city of the Kaqchikel Maya.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Good relations did not last, due to excessive Spanish demands for gold as tribute, and the city was abandoned a few months later.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> This was followed by the fall of <a href="/wiki/Zaculeu" title="Zaculeu">Zaculeu</a>, the Mam Maya capital, in 1525.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Montejo" title="Francisco de Montejo">Francisco de Montejo</a> and his son, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Montejo_the_Younger" title="Francisco de Montejo the Younger">Francisco de Montejo the Younger</a>, launched a long series of campaigns against the polities of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1527, and finally completed the conquest of the northern portion of the peninsula in 1546.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> This left only the Maya kingdoms of the Petén Basin independent.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> In 1697, <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a> launched an assault on the <a href="/wiki/Itza_people" title="Itza people">Itza</a> capital <a href="/wiki/Nojpet%C3%A9n" title="Nojpetén">Nojpetén</a> and the last independent Maya city fell to the Spanish.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persistence_of_Maya_culture">Persistence of Maya culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya peoples</a></div> The Spanish conquest stripped away most of the defining features of Maya civilization. However, many Maya villages remained remote from Spanish colonial authority, and for the most part continued to manage their own affairs. Maya communities and the nuclear family maintained their traditional day-to-day life.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The basic Mesoamerican diet of maize and beans continued, although agricultural output was improved by the introduction of steel tools. Traditional crafts such as weaving, ceramics, and basketry continued to be practised. Community markets and trade in local products continued long after the conquest. At times, the colonial administration encouraged the traditional economy in order to extract tribute in the form of ceramics or cotton textiles, although these were usually made to European specifications. Maya beliefs and language proved resistant to change, despite vigorous efforts by <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The 260-day <a href="/wiki/Tzolk%CA%BCin" title="Tzolkʼin">tzolkʼin</a> ritual calendar continues in use in modern Maya communities in the highlands of Guatemala and Chiapas,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and millions of Mayan-language speakers inhabit the territory in which their ancestors developed their civilization.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investigation_of_Maya_civilization">Investigation of Maya civilization</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg/220px-Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg/330px-Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg/440px-Uxmal_nunnery_by_Catherwood_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1078" /></a><figcaption>Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Catherwood" title="Frederick Catherwood">Frederick Catherwood</a> of the Nunnery complex at <a href="/wiki/Uxmal" title="Uxmal">Uxmal</a></figcaption></figure> The agents of the Catholic Church wrote detailed accounts of the Maya, in support of their efforts at <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>, and absorption of the Maya into the Spanish Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p31-95">[95]</a> This was followed by various Spanish priests and colonial officials who left descriptions of ruins they visited in Yucatán and Central America.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> In 1839, American traveller and writer <a href="/wiki/John_Lloyd_Stephens" title="John Lloyd Stephens">John Lloyd Stephens</a> set out to visit a number of Maya sites with English architect and draftsman <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Catherwood" title="Frederick Catherwood">Frederick Catherwood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Their illustrated accounts of the ruins sparked strong popular interest, and brought the Maya to world attention.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p31-95">[95]</a> The later 19th century saw the recording and recovery of ethnohistoric accounts of the Maya, and the first steps in deciphering Maya hieroglyphs.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The final two decades of the 19th century saw the birth of modern scientific archaeology in the Maya region, with the meticulous work of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Maudslay" title="Alfred Maudslay">Alfred Maudslay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teoberto_Maler" title="Teoberto Maler">Teoberto Maler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> By the early 20th century, the <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Ethnology" title="Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology">Peabody Museum</a> was sponsoring excavations at Copán and in the Yucatán Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest_2004,_p._38-100">[100]</a> In the first two decades of the 20th century, advances were made in deciphering the Maya calendar, and identifying deities, dates, and religious concepts.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Since the 1930s, archaeological exploration increased dramatically, with large-scale excavations across the Maya region.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Castillo_Maler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Castillo_Maler.jpg/220px-Castillo_Maler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Castillo_Maler.jpg/330px-Castillo_Maler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Castillo_Maler.jpg/440px-Castillo_Maler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2730" data-file-height="1963" /></a><figcaption>1892 photograph of the <a href="/wiki/El_Castillo,_Chichen_Itza" title="El Castillo, Chichen Itza">Castillo</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Teoberto_Maler" title="Teoberto Maler">Teoberto Maler</a></figcaption></figure> In the 1960s, Mayanist <a href="/wiki/J._Eric_S._Thompson" title="J. Eric S. Thompson">J. Eric S. Thompson</a> promoted the ideas that Maya cities were essentially vacant ceremonial centres serving a dispersed population in the forest, and that the Maya civilization was governed by peaceful astronomer-priests.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest_2004,_p._44-103">[103]</a> These ideas began to collapse with major advances in the decipherment of the script in the late 20th century, pioneered by Heinrich Berlin, <a href="/wiki/Tatiana_Proskouriakoff" title="Tatiana Proskouriakoff">Tatiana Proskouriakoff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Knorozov" title="Yuri Knorozov">Yuri Knorozov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> With breakthroughs in understanding of Maya script since the 1950s, the texts revealed the warlike activities of the Classic Maya kings, undermining the view of the Maya as peaceful.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics">Politics</h2></div> Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a>, the Maya political system never integrated the entire Maya cultural area into a single state or empire. Rather, throughout its history, the Maya area contained a varying mix of political complexity that included both <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">chiefdoms</a>. These polities fluctuated greatly in their relationships with each other and were engaged in a complex web of rivalries, periods of dominance or submission, vassalage, and alliances. At times, different polities achieved regional dominance, such as Calakmul, <a href="/wiki/Caracol" title="Caracol">Caracol</a>, Mayapan, and Tikal. The first reliably evidenced polities formed in the Maya lowlands in the 9th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> During the Late Preclassic, the Maya political system coalesced into a <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theopolitical</a> form, where elite ideology[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] justified the ruler's authority, and was reinforced by public display, ritual, and religion.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The divine king was the centre of political power, exercising ultimate control over administrative, economic, judicial, and military functions. The divine authority invested within the ruler was such that the king was able to mobilize both the aristocracy and commoners in executing huge infrastructure projects, apparently with no police force or standing army.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Some polities engaged in a strategy of increasing administration, and filling administrative posts with loyal supporters rather than blood relatives.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Within a polity, mid-ranking population centres would have played a key role in managing resources and internal conflict.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The Maya political landscape was highly complex and Maya elites engaged in political intrigue to gain economic and social advantage over neighbours.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> In the Late Classic, some cities established a long period of dominance over other large cities, such as the dominance of Caracol over <a href="/wiki/Naranjo" title="Naranjo">Naranjo</a> for half a century. In other cases, loose alliance networks were formed around a dominant city.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Border settlements, usually located about halfway between neighbouring capitals, often switched allegiance over the course of their history, and at times acted independently.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Dominant capitals exacted tribute in the form of luxury items from subjugated population centres.<a href="#cite_note-Foias14p161-114">[114]</a> Political power was reinforced by military power, and the capture and humiliation of enemy warriors played an important part in elite culture. An overriding sense of pride and honour among the warrior aristocracy could lead to extended feuds and vendettas, which caused political instability and the fragmentation of polities.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Maya society</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Maya_society" title="Women in Maya society">Women in Maya society</a></div> From the Early Preclassic, Maya society was sharply divided between the elite and commoners. As population increased over time, various sectors of society became increasingly specialised, and political organization increasingly complex.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> By the Late Classic, when populations had grown enormously and hundreds of cities were connected in a complex web of political hierarchies, the wealthy segment of society multiplied.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> A middle class may have developed that included artisans, low ranking <a href="/wiki/Maya_priesthood" title="Maya priesthood">priests</a> and officials, merchants, and soldiers. Commoners included farmers, servants, labourers, and slaves.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> According to indigenous histories, land was held communally by noble houses or <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clans</a>. Such clans held that the land was the property of the ancestors, and ties between the land and the ancestors were reinforced by the burial of the dead within residential compounds.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King_and_court">King and court</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg/220px-Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg/330px-Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg/440px-Tonin%C3%A1_Stela_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maya_stelae" title="Maya stelae">Stela</a> from <a href="/wiki/Tonin%C3%A1" title="Toniná">Toniná</a>, representing the 6th-century king Bahlam Yaxuun Tihl<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></figcaption></figure> Classic Maya rule was centred in a royal culture that was displayed in all areas of Classic Maya art. The king was the supreme ruler and held a semi-divine status that made him the mediator between the mortal realm and that of the gods. From very early times, kings were specifically identified with the <a href="/wiki/Maya_maize_god" title="Maya maize god">young maize god</a>, whose gift of maize was the basis of Mesoamerican civilization. Maya royal succession was <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineal</a>, and royal power only passed to <a href="/wiki/Women_rulers_in_Maya_society" title="Women rulers in Maya society">queens</a> when doing otherwise would result in the extinction of the dynasty. Typically, power was passed to the eldest son. A young prince was called a chʼok ("youth"), although this word later came to refer to nobility in general. The royal heir was called bʼaah chʼok ("head youth"). Various points in the prince's <a href="/wiki/Childhood_in_Maya_society" title="Childhood in Maya society">childhood</a> were marked by ritual; the most important was a bloodletting ceremony at age five or six. Although being of the royal bloodline was of utmost importance, the heir also had to be a successful war leader, as demonstrated by taking of captives. The enthronement of a new king was a highly elaborate ceremony, involving a series of separate acts that included enthronement upon a <a href="/wiki/Jaguars_in_Mesoamerican_cultures" title="Jaguars in Mesoamerican cultures">jaguar-skin</a> cushion, human sacrifice, and receiving the symbols of royal power, such as a headband bearing a jade representation of the so-called "jester god", an elaborate headdress adorned with <a href="/wiki/Quetzal" title="Quetzal">quetzal</a> feathers, and a sceptre representing the god <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCawiil" title="Kʼawiil">Kʼawiil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Maya political administration, based around the royal court, was not bureaucratic in nature. Government was hierarchical, and official posts were sponsored by higher-ranking members of the aristocracy; officials tended to be promoted to higher levels of office over their lives. Officials are referred to as being "owned" by their sponsor, and this relationship continued even after the death of the sponsor.<a href="#cite_note-Foias14p224-122">[122]</a> The Maya royal court was a vibrant and dynamic political institution.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> There was no universal structure for the Maya royal court, instead each polity formed a royal court that was suited to its own individual context.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> A number of royal and noble titles have been identified by <a href="/wiki/Epigrapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigrapher">epigraphers</a> translating Classic Maya inscriptions. <a href="/wiki/Ajaw" title="Ajaw">Ajaw</a> is usually translated as "lord" or "king". In the Early Classic, an ajaw was the ruler of a city. Later, with increasing social complexity, the ajaw was a member of the ruling class and a major city could have more than one, each ruling over different districts.<a href="#cite_note-D'ArcyHarrison03p114-125">[125]</a> Paramount rulers distinguished themselves from the extended nobility by prefixing the word kʼuhul to their ajaw title. A kʼuhul ajaw was "divine lord", originally confined to the kings of the most prestigious and ancient royal lines.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Kalomte was a royal title, whose exact meaning is not yet deciphered, but it was held only by the most powerful kings of the strongest dynasties. It indicated an overlord, or <a href="/wiki/High_king" title="High king">high king</a>, and was only in use during the Classic period.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> By the Late Classic, the absolute power of the kʼuhul ajaw had weakened, and the political system had diversified to include a wider aristocracy, that by this time may well have expanded disproportionately.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg/220px-Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg/330px-Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg/440px-Maya_Presentation_of_Captives_Kimbell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2068" data-file-height="2529" /></a><figcaption>Classic period sculpture showing sajal Aj Chak Maax presenting captives before ruler <a href="/wiki/Itzamnaaj_Bahlam_III" title="Itzamnaaj Bahlam III">Itzamnaaj Bʼalam III</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yaxchilan" title="Yaxchilan">Yaxchilan</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></figcaption></figure> A sajal was ranked below the ajaw, and indicated a subservient lord. A sajal would be lord of a second- or third-tier site, answering to an ajaw, who may himself have been subservient to a kalomte.<a href="#cite_note-D'ArcyHarrison03p114-125">[125]</a> A sajal would often be a war captain or regional governor, and inscriptions often link the sajal title to warfare; they are often mentioned as the holders of war captives.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Sajal meant "feared one".<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The titles of ah tzʼihb and ah chʼul hun are both related to scribes. The ah tzʼihb was a royal scribe, usually a member of the royal family; the ah chʼul hun was the Keeper of the Holy Books, a title that is closely associated with the ajaw title, indicating that an ajaw always held the ah chʼul hun title simultaneously.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Other courtly titles, the functions of which are not well understood, were yajaw kʼahk' ("Lord of Fire"), tiʼhuun and ti'sakhuun. These last two may be variations on the same title,<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> and Mark Zender has suggested that the holder of this title may have been the spokesman for the ruler.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Courtly titles are overwhelmingly male-oriented, and in those relatively rare occasions where they are applied to a woman, they appear to be used as honorifics for female royalty.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Titled elites were often associated with particular structures in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Classic period cities, indicating that such office holders either owned that structure, or that the structure was an important focus for their activities.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> A lakam, or standard-bearer, was possibly the only non-elite post-holder in the royal court.<a href="#cite_note-Foias14p224-122">[122]</a> The lakam was only found in larger sites, and they appear to have been responsible for the taxation of local districts.<a href="#cite_note-Foias14p224-122">[122]</a> Different factions may have existed in the royal court. The kʼuhul ahaw and his household would have formed the central power-base, but other important groups were the priesthood, the warrior aristocracy, and other aristocratic courtiers. Where ruling councils existed, as at Chichen Itza and Copán, these may have formed an additional faction. Rivalry between different factions would have led to dynamic political institutions as compromises and disagreements were played out. In such a setting, public performance was vital. Such performances included <a href="/wiki/Maya_dance" title="Maya dance">ritual dances</a>, presentation of war captives, offerings of tribute, human sacrifice, and religious ritual.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commoners">Commoners</h3></div> Commoners are estimated to have comprised over 90% of the population, but relatively little is known about them. Their houses were generally constructed from perishable materials, and their remains have left little trace in the archaeological record. Some commoner dwellings were raised on low platforms, and these can be identified, but an unknown quantity of commoner houses were not. Such low-status dwellings can only be detected by extensive <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">remote-sensing</a> surveys of apparently empty terrain.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The range of commoners was broad; it consisted of everyone not of noble birth, and therefore included everyone from the poorest farmers to wealthy craftsmen and commoners appointed to bureaucratic positions.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Commoners engaged in essential production activities, including that of products destined for use by the elite, such as <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cacao</a>, as well as subsistence crops for their own use, and utilitarian items such as ceramics and stone tools.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Commoners took part in warfare, and could advance socially by proving themselves as outstanding warriors.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p144-141">[141]</a> Commoners paid taxes to the elite in the form of staple goods such as maize, flour and game.<a href="#cite_note-Foias14p161-114">[114]</a> It is likely that hard-working commoners who displayed exceptional skills and initiative could become influential members of Maya society.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warfare">Warfare</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">Maya warfare</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:146px;max-width:146px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_standing_male_warrior,_Jaina,_c._550-950_C.E.,_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Maya_standing_male_warrior%2C_Jaina%2C_c._550-950_C.E.%2C_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG/144px-Maya_standing_male_warrior%2C_Jaina%2C_c._550-950_C.E.%2C_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG" decoding="async" width="144" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Maya_standing_male_warrior%2C_Jaina%2C_c._550-950_C.E.%2C_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG/216px-Maya_standing_male_warrior%2C_Jaina%2C_c._550-950_C.E.%2C_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Maya_standing_male_warrior%2C_Jaina%2C_c._550-950_C.E.%2C_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG/288px-Maya_standing_male_warrior%2C_Jaina%2C_c._550-950_C.E.%2C_long-term_loan_to_the_Dayton_Art_Institute.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="3145" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Jaina_Island" title="Jaina Island">Jaina Island</a> figurine representing a Classic period <a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">warrior</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg/200px-Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg/300px-Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg/400px-Takalik_Abaj_obsidian_spearpoints.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="1541" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_use_in_Mesoamerica" title="Obsidian use in Mesoamerica">Obsidian</a> spearheads with a <a href="/wiki/Lithic_core" title="Lithic core">lithic core</a>, <a href="/wiki/Takalik_Abaj" title="Takalik Abaj">Takalik Abaj</a></div></div></div></div></div> Warfare was prevalent in the Maya world. Military campaigns were launched for a variety of reasons, including the control of trade routes and tribute, raids to take captives, scaling up to the complete destruction of an enemy state. Little is known about Maya military organization, logistics, or training. Warfare is depicted in Maya art from the Classic period, and wars and victories are mentioned in hieroglyphic inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p143-143">[143]</a> Unfortunately, the inscriptions do not provide information upon the causes of war, or the form it took.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p291-144">[144]</a> In the 8th–9th centuries, intensive warfare resulted in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Petexbatún region of western Petén.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p291-144">[144]</a> The rapid abandonment of <a href="/wiki/Aguateca" title="Aguateca">Aguateca</a> by its inhabitants has provided a rare opportunity to examine the remains of Maya weaponry in situ.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p292-145">[145]</a> Aguateca was stormed by unknown enemies around 810 AD, who overcame its formidable defences and burned the royal palace. The elite inhabitants of the city either fled or were captured, and never returned to collect their abandoned property. The inhabitants of the periphery abandoned the site soon after. This is an example of intensive warfare carried out by an enemy in order to eliminate a Maya state, rather than subjugate it. Research at Aguateca indicated that Classic period warriors were primarily members of the elite.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p293-146">[146]</a> From as early as the Preclassic period, the ruler of a Maya polity was expected to be a distinguished war leader, and was depicted with <a href="/wiki/Human_trophy_taking_in_Mesoamerica" title="Human trophy taking in Mesoamerica">trophy heads</a> hanging from his belt. In the Classic period, such trophy heads no longer appeared on the king's belt, but Classic period kings are frequently depicted standing over humiliated war captives.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p143-143">[143]</a> Right up to the end of the Postclassic period, Maya kings led as war captains. Maya inscriptions from the Classic show that a defeated king could be captured, tortured, and sacrificed.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p144-141">[141]</a> The Spanish recorded that Maya leaders kept track of troop movements in painted books.<a href="#cite_note-Webster00p66-147">[147]</a> The outcome of a successful military campaign could vary in its impact on the defeated polity. In some cases, entire cities were sacked, and never resettled, as at Aguateca.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> In other instances, the victors would seize the defeated rulers, their families, and patron gods. The captured nobles and their families could be imprisoned, or sacrificed. At the least severe end of the scale, the defeated polity would be obliged to pay tribute to the victor.<a href="#cite_note-FOias14p168-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warriors">Warriors</h3></div> During the Contact period, certain military positions were held by members of the aristocracy, and were passed on by patrilineal succession. It is likely that the specialised knowledge inherent in the particular military role was taught to the successor, including strategy, ritual, and war dances.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p144-141">[141]</a> Maya armies of the Contact period were highly disciplined, and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills; every able-bodied adult male was available for military service. Maya states did not maintain standing armies; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders. There were also units of full-time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Most warriors were not full-time, however, and were primarily farmers; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Wise_and_McBride_2008,_p._34-151">[151]</a> Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> There is some evidence from the Classic period that women provided supporting roles in war, but they did not act as military officers with the exception of those rare ruling queens.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p145-153">[153]</a> By the Postclassic, the native chronicles suggest that women occasionally fought in battle.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p144-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weapons">Weapons</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg/220px-British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg/330px-British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg/440px-British_Museum_Mesoamerica_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>Lintel 16 from <a href="/wiki/Yaxchil%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaxchilán">Yaxchilán</a>, depicting king <a href="/wiki/Yaxun_B%CA%BCalam_IV" title="Yaxun Bʼalam IV">Yaxun Bʼalam</a> in warrior garb<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Atlatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlatl">atlatl</a> (spear-thrower) was introduced to the Maya region by Teotihuacan in the Early Classic.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p146-155">[155]</a> This was a 0.5-metre-long (1.6 ft) stick with a notched end to hold a <a href="/wiki/Dart_(missile)" title="Dart (missile)">dart</a> or <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The stick was used to launch the missile with more force and accuracy than simply hurling it with the arm.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p146-155">[155]</a> Evidence in the form of stone blade points recovered from Aguateca indicate that darts and spears were the primary weapons of the Classic Maya warrior.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p294-157">[157]</a> Commoners used <a href="/wiki/Blowgun" title="Blowgun">blowguns</a> in war, which also served as their hunting weapon.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p146-155">[155]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">bow and arrow</a> was used by the ancient Maya for both war and hunting.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p291-144">[144]</a> Although present in the Maya region during the Classic period, its use as a weapon of war was not favoured;<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> it did not become a common weapon until the Postclassic.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p146-155">[155]</a> The Contact period Maya also used two-handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian,<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> similar to the Aztec <a href="/wiki/Macuahuitl" title="Macuahuitl">macuahuitl</a>. Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish when they conquered the region.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins.<a href="#cite_note-Wise_and_McBride_2008,_p._34-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">Trade in Maya civilization</a></div> Trade was a key component of Maya society, and in the development of the Maya civilization. The cities that grew to become the most important usually controlled access to vital trade goods, or portage routes. Cities such as Kaminaljuyu and Qʼumarkaj in the Guatemalan Highlands, and <a href="/wiki/Tazumal" title="Tazumal">Chalchuapa</a> in El Salvador, variously controlled access to the sources of obsidian at different points in Maya history.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p319-161">[161]</a> The Maya were major producers of <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, which was used to make the textiles to be traded throughout Mesoamerica.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The most important cities in the northern Yucatán Peninsula controlled access to the sources of salt.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p319-161">[161]</a> In the Postclassic, the Maya engaged in a flourishing <a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_American_slavery_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="List of pre-Columbian American slavery practices">slave trade</a> with wider Mesoamerica.<a href="#cite_note-Foias14p18-163">[163]</a> The Maya engaged in long-distance trade across the Maya region, and across greater Mesoamerica and beyond. As an illustration, an Early Classic Maya merchant quarter has been identified at the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan, in central Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p322-164">[164]</a> Within Mesoamerica beyond the Maya area, trade routes particularly focused on central Mexico and the Gulf coast. In the Early Classic, Chichen Itza was at the hub of an extensive trade network that imported gold discs from <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">turquoise</a> from <a href="/wiki/Los_Cerrillos,_New_Mexico" title="Los Cerrillos, New Mexico">Los Cerrillos, New Mexico</a>. Long-distance trade of both luxury and utilitarian goods was probably controlled by the royal family. Prestige goods obtained by trade were used both for consumption by the city's ruler, and as luxury gifts to consolidate the loyalty of vassals and allies.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p319-161">[161]</a> Trade routes not only supplied physical goods, they facilitated the movement of people and ideas throughout Mesoamerica.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Shifts in trade routes occurred with the rise and fall of important cities in the Maya region, and have been identified in every major reorganization of the Maya civilization, such as the rise of Preclassic Maya civilization, the transition to the Classic, and the Terminal Classic collapse.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p319-161">[161]</a> Even the Spanish Conquest did not immediately terminate all Maya trading activity;<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p319-161">[161]</a> for example, the Contact period <a href="/wiki/Manche_Ch%CA%BCol" title="Manche Chʼol">Manche Chʼol</a> traded the prestige crops of cacao, <a href="/wiki/Annatto" title="Annatto">annatto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">vanilla</a> into colonial Verapaz.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Merchants">Merchants</h3></div> Little is known of Maya merchants, although they are depicted on Maya ceramics in elaborate noble dress, so at least some were members of the elite. During the Contact period, Maya nobility took part in long-distance trading expeditions.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> The majority of traders were middle class, but were largely engaged in local and regional trade rather than the prestigious long-distance trading that was the preserve of the elite.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The travelling of merchants into dangerous foreign territory was likened to a passage through the <a href="/wiki/Xibalba" title="Xibalba">underworld</a>; the patron deities of merchants were two <a href="/wiki/Maya_death_gods" title="Maya death gods">underworld gods</a> carrying backpacks. When merchants travelled, they painted themselves black, like their patron gods, and went heavily armed.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p322-164">[164]</a> The Maya had no pack animals, so all trade goods were carried on the backs of porters when going overland; if the trade route followed a river or the coast, then goods were transported in canoes.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p323-169">[169]</a> A substantial Maya trading canoe made from a large hollowed-out tree trunk was encountered off Honduras on <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Fourth_voyage_of_Christopher_Columbus" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth voyage of Christopher Columbus">fourth voyage</a>. The canoe was 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) broad and was powered by 25 rowers. Trade goods carried included cacao, obsidian, ceramics, textiles, and copper bells and axes.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p324-170">[170]</a> Cacao was used as currency (although not exclusively), and its value was such that counterfeiting occurred by removing the flesh from the pod, and stuffing it with dirt or <a href="/wiki/Avocado" title="Avocado">avocado</a> rind.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marketplaces">Marketplaces</h3></div> Marketplaces are difficult to identify archaeologically.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> However, the Spanish reported a thriving <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a> when they arrived in the region.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> At some Classic period cities, archaeologists have tentatively identified formal arcade-style masonry architecture and parallel alignments of scattered stones as the permanent foundations of market stalls.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> A 2007 study compared soils from a modern Guatemalan market to a proposed ancient market at <a href="/wiki/Chunchucmil" title="Chunchucmil">Chunchucmil</a>; unusually high levels of <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> at both sites indicated similar food production and vegetable sales activity. The calculated density of market stalls at Chunchucmil strongly suggests that a thriving market economy already existed in the Early Classic.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Archaeologists have tentatively identified marketplaces at an increasing number of Maya cities by means of a combination of archaeology and soil analysis.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> When the Spanish arrived, Postclassic cities in the highlands had markets in permanent plazas, with officials on hand to settle disputes, enforce rules, and collect taxes.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art">Art</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Ancient Maya art</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:523px;max-width:523px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:237px;max-width:237px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel,_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel%2C_cropped.jpg/235px-Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel%2C_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel%2C_cropped.jpg/353px-Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel%2C_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel%2C_cropped.jpg/470px-Tikal_Temple_IV_lintel%2C_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="702" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The elaborately carved wooden Lintel 3 from <a href="/wiki/Tikal_Temple_IV" title="Tikal Temple IV">Tikal Temple IV</a>. It celebrates a military victory by <a href="/wiki/Yik%CA%BCin_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil">Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil</a> in 743.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:282px;max-width:282px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg/280px-Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg/420px-Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg/560px-Palenque_-_Maske_des_Pakal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Jade <a href="/wiki/Death_mask" title="Death mask">funerary mask</a> of king <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></div></div></div></div></div> Maya art is essentially the art of the royal court. It is almost exclusively concerned with the Maya elite and their world. Maya art was crafted from both perishable and non-perishable materials, and served to link the Maya to their ancestors. Although surviving Maya art represents only a small proportion of the art that the Maya created, it represents a wider variety of subjects than any other art tradition in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Maya art has many regional <a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">styles</a>, and is unique in the ancient Americas in bearing narrative text.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The finest surviving Maya art dates to the Late Classic period.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> The Maya exhibited a preference for the colour green or blue-green, and used the same word for the colours blue and green. Correspondingly, they placed high value on apple-green jade, and other <a href="/wiki/Greenstone_(archaeology)" title="Greenstone (archaeology)">greenstones</a>, associating them with the sun-god <a href="/wiki/Kinich_Ahau" title="Kinich Ahau">Kʼinich Ajau</a>. They sculpted artefacts that included fine <a href="/wiki/Tessera" title="Tessera">tesserae</a> and beads, to carved heads weighing 4.42 kilograms (9.7 lb).<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> The Maya nobility practised <a href="/wiki/Human_tooth_sharpening" title="Human tooth sharpening">dental modification</a>, and some lords wore encrusted jade in their teeth. Mosaic funerary masks could also be fashioned from jade, such as that of <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal</a>, king of Palenque.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg/150px-WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg/225px-WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg/300px-WLA_metmuseum_Maya_Wood_Mirror_Bearer_6th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Early Classic wooden figurine, it may once have supported a <a href="/wiki/Mirrors_in_Mesoamerican_culture" title="Mirrors in Mesoamerican culture">mirror</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_eccentric.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Maya_eccentric.jpg/150px-Maya_eccentric.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Maya_eccentric.jpg/225px-Maya_eccentric.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Maya_eccentric.jpg/300px-Maya_eccentric.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Eccentric_flint_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccentric flint (archaeology)">Eccentric flint</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Museums_of_Art_and_History" title="Royal Museums of Art and History">Musées Royaux d'art et d'Histoire</a>, Brussels</div></div></div></div></div> Maya stone sculpture emerged into the archaeological record as a fully developed tradition, suggesting that it may have evolved from a tradition of sculpting wood.<a href="#cite_note-Miller99p78-186">[186]</a> Because of the <a href="/wiki/Biodegradability" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodegradability">biodegradability</a> of wood, the corpus of Maya woodwork has almost entirely disappeared. The few wooden artefacts that have survived include three-dimensional sculptures, and hieroglyphic panels.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Stone <a href="/wiki/Maya_stelae" title="Maya stelae">Maya stelae</a> are widespread in city sites, often paired with low, circular stones referred to as altars in the literature.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Stone sculpture also took other forms, such as the limestone <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> panels at Palenque and <a href="/wiki/Piedras_Negras_(Maya_site)" title="Piedras Negras (Maya site)">Piedras Negras</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> At Yaxchilan, Dos Pilas, Copán, and other sites, stone stairways were decorated with sculpture.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The hieroglyphic stairway at Copán comprises the longest surviving Maya hieroglyphic text, and consists of 2,200 individual glyphs.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> The largest Maya sculptures consisted of architectural façades crafted from stucco. The rough form was laid out on a plain plaster base coating on the wall, and the three-dimensional form was built up using small stones. Finally, this was coated with stucco and moulded into the finished form; human body forms were first modelled in stucco, with their costumes added afterwards. The final stucco sculpture was then brightly painted.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Giant stucco masks were used to adorn temple façades by the Late Preclassic, and such decoration continued into the Classic period.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> The Maya had a long tradition of mural painting; rich polychrome murals have been excavated at San Bartolo, dating to between 300 and 200 BC.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Walls were coated with plaster, and polychrome designs were painted onto the smooth finish. The majority of such murals have not survived, but Early Classic tombs painted in cream, red, and black have been excavated at Caracol, <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Azul" title="Río Azul">Río Azul</a>, and Tikal. Among the best preserved murals are a full-size series of Late Classic paintings at <a href="/wiki/Bonampak" title="Bonampak">Bonampak</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:523px;max-width:523px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:237px;max-width:237px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG/235px-DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG" decoding="async" width="235" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG/353px-DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG/470px-DSC03332TikalUnderjordiskSteinansikt.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">Stucco</a> mask adorning the Early Classic substructure of <a href="/wiki/Tikal_Temple_33" title="Tikal Temple 33">Tikal Temple 33</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:282px;max-width:282px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bonampak,_Chiapas._13.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bonampak%2C_Chiapas._13.JPG/280px-Bonampak%2C_Chiapas._13.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bonampak%2C_Chiapas._13.JPG/420px-Bonampak%2C_Chiapas._13.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Bonampak%2C_Chiapas._13.JPG/560px-Bonampak%2C_Chiapas._13.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Late Classic painted mural at <a href="/wiki/Bonampak" title="Bonampak">Bonampak</a></div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">chert</a>, and obsidian all served utilitarian purposes in Maya culture, but many pieces were finely crafted into forms that were never intended to be used as tools.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eccentric_flint_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eccentric flint (archaeology)">Eccentric flints</a> are among the finest lithic artefacts produced by the ancient Maya.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p45-198">[198]</a> They were technically very challenging to produce,<a href="#cite_note-SFU-199">[199]</a> requiring considerable skill on the part of the artisan. Large obsidian eccentrics can measure over 30 centimetres (12 in) in length.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Their actual form varies considerably but they generally depict human, animal and geometric forms associated with <a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SFU-199">[199]</a> Eccentric flints show a great variety of forms, such as crescents, crosses, snakes, and scorpions.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> The largest and most elaborate examples display multiple human heads, with minor heads sometimes branching off from larger one.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Maya textiles are very poorly represented in the archaeological record, although by comparison with other pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Aztecs and the <a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andean region</a>, it is likely that they were high-value items.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Scraps of textile have been recovered, but the best evidence for textile art is where they are represented in other media, such as painted murals or ceramics. Such secondary representations show the elite of the Maya court adorned with sumptuous cloths, generally these would have been cotton, but <a href="/wiki/North_American_jaguar" class="mw-redirect" title="North American jaguar">jaguar</a> pelts and deer hides are also shown.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:355px;max-width:355px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:149px;max-width:149px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacul_vase.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Sacul_vase.jpg/147px-Sacul_vase.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Sacul_vase.jpg/221px-Sacul_vase.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Sacul_vase.jpg/294px-Sacul_vase.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1932" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Painted <a href="/wiki/Maya_ceramics" title="Maya ceramics">ceramic vessel</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sacul,_El_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Sacul, El Petén">Sacul</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Jaina_Island_type_figure,_Art_Institute.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Jaina_Island_type_figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg/200px-Jaina_Island_type_figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Jaina_Island_type_figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg/300px-Jaina_Island_type_figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Jaina_Island_type_figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg/400px-Jaina_Island_type_figure%2C_Art_Institute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2075" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Ceramic figurine from <a href="/wiki/Jaina_Island" title="Jaina Island">Jaina Island</a>, AD 650–800</div></div></div></div></div> Ceramics are the most commonly surviving type of Maya art. The Maya had no knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a>, and Maya vessels were built up by <a href="/wiki/Coiling_(pottery)" title="Coiling (pottery)">coiling rolled strips</a> of clay into the desired form. Maya pottery was not glazed, although it often had a fine finish produced by burnishing. Maya ceramics were painted with clay <a href="/wiki/Slip_(ceramics)" title="Slip (ceramics)">slips</a> blended with minerals and coloured clays. Ancient Maya <a href="/wiki/Pottery#Firing" title="Pottery">firing techniques</a> have yet to be replicated.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> A quantity of extremely fine ceramic figurines have been excavated from Late Classic tombs on <a href="/wiki/Jaina_Island" title="Jaina Island">Jaina Island</a>, in northern Yucatán. They stand from 10 to 25 centimetres (3.9 to 9.8 in) high and were hand modelled, with exquisite detail.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ik-style_ceramics" class="mw-redirect" title="Ik-style ceramics">Ik-style</a> polychrome ceramic corpus, including finely painted plates and cylindrical vessels, originated in Late Classic Motul de San José. It includes a set of features such as hieroglyphs painted in a pink or pale red colour and scenes with dancers wearing masks. One of the most distinctive features is the realistic representation of subjects as they appeared in life. The subject matter of the vessels includes courtly life from the Petén region in the 8th century AD, such as diplomatic meetings, feasting, bloodletting, scenes of warriors and the sacrifice of prisoners of war.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Bone, both human and animal, was also sculpted; human bones may have been trophies, or relics of ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-Miller99p78-186">[186]</a> The Maya valued <a href="/wiki/Spondylus" title="Spondylus">Spondylus</a> shells, and worked them to remove the white exterior and spines, to reveal the fine orange interior.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Around the 10th century AD, metallurgy arrived in Mesoamerica from South America, and the Maya began to make small objects in gold, silver and copper. The Maya generally hammered sheet metal into objects such as beads, bells, and discs. In the last centuries before the Spanish Conquest, the Maya began to use the <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax method</a> to <a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">cast</a> small metal pieces.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> One poorly studied area of Maya <a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">folk art</a> is <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_graffiti" title="Ancient Maya graffiti">graffiti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Additional graffiti, not part of the planned decoration, was incised into the stucco of interior walls, floors, and benches, in a wide variety of buildings, including temples, residences, and storerooms. Graffiti has been recorded at 51 Maya sites, particularly clustered in the Petén Basin and southern Campeche, and the Chenes region of northwestern Yucatán. At Tikal, where a great quantity of graffiti has been recorded, the subject matter includes drawings of temples, people, deities, animals, banners, litters, and thrones. Graffiti was often inscribed haphazardly, with drawings overlapping each other, and display a mix of crude, untrained art, and examples by artists familiar with Classic-period artistic conventions.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Maya architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Labna_arco_W.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Labna_arco_W.jpg/220px-Labna_arco_W.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Labna_arco_W.jpg/330px-Labna_arco_W.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Labna_arco_W.jpg/440px-Labna_arco_W.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2637" data-file-height="1719" /></a><figcaption>The Puuc-style <a href="/wiki/Labna" title="Labna">Labna</a> gateway. The passage is formed by a <a href="/wiki/Corbel_arch" title="Corbel arch">corbel arch</a>, a common element in Maya architecture.</figcaption></figure> The Maya produced a vast array of structures, and have left an extensive architectural legacy. Maya architecture also incorporates various art forms and hieroglyphic texts. Masonry architecture built by the Maya evidences craft specialization in Maya society, centralised organization and the political means to mobilize a large workforce. It is estimated that a large elite residence at Copán required an estimated 10,686 <a href="/wiki/Man-hour" title="Man-hour">man-days</a> to build, which compares to 67-man-days for a commoner's hut.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> It is further estimated that 65% of the labour required to build the noble residence was used in the quarrying, transporting, and finishing of the stone used in construction, and 24% of the labour was required for the manufacture and application of limestone-based plaster. Altogether, it is estimated that two to three months were required for the construction of the residence for this single noble at Copán, using between 80 and 130 full-time labourers. A Classic-period city like Tikal was spread over 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi), with an urban core covering 6 square kilometres (2.3 sq mi). The labour required to build such a city was immense, running into many millions of man-days.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p216-213">[213]</a> The most massive structures ever erected by the Maya were built during the Preclassic period.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Craft specialization would have required dedicated stonemasons and plasterers by the Late Preclassic, and would have required planners and architects.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p216-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_design">Urban design</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya city">Maya city</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg/220px-Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg/330px-Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg/440px-Tikal-Reconstruction4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_city" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya city">urban core</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a> in the 8th century AD</figcaption></figure> Maya cities were not formally planned, and were subject to irregular expansion, with the haphazard addition of palaces, temples and other buildings.<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p34-215">[215]</a> Most Maya cities tended to grow outwards from the core, and upwards as new structures were superimposed upon preceding architecture.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Maya cities usually had a ceremonial and administrative centre surrounded by a vast irregular sprawl of residential complexes.<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p34-215">[215]</a> The centres of all Maya cities featured sacred precincts, sometimes separated from nearby residential areas by walls.<a href="#cite_note-ScheleMathews99p23-217">[217]</a> These precincts contained pyramid temples and other monumental architecture dedicated to elite activities, such as basal platforms that supported administrative or elite residential complexes. Sculpted monuments were raised to record the deeds of the ruling dynasty. City centres also featured plazas, sacred ballcourts and buildings used for marketplaces and schools.<a href="#cite_note-ScheleMathews99p24-218">[218]</a> Frequently causeways linked the centre to outlying areas of the city.<a href="#cite_note-ScheleMathews99p23-217">[217]</a> Some of these classes of architecture formed lesser groups in the outlying areas of the city, which served as sacred centres for non-royal lineages. The areas adjacent to these sacred compounds included residential complexes housing wealthy lineages. The largest and richest of these elite compounds sometimes possessed sculpture and art of craftsmanship equal to that of royal art.<a href="#cite_note-ScheleMathews99p24-218">[218]</a> The ceremonial centre of the Maya city was where the ruling elite lived, and where the administrative functions of the city were performed, together with religious ceremonies. It was also where the inhabitants of the city gathered for public activities.<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p34-215">[215]</a> Elite residential complexes occupied the best land around the city centre, while commoners had their residences dispersed further away from the ceremonial centre. Residential units were built on top of stone platforms to raise them above the level of the rain season floodwaters.<a href="#cite_note-Olmedo97p35-219">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Building_materials_and_methods">Building materials and methods</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG/220px-Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG/330px-Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG/440px-Comalcalco_Museo_de_Sitio_5.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Brick#Fired_brick" title="Brick">Fired bricks</a> with animal designs from <a href="/wiki/Comalcalco_(archaeological_site)" title="Comalcalco (archaeological site)">Comalcalco</a>. Made from brick since there was a lack of readily available stone, it is unique among major Maya sites.</figcaption></figure> The Maya built their cities with <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> technology;<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p238-220">[220]</a> they built their structures from both perishable materials and from stone. The exact type of stone used in masonry construction varied according to locally available resources, and this also affected the building style. Across a broad swathe of the Maya area, limestone was immediately available.<a href="#cite_note-Hohmann-Vogrin06p195-221">[221]</a> The local limestone is relatively soft when freshly cut, but hardens with exposure. There was great variety in the quality of limestone, with good-quality stone available in the Usumacinta region; in the northern Yucatán, the limestone used in construction was of relatively poor quality.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p238-220">[220]</a> Volcanic <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a> was used at Copán, and nearby Quiriguá employed <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hohmann-Vogrin06p195-221">[221]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Comalcalco" title="Comalcalco">Comalcalco</a>, where suitable stone was not available locally,<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p239-222">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brick#Fired_brick" title="Brick">fired bricks</a> were employed.<a href="#cite_note-Hohmann-Vogrin06p195-221">[221]</a> Limestone was burned at high temperatures in order to manufacture cement, plaster, and stucco.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p239-222">[222]</a> Lime-based cement was used to seal stonework in place, and stone blocks were fashioned using rope-and-water abrasion, and with obsidian tools. The Maya did not employ a functional wheel, so all loads were transported on litters, barges, or rolled on logs. Heavy loads were lifted with rope, but probably without employing pulleys.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p238-220">[220]</a> Wood was used for beams, and for <a href="/wiki/Lintel" title="Lintel">lintels</a>, even in masonry structures.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> Throughout Maya history, common huts and some temples continued to be built from wooden poles and thatch. <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">Adobe</a> was also applied; this consisted of mud strengthened with straw and was applied as a coating over the woven-stick walls of huts, even after the development of masonry structures. In the southern Maya area, adobe was employed in monumental architecture when no suitable stone was locally available.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p239-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principal_construction_types">Principal construction types</h3></div> The great cities of the Maya civilization were composed of pyramid temples, palaces, ballcourts, <a href="/wiki/Sacbe" title="Sacbe">sacbeob</a> (causeways), patios and plazas. Some cities also possessed extensive hydraulic systems or defensive walls. The exteriors of most buildings were painted, either in one or multiple colours, or with imagery. Many buildings were adorned with sculpture or painted stucco reliefs.<a href="#cite_note-fuente&c99p142-224">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palaces_and_acropoleis">Palaces and acropoleis</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sayil1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sayil1.jpg/220px-Sayil1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sayil1.jpg/330px-Sayil1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Sayil1.jpg/440px-Sayil1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Terminal Classic palace complex at <a href="/wiki/Sayil" title="Sayil">Sayil</a>, in northern <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a></figcaption></figure> These complexes were usually located in the site core, beside a principal plaza. Maya palaces consisted of a platform supporting a multiroom range structure. The term <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">acropolis</a>, in a Maya context, refers to a complex of structures built upon platforms of varying height. Palaces and acropoleis were essentially elite residential compounds. They generally extended horizontally as opposed to the towering Maya pyramids, and often had restricted access. Some structures in Maya acropoleis supported <a href="/wiki/Roof_comb" title="Roof comb">roof combs</a>. Rooms often had stone benches for sleeping, and holes indicate where curtains once hung. Large palaces, such as at Palenque, could be fitted with a water supply, and sweat baths were often found within the complex, or nearby. During the Early Classic, rulers were sometimes buried underneath the acropolis complex.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p232-226">[226]</a> Some rooms in palaces were true throne rooms; in the royal palace of Palenque there were a number of throne rooms that were used for important events, including the inauguration of new kings.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Palaces are usually arranged around one or more courtyards, with their façades facing inwards; some examples are adorned with sculpture.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> Some palaces possess associated hieroglyphic descriptions that identify them as the royal residences of named rulers. There is abundant evidence that palaces were far more than simple elite residences, and that a range of courtly activities took place in them, including audiences, formal receptions, and important rituals.<a href="#cite_note-Christie03p315-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pyramids_and_temples">Pyramids and temples</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guatemala_074.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Guatemala_074.jpg/220px-Guatemala_074.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Guatemala_074.jpg/330px-Guatemala_074.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Guatemala_074.jpg/440px-Guatemala_074.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tikal_Temple_I" title="Tikal Temple I">Temple I</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a>, was a funerary temple in honour of king <a href="/wiki/Jasaw_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil_I" title="Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I">Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a></figcaption></figure> Temples were sometimes referred to in hieroglyphic texts as kʼuh nah, meaning "god's house". Temples were raised on platforms, most often upon a pyramid. The earliest temples were probably thatched huts built upon low platforms. By the Late Preclassic period, their walls were of stone, and the development of the <a href="/wiki/Corbel_arch" title="Corbel arch">corbel arch</a> allowed stone roofs to replace thatch. By the Classic period, temple roofs were being topped with roof combs that extended the height of the temple and served as a foundation for monumental art. Temple shrines contained one to three rooms, and were dedicated to important deities. Such a deity might be one of the <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">patron gods</a> of the city, or a <a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">deified ancestor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> In general, freestanding pyramids were shrines honouring powerful ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="E-Groups_and_observatories">E-Groups and observatories</h4></div> The Maya were keen observers of the sun, stars, and planets.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p235-233">[233]</a> <a href="/wiki/E-Group" title="E-Group">E-Groups</a> were a particular arrangement of temples that were relatively common in the Maya region;<a href="#cite_note-Demarest_2004,_p._201-234">[234]</a> they take their names from Group E at <a href="/wiki/Uaxactun" title="Uaxactun">Uaxactun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> They consisted of three small structures facing a fourth structure, and were used to mark the <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a>. The earliest examples date to the Preclassic period.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest_2004,_p._201-234">[234]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mundo_Perdido,_Tikal" title="Mundo Perdido, Tikal">Lost World</a> complex at Tikal started out as an E-Group built towards the end of the Middle Preclassic.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Due to its nature, the basic layout of an E-Group was constant. A structure was built on the west side of a plaza; it was usually a radial pyramid with stairways facing the cardinal directions. It faced east across the plaza to three small temples on the far side. From the west pyramid, the sun was seen to rise over these temples on the solstices and equinoxes.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p235-233">[233]</a> E-Groups were raised across the central and southern Maya area for over a millennium; not all were properly aligned as observatories, and their function may have been symbolic.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> As well as E-Groups, the Maya built other structures dedicated to observing the movements of celestial bodies.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p235-233">[233]</a> Many Maya buildings were aligned with astronomical bodies, including the planet <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, and various constellations.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-Demarest_2004,_p._201-234">[234]</a> The <a href="/wiki/El_Caracol,_Chichen_Itza" title="El Caracol, Chichen Itza">Caracol</a> structure at Chichen Itza was a circular multi-level edifice, with a conical superstructure. It has slit windows that marked the movements of Venus. At Copán, a pair of stelae were raised to mark the position of the setting sun at the equinoxes.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p235-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Triadic_pyramids">Triadic pyramids</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triadic_pyramid_model,_Caracol.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Triadic_pyramid_model%2C_Caracol.png/220px-Triadic_pyramid_model%2C_Caracol.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Triadic_pyramid_model%2C_Caracol.png/330px-Triadic_pyramid_model%2C_Caracol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Triadic_pyramid_model%2C_Caracol.png/440px-Triadic_pyramid_model%2C_Caracol.png 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1101" /></a><figcaption>Model of a <a href="/wiki/Triadic_pyramid" title="Triadic pyramid">triadic pyramid</a> at <a href="/wiki/Caracol" title="Caracol">Caracol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Triadic_pyramid" title="Triadic pyramid">Triadic pyramids</a> first appeared in the Preclassic. They consisted of a dominant structure flanked by two smaller inward-facing buildings, all mounted upon a single basal platform. The largest known triadic pyramid was built at El Mirador in the Petén Basin; it covers an area six times as large as that covered by Temple IV, the largest pyramid at Tikal.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> The three superstructures all have stairways leading up from the central plaza on top of the basal platform.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> No securely established forerunners of Triadic Groups are known, but they may have developed from the eastern range building of E-Group complexes.<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_1998,_p._78-241">[241]</a> The triadic form was the predominant <a href="/wiki/Architectural_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural form">architectural form</a> in the Petén region during the Late Preclassic.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Examples of triadic pyramids are known from as many as 88 archaeological sites.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> At Nakbe, there are at least a dozen examples of triadic complexes and the four largest structures in the city are triadic in nature.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> At El Mirador there are probably as many as 36 triadic structures.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Examples of the triadic form are even known from <a href="/wiki/Dzibilchaltun" title="Dzibilchaltun">Dzibilchaltun</a> in the far north of the Yucatán Peninsula, and Qʼumarkaj in the Highlands of Guatemala.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> The triadic pyramid remained a popular <a href="/wiki/Architectural_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectural form">architectural form</a> for centuries after the first examples were built;<a href="#cite_note-Hansen_1998,_p._78-241">[241]</a> it continued in use into the Classic Period, with later examples being found at Uaxactun, Caracol, <a href="/wiki/Seibal" title="Seibal">Seibal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nakum" title="Nakum">Nakum</a>, Tikal and Palenque.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> The Qʼumarkaj example is the only one that has been dated to the Postclassic Period.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> The triple-temple form of the triadic pyramid appears to be related to <a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Maya mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ballcourts">Ballcourts</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:438px;max-width:438px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Zaculeu5A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Zaculeu5A.jpg/200px-Zaculeu5A.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Zaculeu5A.jpg/300px-Zaculeu5A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Zaculeu5A.jpg/400px-Zaculeu5A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4648" data-file-height="2904" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Postclassic <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ballcourt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Zaculeu" title="Zaculeu">Zaculeu</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Highlands" title="Guatemalan Highlands">Guatemalan Highlands</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/230px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/345px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/460px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="500" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Great_Ballcourt" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Ballcourt">Great Ballcourt</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a></div></div></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ballcourt</a> is a distinctive pan-Mesoamerican form of architecture. Although the majority of Maya ballcourts date to the Classic period,<a href="#cite_note-ColasVoß11p186-250">[250]</a> the earliest examples appeared around 1000 BC in northwestern Yucatán, during the Middle Preclassic.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> By the time of Spanish contact, ballcourts were only in use in the Guatemalan Highlands, at cities such as Qʼumarkaj and Iximche.<a href="#cite_note-ColasVoß11p186-250">[250]</a> Throughout Maya history, ballcourts maintained a characteristic form consisting of an ɪ shape, with a central playing area terminating in two transverse end zones.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> The central playing area usually measures between 20 and 30 metres (66 and 98 ft) long, and is flanked by two lateral structures that stood up to 3 or 4 metres (9.8 or 13.1 ft) high.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> The lateral platforms often supported structures that may have held privileged spectators.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> The Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza is the largest in Mesoamerica, measuring 83 metres (272 ft) long by 30 metres (98 ft) wide, with walls standing 8.2 metres (27 ft) high.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_architectural_styles">Regional architectural styles</h3></div> Although Maya cities shared many common features, there was considerable variation in architectural style.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Such styles were influenced by locally available construction materials, climate, topography, and local preferences. In the Late Classic, these local differences developed into distinctive regional architectural styles.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p224-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Central_Petén">Central Petén</h4></div> The central Petén style of architecture is modelled after the great city of Tikal. The style is characterised by tall pyramids supporting a summit shrine adorned with a roof comb, and accessed by a single doorway. Additional features are the use of stela-altar pairings, and the decoration of architectural façades, lintels, and roof combs with relief sculptures of rulers and gods.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p224-257">[257]</a> One of the finest examples of Central Petén style architecture is Tikal Temple I.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> Examples of sites in the Central Petén style include <a href="/wiki/Altun_Ha" title="Altun Ha">Altun Ha</a>, Calakmul, <a href="/wiki/Holmul" title="Holmul">Holmul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ixkun" title="Ixkun">Ixkun</a>, Nakum, Naranjo, and <a href="/wiki/Yaxh%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaxhá">Yaxhá</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fuente&c99p146-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puuc">Puuc</h4></div> The exemplar of Puuc-style architecture is Uxmal. The style developed in the Puuc Hills of northwestern Yucatán; during the Terminal Classic it spread beyond this core region across the northern Yucatán Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p224-257">[257]</a> Puuc sites replaced rubble cores with lime cement, resulting in stronger walls, and also strengthened their corbel arches;<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> this allowed Puuc-style cities to build freestanding entrance archways. The upper façades of buildings were decorated with precut stones mosaic-fashion, erected as facing over the core, forming elaborate compositions of long-nosed deities such as the rain god <a href="/wiki/Chaac" title="Chaac">Chaac</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Principal_Bird_Deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Principal Bird Deity">Principal Bird Deity</a>. The motifs also included geometric patterns, lattices and spools, possibly influenced by styles from highland <a href="/wiki/Oaxaca" title="Oaxaca">Oaxaca</a>, outside the Maya area. In contrast, the lower façades were left undecorated. Roof combs were relatively uncommon at Puuc sites.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p225-261">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chenes">Chenes</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:508px;max-width:508px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Hochob_II_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hochob_II_2.jpg/250px-Hochob_II_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hochob_II_2.jpg/375px-Hochob_II_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hochob_II_2.jpg/500px-Hochob_II_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4725" data-file-height="2999" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Elaborate Chenes-style façade at <a href="/wiki/Hochob" title="Hochob">Hochob</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rio_Bec_B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Rio_Bec_B.jpg/250px-Rio_Bec_B.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Rio_Bec_B.jpg/375px-Rio_Bec_B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Rio_Bec_B.jpg/500px-Rio_Bec_B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2952" data-file-height="1881" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">False pyramids adorn the façade of a <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Bec" title="Río Bec">Río Bec</a> palace.</div></div></div></div></div> The Chenes style is very similar to the Puuc style, but predates the use of the mosaic façades of the Puuc region. It featured fully adorned façades on both the upper and lower sections of structures. Some doorways were surrounded by mosaic masks of monsters representing mountain or sky deities, identifying the doorways as entrances to the supernatural realm.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p226-262">[262]</a> Some buildings contained interior stairways that accessed different levels.<a href="#cite_note-Fuente&c99p150-263">[263]</a> The Chenes style is most commonly encountered in the southern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula, although individual buildings in the style can be found elsewhere in the peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p226-262">[262]</a> Examples of Chenes sites include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dzibilnocac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dzibilnocac (page does not exist)">Dzibilnocac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hochob" title="Hochob">Hochob</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xtampak" title="Xtampak">Santa Rosa Xtampak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tabasque%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabasqueño">Tabasqueño</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fuente&c99p150-263">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Río_Bec">Río Bec</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Bec" title="Río Bec">Río Bec</a> style forms a sub-region of the Chenes style,<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p226-262">[262]</a> and also features elements of the Central Petén style, such as prominent roof combs.<a href="#cite_note-Fuente&c99p149-264">[264]</a> Its palaces are distinctive for their false-tower decorations, lacking interior rooms, with steep, almost vertical, stairways and false doors.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> These towers were adorned with deity masks, and were built to impress the viewer, rather than serve any practical function. Such false towers are only found in the Río Bec region.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p226-262">[262]</a> Río Bec sites include <a href="/wiki/Chicann%C3%A1" title="Chicanná">Chicanná</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormiguero,_Mexico" title="Hormiguero, Mexico">Hormiguero</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xpuhil" title="Xpuhil">Xpuhil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fuente&c99p149-264">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Usumacinta">Usumacinta</h4></div> The Usumacinta style developed in the hilly terrain of the Usumacinta drainage. Cities took advantage of the hillsides to support their major architecture, as at Palenque and Yaxchilan. Sites modified corbel vaulting to allow thinner walls and multiple access doors to temples. As in Petén, roof combs adorned principal structures. Palaces had multiple entrances that used post-and-lintel entrances rather than <a href="/wiki/Corbel_arch" title="Corbel arch">corbel vaulting</a>. Many sites erected stelae, but Palenque instead developed finely sculpted panelling to decorate its buildings.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p224-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg/220px-Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg/330px-Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg/440px-Mayan_Language_Migration_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan language</a> migration routes</figcaption></figure> Before 2000 BC, the Maya spoke a single language, dubbed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Mayan_language" title="Proto-Mayan language">proto-Mayan</a> by linguists.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p274-266">[266]</a> Linguistic analysis of reconstructed Proto-Mayan vocabulary suggests that the original Proto-Mayan homeland was in the western or northern Guatemalan Highlands, although the evidence is not conclusive.<a href="#cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._28-267">[267]</a> Proto-Mayan diverged during the Preclassic period to form the major Mayan language groups that make up the family, including <a href="/wiki/Huastecan_languages" title="Huastecan languages">Huastecan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quichean_languages" title="Quichean languages">Greater Kʼicheʼan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCanjobalan_languages" title="Qʼanjobalan languages">Greater Qʼanjobalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mamean_languages" title="Mamean languages">Mamean</a>, Tzʼeltalan-Chʼolan, and <a href="/wiki/Yucatecan_languages" title="Yucatecan languages">Yucatecan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p26-6">[6]</a> These groups diverged further during the pre-Columbian era to form over 30 languages that have survived into modern times.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> The language of almost all Classic Maya texts over the entire Maya area has been identified as <a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_language" title="Classic Maya language">Chʼolan</a>;<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> Late Preclassic text from Kaminaljuyu, in the highlands, also appears to be in, or related to, Chʼolan.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> The use of Chʼolan as the language of Maya text does not necessarily indicate that it was the language commonly used by the local populace – it may have been equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">ritual</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> Classic Chʼolan may have been the prestige language of the Classic Maya elite, used in inter-polity communication such as diplomacy and trade.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> By the Postclassic period, <a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language" title="Yucatec Maya language">Yucatec</a> was also being written in Maya codices alongside Chʼolan.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_and_literacy">Writing and literacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_Codex,_pages_4-5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Paris_Codex%2C_pages_4-5.jpg/220px-Paris_Codex%2C_pages_4-5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Paris_Codex%2C_pages_4-5.jpg/330px-Paris_Codex%2C_pages_4-5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Paris_Codex%2C_pages_4-5.jpg/440px-Paris_Codex%2C_pages_4-5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="1021" /></a><figcaption>Pages from the Postclassic period <a href="/wiki/Paris_Codex" title="Paris Codex">Paris Codex</a>, one of the few surviving <a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">Maya books</a> in existence</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cancuenpanel3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Cancuenpanel3.jpg/220px-Cancuenpanel3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Cancuenpanel3.jpg/330px-Cancuenpanel3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Cancuenpanel3.jpg/440px-Cancuenpanel3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2118" data-file-height="1541" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> on <a href="/wiki/Cancu%C3%A9n" title="Cancuén">Cancuén</a> Panel 3 describes the installation of two vassals at <a href="/wiki/Machaquil%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Machaquilá">Machaquilá</a> by Cancuén king <a href="/wiki/Taj_Chan_Ahk" class="mw-redirect" title="Taj Chan Ahk">Taj Chan Ahk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG/220px-Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG/330px-Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG/440px-Ethnologisches_Museum_Berlin_Mesoamerika_019.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2340" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maya_ceramics" title="Maya ceramics">Ceramic vessel</a> painted with <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ethnologisches_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnologisches Museum">Ethnologisches Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a></figcaption></figure> The Maya writing system is one of the outstanding achievements of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> It was the most sophisticated and highly developed writing system of more than a dozen systems that developed in Mesoamerica.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> The earliest inscriptions in an identifiably Maya script date back to 300–200 BC, in the Petén Basin.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> However, this is preceded by several other <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Epi-Olmec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapotec writing">Zapotec scripts</a>. Early Maya script had appeared on the Pacific coast of Guatemala by the late 1st century AD, or early 2nd century.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Similarities between the Isthmian script and Early Maya script of the Pacific coast suggest that the two systems developed in tandem.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p225-279">[279]</a> By about AD 250, the Maya script had become a more formalised and consistent writing system.<a href="#cite_note-KettunenHelmke08p10-280">[280]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and colonial officials, notably <a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Landa" title="Diego de Landa">Bishop Diego de Landa</a>, destroyed Maya texts wherever they found them, and with them the knowledge of Maya writing, but by chance four uncontested <a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">pre-Columbian books</a> dated to the Postclassic period have been preserved. These are known as the <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Codex_(Maya)" title="Madrid Codex (Maya)">Madrid Codex</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dresden_Codex" title="Dresden Codex">Dresden Codex</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Codex" title="Paris Codex">Paris Codex</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maya_Codex_of_Mexico" title="Maya Codex of Mexico">Maya Codex of Mexico</a> (previously known as the <a href="/wiki/Grolier_Codex" class="mw-redirect" title="Grolier Codex">Grolier Codex</a>, which was of disputed authenticity until 2018).<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Archaeology conducted at Maya sites often reveals other fragments, rectangular lumps of plaster and paint chips which were codices; these tantalizing remains are, however, too severely damaged for any inscriptions to have survived, most of the organic material having decayed.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p129-283">[283]</a> In reference to the few extant Maya writings, <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Michael D. Coe</a> stated: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">[O]ur knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and 'Pilgrim's Progress').<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Michael D. Coe, The Maya, London: Thames and Hudson, 6th ed., 1999, pp. 199–200.</cite></div></blockquote> Most surviving pre-Columbian Maya writing dates to the Classic period and is contained in stone inscriptions from Maya sites, such as stelae, or on ceramics vessels. Other media include the aforementioned codices, stucco façades, frescoes, wooden lintels, cave walls, and portable artefacts crafted from a variety of materials, including bone, shell, obsidian, and jade.<a href="#cite_note-KettunenHelmke08p6-284">[284]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Balam_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Balam_1.svg/200px-Balam_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Balam_1.svg/300px-Balam_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Balam_1.svg/400px-Balam_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="291" data-file-height="200" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Balam_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Balam_2.svg/200px-Balam_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Balam_2.svg/300px-Balam_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Balam_2.svg/400px-Balam_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="205" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The Maya word Bʼalam ("<a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguar</a>") written twice in the Maya script. The first glyph writes the word logographicaly with the jaguar head standing for the entire word. The second glyph block writes the word phonetically using the three syllable signs BA, LA and MA.</div></div></div></div> The Maya writing system (often called <a href="/wiki/Maya_hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> from a superficial resemblance to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> writing)<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Logosyllabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logosyllabic">logosyllabic</a> writing system, combining a <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabary</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> signs representing syllables with <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logogram</a> representing entire words.<a href="#cite_note-KettunenHelmke08p6-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> Among the writing systems of the Pre-Columbian New World, Maya script most closely represents the spoken language.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphs were in use, some 200 of which (including variations) were phonetic.<a href="#cite_note-KettunenHelmke08p6-284">[284]</a> The Maya script was in use up to the arrival of the Europeans, its use peaking during the Classic Period.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> In excess of 10,000 individual texts have been recovered, mostly inscribed on stone monuments, lintels, stelae and ceramics.<a href="#cite_note-KettunenHelmke08p6-284">[284]</a> The Maya also produced texts painted on a form of paper manufactured from processed tree-bark generally now known by its Nahuatl-language name <a href="/wiki/Amatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Amatl">amatl</a> used to produce <a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codices</a>.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tobin01-290">[290]</a> The skill and knowledge of Maya writing persisted among segments of the population right up to the Spanish conquest. The knowledge was subsequently lost, as a result of the impact of the conquest on Maya society.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> The decipherment and recovery of the knowledge of Maya writing has been a long and laborious process.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> Some elements were first deciphered in the late 19th and early 20th century, mostly the parts having to do with <a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">numbers</a>, the Maya calendar, and astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> Major breakthroughs were made from the 1950s to 1970s, and accelerated rapidly thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> By the end of the 20th century, scholars were able to read the majority of Maya texts, and ongoing work continues to further illuminate the content.<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logosyllabic_script">Logosyllabic script</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_script_reading_direction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Maya_script_reading_direction.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="139" /></a><figcaption>Reading order of <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya hieroglyphic text</a>, consisting of twelve glyph blocks arranged in two double columns</figcaption></figure> The basic unit of Maya logosyllabic text is the glyph block, which transcribes a word or phrase. The block is composed of one or more individual glyphs attached to each other to form the glyph block, with individual glyph blocks generally being separated by a space. Glyph blocks are usually arranged in a grid pattern. For ease of reference, epigraphers refer to glyph blocks from left to right alphabetically, and top to bottom numerically. Thus, any glyph block in a piece of text can be identified. C4 would be third block counting from the left, and the fourth block counting downwards. If a monument or artefact has more than one inscription, column labels are not repeated, rather they continue in the alphabetic series; if there are more than 26 columns, the labelling continues as A', B', etc. Numeric row labels restart from 1 for each discrete unit of text.<a href="#cite_note-Kettunen_&_Helmke_2014,_p._16-297">[297]</a> Although Mayan text may be laid out in varying manners, generally it is arranged into double columns of glyph blocks. The reading order of text starts at the top left (block A1), continues to the second block in the double-column (B1), then drops down a row and starts again from the left half of the double column (A2), and thus continues in zig-zag fashion. Once the bottom is reached, the inscription continues from the top left of the next double column (C1). Where an inscription ends in a single (unpaired) column, this final column is usually read straight downwards.<a href="#cite_note-Kettunen_&_Helmke_2014,_p._16-297">[297]</a> Individual glyph blocks may be composed of a number of elements. These consist of the main sign, and any affixes. Main signs represent the major element of the block, and may be a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverb</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_orthography" title="Phonemic orthography">phonetic sign</a>. Some main signs are abstract, some are pictures of the object they represent, and others are "head variants", personifications of the word they represent. Affixes are smaller rectangular elements, usually attached to a main sign, although a block may be composed entirely of affixes. Affixes may represent a wide variety of speech elements, including nouns, verbs, verbal suffixes, prepositions, and pronouns. Small sections of a main sign could be used to represent the whole main sign. Maya scribes were highly inventive in their usage and adaptation of glyph elements.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_tools">Writing tools</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:383px;max-width:383px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure,_Cop%C3%A1n,_Honduras.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure%2C_Cop%C3%A1n%2C_Honduras.jpg/150px-Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure%2C_Cop%C3%A1n%2C_Honduras.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure%2C_Cop%C3%A1n%2C_Honduras.jpg/225px-Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure%2C_Cop%C3%A1n%2C_Honduras.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure%2C_Cop%C3%A1n%2C_Honduras.jpg/300px-Pauah_Tun_scribe_figure%2C_Cop%C3%A1n%2C_Honduras.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Sculpture of a scribe from <a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a><a href="#cite_note-Webster89p55-299">[299]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:227px;max-width:227px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg/225px-Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg/338px-Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg/450px-Maya_Codex-Style_Vessel_with_two_scenes_3_Kimbell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2089" data-file-height="1855" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Illustration of a Maya scribe on a Classic period vessel. <a href="/wiki/Kimbell_Art_Museum" title="Kimbell Art Museum">Kimbell Art Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Worth">Fort Worth</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> Although the archaeological record does not provide examples of brushes or pens, analysis of ink strokes on the Postclassic codices suggests that it was applied with a brush with a tip fashioned from pliable hair.<a href="#cite_note-Tobin01-290">[290]</a> A Classic period sculpture from Copán, Honduras, depicts a scribe with an inkpot fashioned from a conch shell.<a href="#cite_note-Webster89p55-299">[299]</a> Excavations at Aguateca uncovered a number of scribal artefacts from the residences of elite status scribes, including palettes and <a href="/wiki/Mortar_and_pestle" title="Mortar and pestle">mortars and pestles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Aoyama05p293-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scribes_and_literacy">Scribes and literacy</h3></div> Commoners were illiterate; scribes were drawn from the elite. It is not known if all members of the aristocracy could read and write, although at least some <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Maya_society" title="Women in Maya society">women</a> could, since there are representations of female scribes in Maya art.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> Maya scribes were called aj tzʼib, meaning "one who writes or paints".<a href="#cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._123-301">[301]</a> There were probably scribal schools where members of the aristocracy were taught to write.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> Scribal activity is identifiable in the archaeological record; Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I, king of Tikal, was interred with his paint pot. Some junior members of the Copán royal dynasty have also been found buried with their writing implements. A palace at Copán has been identified as that of a noble lineage of scribes; it is decorated with sculpture that includes figures holding ink pots.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> Although not much is known about Maya scribes, some did sign their work, both on ceramics and on stone sculpture. Usually, only a single scribe signed a ceramic vessel, but multiple sculptors are known to have recorded their names on stone sculpture; eight sculptors signed one stela at Piedras Negras. However, most works remained unsigned by their artists.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Maya numerals</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:335px;max-width:335px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg/120px-Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg/180px-Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg/240px-Maya_Hieroglyphs_Plate_32.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1131" data-file-height="2256" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Maya numerals</a> on a page of the Postclassic <a href="/wiki/Dresden_Codex" title="Dresden Codex">Dresden Codex</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:209px;max-width:209px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Maya.svg/207px-Maya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="207" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Maya.svg/311px-Maya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Maya.svg/414px-Maya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="320" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Maya numerals</div></div></div></div></div> In common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya used a base 20 (vigesimal) system.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_2002,_p._249-305">[305]</a> The bar-and-dot counting system that is the base of Maya numerals was in use in Mesoamerica by 1000 BC;<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> the Maya adopted it by the Late Preclassic, and added the symbol for zero.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> This may have been the earliest known occurrence of the idea of an explicit zero worldwide,<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> although it may have been later than the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> The earliest explicit use of zero occurred on monuments dated to 357 AD.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> In its earliest uses, the zero served as a <a href="/wiki/Positional_notation" title="Positional notation">place holder</a>, indicating an absence of a particular calendrical count. This later developed into a numeral that was used to perform calculation,<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> and was used in hieroglyphic texts for more than a thousand years, until the writing system was extinguished by the Spanish.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> The basic number system consists of a dot to represent one, and a bar to represent five.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p248-313">[313]</a> By the Postclassic period a shell symbol represented zero; during the Classic period other glyphs were used.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> The Maya numerals from 0 to 19 used repetitions of these symbols.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p248-313">[313]</a> The value of a numeral was determined by its position; as a numeral shifted upwards, its basic value multiplied by twenty. In this way, the lowest symbol would represent units, the next symbol up would represent multiples of twenty, and the symbol above that would represent multiples of 400, and so on. For example, the number 884 would be written with four dots on the lowest level, four dots on the next level up, and two dots on the next level after that, to give 4×1 + 4×20 + 2×400 = 884. Using this system, the Maya were able to record huge numbers.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_2002,_p._249-305">[305]</a> Simple addition could be performed by summing the dots and bars in two columns to give the result in a third column.<a href="#cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._101-315">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calendar">Calendar</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya calendar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Mesoamerican Long Count calendar</a></div> The Maya calendrical system, in common with other Mesoamerican calendars, had its origins in the Preclassic period. However, it was the Maya that developed the calendar to its maximum sophistication, recording lunar and solar cycles, eclipses and movements of planets with great accuracy. In some cases, the Maya calculations were more accurate than equivalent calculations in the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>; for example, the Maya solar year was calculated to greater accuracy than the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian year</a>. The Maya calendar was intrinsically tied to Maya ritual, and it was central to Maya religious practices.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> The calendar combined a non-repeating <a href="/wiki/Maya_Long_Count_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya Long Count Calendar">Long Count</a> with three interlocking cycles, each measuring a progressively larger period. These were the 260-day tzolkʼin,<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> the 365-day <a href="/wiki/Haab%CA%BC" title="Haabʼ">haabʼ</a>,<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> and the 52-year <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Calendar_Round" title="Maya calendar">Calendar Round</a>, resulting from the combination of the tzolkʼin with the haab'.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_2002,_p._253-319">[319]</a> There were also additional calendric cycles, such as an 819-day cycle associated with the four quadrants of Maya cosmology, governed by four different aspects of the god Kʼawiil.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p104-320">[320]</a> The basic unit in the Maya calendar was one day, or <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCin" title="Kʼin">kʼin</a>, and 20 kʼin grouped to form a <a href="/wiki/Winal" title="Winal">winal</a>. The next unit, instead of being multiplied by 20, as called for by the vigesimal system, was multiplied by 18 in order to provide a rough approximation of the solar year (hence producing 360 days). This 360-day year was called a <a href="/wiki/Tun_(Maya_calendar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tun (Maya calendar)">tun</a>. Each succeeding level of multiplication followed the vigesimal system.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p102-321">[321]</a> <table align="center" class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>Long Count periods<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p102-321">[321]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Period </th> <th>Calculation </th> <th>Span </th> <th>Years (approx.) </th></tr> <tr> <td>kʼin </td> <td>1 day </td> <td>1 day </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>winal </td> <td>1 x 20 </td> <td>20 days </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tun </td> <td>20 x 18 </td> <td>360 days </td> <td>1 year </td></tr> <tr> <td>kʼatun </td> <td>20 x 18 x 20 </td> <td>7,200 days </td> <td>20 years </td></tr> <tr> <td>bakʼtun </td> <td>20 x 18 x 20 x 20 </td> <td>144,000 days </td> <td>394 years </td></tr> <tr> <td>piktun </td> <td>20 x 18 x 20 x 20 x 20 </td> <td>2,880,000 days </td> <td>7,885 years </td></tr> <tr> <td>kalabtun </td> <td>20 x 18 x 20 x 20 x 20 x 20 </td> <td>57,600,000 days </td> <td>157,700 years </td></tr> <tr> <td>kinchiltun </td> <td>20 x 18 x 20 x 20 x 20 x 20 x 20 </td> <td>1,152,000,000 days </td> <td>3,154,004 years </td></tr> <tr> <td>alawtun </td> <td>20 x 18 x 20 x 20 x 20 x 20 x 20 x 20 </td> <td>23,040,000,000 days </td> <td>63,080,082 years </td></tr></tbody></table> The 260-day tzolkʼin provided the basic cycle of Maya ceremony, and the foundations of Maya prophecy. No astronomical basis for this count has been proved, and it may be that the 260-day count is based on the <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">human gestation period</a>. This is reinforced by the use of the tzolkʼin to record dates of birth, and provide corresponding prophecy. The 260-day cycle repeated a series of 20-day-names, with a number from 1 to 13 prefixed to indicated where in the cycle a particular day occurred.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p104-320">[320]</a> The 365-day haab was produced by a cycle of eighteen named 20-day winals, completed by the addition of a 5-day period called the wayeb.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p107-322">[322]</a> The wayeb was considered to be a dangerous time, when the barriers between the mortal and supernatural realms were broken, allowing malignant deities to cross over and interfere in human concerns.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_2002,_p._253-319">[319]</a> In a similar way to the tzʼolkin, the named winal would be prefixed by a number (from 0 to 19), in the case of the shorter wayeb period, the prefix numbers ran 0 to 4. Since each day in the tzʼolkin had a name and number (e.g. 8 Ajaw), this would interlock with the haab, producing an additional number and name, to give any day a more complete designation, for example 8 Ajaw 13 Keh. Such a day name could only recur once every 52 years, and this period is referred to by <a href="/wiki/Mayanist" title="Mayanist">Mayanists</a> as the Calendar Round. In most Mesoamerican cultures, the Calendar Round was the largest unit for measuring time.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p107-322">[322]</a> As with any non-repeating calendar, the Maya measured time from a fixed start point. The Maya set the beginning of their calendar as the end of a previous cycle of bakʼtuns, equivalent to a day in 3114 BC. This was believed by the Maya to be the day of the creation of the world in its current form. The Maya used the Long Count Calendar to fix any given day of the Calendar Round within their current great Piktun cycle consisting of either 20 bakʼtuns. There was some variation in the calendar, specifically texts in Palenque demonstrate that the piktun cycle that ended in 3114 BC had only 13 bakʼtuns, but others used a cycle of 13 + 20 bakʼtun in the current piktun.<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> Additionally, there may have been some regional variation in how these exceptional cycles were managed.<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> A full long count date consisted of an introductory glyph followed by five glyphs counting off the number of bakʼtuns, katʼuns, tuns, winals, and kʼins since the start of the current creation. This would be followed by the tzʼolkin portion of the Calendar Round date, and after a number of intervening glyphs, the Long Count date would end with the Haab portion of the Calendar Round date.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p110-325">[325]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Correlation_of_the_Long_Count_calendar">Correlation of the Long Count calendar</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar#Correlations_between_Western_calendars_and_the_Long_Count" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Mesoamerican Long Count calendar § Correlations between Western calendars and the Long Count</a></div> Although the <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Calendar_Round" title="Maya calendar">Calendar Round</a> is still in use today,<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> the Maya started using an abbreviated <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Short_Count" title="Maya calendar">Short Count</a> during the Late Classic period. The Short Count is a count of 13 kʼatuns. The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> contains the only colonial reference to classic long-count dates. The most generally accepted correlation is the Goodman-Martínez-Thompson, or GMT, correlation. This equates the Long Count date 11.16.0.0.0 13 Ajaw 8 Xul with the <a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar" title="Proleptic Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a> date of 12 November 1539.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p114-328">[328]</a> Epigraphers <a href="/wiki/Simon_Martin_(Mayanist)" title="Simon Martin (Mayanist)">Simon Martin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Grube" title="Nikolai Grube">Nikolai Grube</a> argue for a two-day shift from the standard GMT correlation.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> The Spinden Correlation would shift the Long Count dates back by 260 years; it also accords with the documentary evidence, and is better suited to the archaeology of the Yucatán Peninsula, but presents problems with the rest of the Maya region.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p114-328">[328]</a> The George Vaillant Correlation would shift all Maya dates 260 years later, and would greatly shorten the Postclassic period.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p114-328">[328]</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> of dated wooden lintels at Tikal supports the GMT correlation.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p114-328">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The famous astrologer <a href="/wiki/John_Dee" title="John Dee">John Dee</a> used an Aztec obsidian mirror to see into the future. We may look down our noses at his ideas, but one may be sure that in outlook he was far closer to a Maya priest astronomer than is an astronomer of our century.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/J._Eric_S._Thompson" title="J. Eric S. Thompson">J. Eric S. Thompson</a>, Maya Astronomy: <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a>, 1974<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madrid_Codex_astronomer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Madrid_Codex_astronomer.png" decoding="async" width="207" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="207" data-file-height="178" /></a><figcaption>Representation of an <a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">astronomer</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Codex_(Maya)" title="Madrid Codex (Maya)">Madrid Codex</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a></figcaption></figure> The Maya made meticulous observations of celestial bodies. This information was used for <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, so Maya astronomy was essentially for <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrological</a> purposes. Although Maya astronomy was mainly used by the priesthood to comprehend past cycles of time, and project them into the future to produce prophecy, it also had some practical applications, such as providing aid in crop planting and harvesting.<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> The priesthood refined observations and recorded eclipses of the sun and moon, and movements of Venus and the stars; these were measured against dated events in the past, on the assumption that similar events would occur in the future when the same astronomical conditions prevailed.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> Illustrations in the codices show that priests made astronomical observations using the naked eye, assisted by crossed sticks as a sighting device.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p261-334">[334]</a> Analysis of the few remaining Postclassic codices has revealed that, at the time of European contact, the Maya had recorded eclipse tables, calendars, and astronomical knowledge that was more accurate at that time than comparable knowledge in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> The Maya measured the 584-day Venus cycle with an error of just two hours. Five cycles of Venus equated to eight 365-day haab calendrical cycles, and this period was recorded in the codices. The Maya also followed the movements of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>. When Venus rose as the Morning Star, this was associated with the rebirth of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_Hero_Twins" title="Maya Hero Twins">Maya Hero Twins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> For the Maya, the <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_rising" title="Heliacal rising">heliacal rising</a> of Venus was associated with destruction and upheaval.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p261-334">[334]</a> Venus was closely associated with warfare, and the hieroglyph meaning "war" incorporated the glyph-element symbolizing the planet.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p262-337">[337]</a> Sight-lines through the windows of the Caracol building at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a> align with the northernmost and southernmost extremes of Venus' path.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p261-334">[334]</a> Maya rulers launched military campaigns to coincide with the <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_rising" title="Heliacal rising">heliacal</a> or cosmical rising of Venus, and would also sacrifice important captives to coincide with such conjunctions.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p262-337">[337]</a> Solar and lunar eclipses were considered to be especially dangerous events that could bring catastrophe upon the world. In the Dresden Codex, a solar eclipse is represented by a serpent devouring the kʼin ("day") hieroglyph.<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> Eclipses were interpreted as the sun or moon being bitten, and lunar tables were recorded in order that the Maya might be able to predict them, and perform the appropriate ceremonies to ward off disaster.<a href="#cite_note-Foster02p262-337">[337]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_mythology">Religion and mythology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Maya mythology</a></div> In common with the rest of Mesoamerica, the Maya believed in a supernatural realm inhabited by an array of powerful deities who needed to be placated with ceremonial offerings and ritual practices.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p91-339">[339]</a> At the core of Maya religious practice was the worship of deceased ancestors, who would intercede for their living descendants in dealings with the supernatural realm.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p176-340">[340]</a> The earliest intermediaries between humans and the supernatural were <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p93-341">[341]</a> Maya ritual included the use of <a href="/wiki/Hallucinogen" title="Hallucinogen">hallucinogens</a> for <a href="/wiki/Maya_priesthood#Offices" title="Maya priesthood">chilan</a>, oracular priests. Visions for the chilan were likely facilitated by consumption of <a href="/wiki/Nymphaea" title="Nymphaea">water lilies</a>, which are hallucinogenic in high doses.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> As the Maya civilization developed, the ruling elite codified the Maya world view into <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult" title="Imperial cult">religious cults</a> that justified their right to rule.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p91-339">[339]</a> In the Late Preclassic,<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> this process culminated in the institution of the divine king, the kʼuhul ajaw, endowed with ultimate political and religious power.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p93-341">[341]</a> The Maya viewed the cosmos as highly structured. There were thirteen levels in the heavens and nine in the underworld, with the mortal world in between. Each level had four cardinal directions associated with a different colour; north was white, east was red, south was yellow, and west was black. Major deities had aspects associated with these directions and colours.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p179-344">[344]</a> Maya households interred their dead underneath the floors, with offerings appropriate to the social status of the family. There the dead could act as protective ancestors. Maya lineages were patrilineal, so the worship of a prominent male ancestor would be emphasised, often with a household shrine. As Maya society developed, and the elite became more powerful, Maya royalty developed their household shrines into the great pyramids that held the tombs of their ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p176-340">[340]</a> Belief in supernatural forces pervaded Maya life, from the simplest day-to-day activities such as cooking, to trade, politics, and elite activities. Maya deities governed all aspects of the world, both visible and invisible.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p92-345">[345]</a> The Maya priesthood was a closed group, drawing its members from the established elite; by the Early Classic they were recording increasingly complex ritual information in their hieroglyphic books, including astronomical observations, calendrical cycles, history and mythology. The priests performed public ceremonies that incorporated feasting, bloodletting, incense burning, <a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">music</a>, ritual dance, and, on certain occasions, human sacrifice. During the Classic period, the Maya ruler was the high priest, and the direct conduit between mortals and the gods. It is highly likely that, among commoners, shamanism continued in parallel to state religion. By the Postclassic, religious emphasis had changed; there was an increase in worship of the images of deities, and more frequent recourse to human sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p722-346">[346]</a> Archaeologists painstakingly reconstruct these ritual practices and beliefs using several techniques. One important, though incomplete, resource is physical evidence, such as dedicatory caches and other ritual deposits, shrines, and burials with their associated <a href="/wiki/Maya_death_rituals" title="Maya death rituals">funerary offerings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> Maya art, architecture, and writing are another resource, and these can be combined with <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> sources, including records of Maya religious practices made by the Spanish during the conquest.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p92-345">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_sacrifice">Human sacrifice</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">Human sacrifice in Maya culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ballgame_sacrifice_relief,_Chichen_Itza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ballgame_sacrifice_relief%2C_Chichen_Itza.jpg/170px-Ballgame_sacrifice_relief%2C_Chichen_Itza.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ballgame_sacrifice_relief%2C_Chichen_Itza.jpg/255px-Ballgame_sacrifice_relief%2C_Chichen_Itza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ballgame_sacrifice_relief%2C_Chichen_Itza.jpg/340px-Ballgame_sacrifice_relief%2C_Chichen_Itza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption>Relief sculpture of a decapitated <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame" title="Mesoamerican ballgame">ballplayer</a>, adorning the <a href="/wiki/Great_Ballcourt" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Ballcourt">Great Ballcourt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a></figcaption></figure> Blood was viewed as a potent source of nourishment for the Maya deities, and the <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Sacrifice in Maya culture">sacrifice</a> of a living creature was a powerful blood offering. By extension, the sacrifice of a human life was the ultimate offering of blood to the gods, and the most important Maya rituals culminated in human sacrifice. Generally only high status prisoners of war were sacrificed, with lower status captives being used for labour.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p751-348">[348]</a> Important rituals such as the dedication of major building projects or the enthronement of a new ruler required a human offering. The sacrifice of an enemy king was the most prized, and such a sacrifice involved decapitation of the captive ruler, perhaps in a ritual reenactment of the decapitation of the Maya maize god by the death gods.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p751-348">[348]</a> In AD 738, the <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> king Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat of Quiriguá captured his overlord, Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil of Copán and a few days later ritually decapitated him.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-59">[59]</a> Sacrifice by decapitation is depicted in Classic period Maya art, and sometimes took place after the victim was tortured, being variously beaten, scalped, burnt or disembowelled.<a href="#cite_note-MillerTaube93p96-349">[349]</a> Another myth associated with decapitation was that of the Hero Twins recounted in the <a href="/wiki/Popol_Vuh" title="Popol Vuh">Popol Vuh</a>: playing a ballgame against the gods of the underworld, the heroes achieved victory, but one of each pair of twins was decapitated by their opponents.<a href="#cite_note-Gillespie91p322-323-350">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p751-348">[348]</a> During the Postclassic period, the most common form of human sacrifice was heart extraction, influenced by the rites of the Aztecs in the Valley of Mexico;<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p751-348">[348]</a> this usually took place in the courtyard of a temple, or upon the summit of the pyramid.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p752-351">[351]</a> In one ritual, the corpse would be skinned by assistant priests, except for the hands and feet, and the officiating priest would then dress himself in the skin of the sacrificial victim and perform a ritual dance symbolizing the rebirth of life.<a href="#cite_note-SharerTraxler06p752-351">[351]</a> Archaeological investigations indicate that heart sacrifice was practised as early as the Classic period.<a href="#cite_note-TieslerCucina06p493-352">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deities">Deities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Maya_gods_and_supernatural_beings" title="List of Maya gods and supernatural beings">List of Maya gods and supernatural beings</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:374px;max-width:374px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lintel_25,_Maya,_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Lintel_25%2C_Maya%2C_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg/150px-Lintel_25%2C_Maya%2C_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Lintel_25%2C_Maya%2C_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg/225px-Lintel_25%2C_Maya%2C_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Lintel_25%2C_Maya%2C_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg/300px-Lintel_25%2C_Maya%2C_about_AD_725_-_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="1088" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Classic period Lintel 25 from <a href="/wiki/Yaxchilan" title="Yaxchilan">Yaxchilan</a>, depicting the <a href="/wiki/Vision_Serpent" title="Vision Serpent">Vision Serpent</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:218px;max-width:218px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg/216px-Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg/324px-Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg/432px-Mixco_Viejo_ballcourt_marker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="702" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Postclassic <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ballcourt</a> marker at <a href="/wiki/Mixco_Viejo" title="Mixco Viejo">Mixco Viejo</a>, depicting <a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCuq%CA%BCumatz" title="Qʼuqʼumatz">Qʼuqʼumatz</a> carrying <a href="/wiki/Tohil" title="Tohil">Tohil</a> across the sky in his jaws<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a></div></div></div></div></div> The Maya world was populated by a great variety of deities, supernatural entities and sacred forces. The Maya had such a broad interpretation of the sacred that identifying distinct deities with specific functions is inaccurate.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p177-354">[354]</a> The Maya interpretation of deities was closely tied to the calendar, astronomy, and their cosmology.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> The importance of a deity, its characteristics, and its associations varied according to the movement of celestial bodies. The priestly interpretation of astronomical records and books was therefore crucial, since the priest would understand which deity required ritual propitiation, when the correct ceremonies should be performed, and what would be an appropriate offering. Each deity had four manifestations, associated with the cardinal directions, each identified with a different colour. They also had a dual day-night/life-death aspect.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p179-344">[344]</a> <a href="/wiki/Itzamna" title="Itzamna">Itzamna</a> was the creator god, but he also embodied the cosmos, and was simultaneously a <a href="/wiki/Solar_deity" title="Solar deity">sun god</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p179-344">[344]</a> Kʼinich Ahau, the day sun, was one of his aspects. Maya kings frequently identified themselves with Kʼinich Ahau. Itzamna also had a night sun aspect, the <a href="/wiki/Maya_jaguar_gods" title="Maya jaguar gods">Night Jaguar</a>, representing the sun in its journey through the underworld.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p181-356">[356]</a> The four <a href="/wiki/Pawatun" class="mw-redirect" title="Pawatun">Pawatuns</a> supported the corners of the mortal realm; in the heavens, the <a href="/wiki/Bacab" title="Bacab">Bacabs</a> performed the same function. As well as their four main aspects, the Bakabs had dozens of other aspects that are not well understood.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p182-357">[357]</a> The four Chaacs were <a href="/wiki/Weather_god" title="Weather god">storm gods</a>, controlling thunder, lightning, and the rains.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> The nine lords of the night each governed one of the underworld realms.<a href="#cite_note-Demarest04p182-357">[357]</a> Other important deities included the <a href="/wiki/Maya_moon_goddess" title="Maya moon goddess">moon goddess</a>, the maize god, and the Hero Twins.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Popol_Vuh" title="Popol Vuh">Popol Vuh</a> was written in the Latin script in early colonial times, and was probably transcribed from a hieroglyphic book by an unknown Kʼicheʼ Maya nobleman.<a href="#cite_note-MillerTaube93p134-360">[360]</a> It is one of the most outstanding works of indigenous literature in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._123-301">[301]</a> The Popul Vuh recounts the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_creation_myths" title="Mesoamerican creation myths">mythical creation</a> of the world, the legend of the Hero Twins, and the history of the Postclassic Kʼicheʼ kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-MillerTaube93p134-360">[360]</a> Deities recorded in the Popul Vuh include <a href="/wiki/Hun_Hunahpu" title="Hun Hunahpu">Hun Hunahpu</a>, believed by some to be the Kʼicheʼ maize god,<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> and a triad of deities led by the Kʼicheʼ patron <a href="/wiki/Tohil" title="Tohil">Tohil</a>, and also including the moon goddess <a href="/wiki/Awilix" title="Awilix">Awilix</a>, and the mountain god <a href="/wiki/Jacawitz" title="Jacawitz">Jacawitz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> In common with other Mesoamerican cultures, the Maya worshipped <a href="/wiki/Feathered_Serpent" title="Feathered Serpent">feathered serpent deities</a>. Such worship was rare during the Classic period,<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> but by the Postclassic the feathered serpent had spread to both the Yucatán Peninsula and the Guatemalan Highlands. In Yucatán, the feathered serpent deity was <a href="/wiki/Kukulkan" title="Kukulkan">Kukulkan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> among the Kʼicheʼ it was <a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCuq%CA%BCumatz" title="Qʼuqʼumatz">Qʼuqʼumatz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> Kukulkan had his origins in the Classic period War Serpent, Waxaklahun Ubah Kan, and has also been identified as the Postclassic version of the <a href="/wiki/Vision_Serpent" title="Vision Serpent">Vision Serpent</a> of Classic Maya art.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> Although the cult of Kukulkan had its origins in these earlier Maya traditions, the worship of Kukulkan was heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a> cult of central Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a> Likewise, Qʼuqʼumatz had a composite origin, combining the attributes of Mexican Quetzalcoatl with aspects of the Classic period Itzamna.<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maya_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya cuisine">Maya cuisine</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Agriculture in Mesoamerica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_(7852553230).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_%287852553230%29.jpg/220px-D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_%287852553230%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_%287852553230%29.jpg/330px-D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_%287852553230%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_%287852553230%29.jpg/440px-D%C3%ADa_Internacional_de_los_Pueblos_Ind%C3%ADgenas_%287852553230%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Staple_food" title="Staple food">staple</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Maya_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya cuisine">Maya diet</a>.</figcaption></figure> The ancient Maya had diverse and sophisticated methods of food production. It was believed that <a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">shifting cultivation</a> (swidden) agriculture provided most of their food,<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a> but it is now thought that permanent <a href="/wiki/Raised_field" title="Raised field">raised fields</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terracing</a>, intensive gardening, forest gardens, and managed fallows were also crucial to supporting the large populations of the Classic period in some areas.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> Indeed, evidence of these different agricultural systems persist today: raised fields connected by canals can be seen on aerial photographs.<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a> Contemporary rainforest species composition has significantly higher abundance of species of economic value to ancient Maya in areas that were densely populated in pre-Columbian times,<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a> and pollen records in lake sediments suggest that maize, <a href="/wiki/Manioc" class="mw-redirect" title="Manioc">manioc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunflower_seed" title="Sunflower seed">sunflower seeds</a>, cotton, and other crops have been cultivated in association with deforestation in Mesoamerica since at least 2500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a> The basic staples of the Maya diet were maize, beans, and squashes. These were supplemented with a wide variety of other plants either cultivated in gardens or gathered in the forest. At <a href="/wiki/Joya_de_Cer%C3%A9n" title="Joya de Cerén">Joya de Cerén</a>, a volcanic eruption preserved a record of foodstuffs stored in Maya homes, among them were chilies and <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>. Cotton seeds were in the process of being ground, perhaps to produce cooking oil. In addition to basic foodstuffs, the Maya also cultivated prestige crops such as cotton, cacao and vanilla. Cacao was especially prized by the elite, who consumed <a href="/wiki/History_of_chocolate" title="History of chocolate">chocolate beverages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a> Cotton was spun, dyed, and woven into valuable textiles in order to be traded.<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> The Maya had few domestic animals; <a href="/wiki/Dogs_in_Mesoamerica" title="Dogs in Mesoamerica">dogs</a> were domesticated by 3000 BC, and the <a href="/wiki/Muscovy_duck" title="Muscovy duck">Muscovy duck</a> by the Late Postclassic.<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ocellated_turkey" title="Ocellated turkey">Ocellated turkeys</a> were unsuitable for domestication, but were rounded up in the wild and penned for fattening. All of these were used as food animals; dogs were additionally used for hunting. It is possible that deer were also penned and fattened.<a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maya_sites">Maya sites</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites" title="List of Maya sites">List of Maya sites</a></div> There are hundreds of Maya sites spread across five countries: Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> The six sites with particularly outstanding architecture or sculpture are Chichen Itza, Palenque, Uxmal, and Yaxchilan in Mexico, Tikal in Guatemala and Copán in Honduras. Other important, but difficult to reach, sites include Calakmul and El Mirador. The principal sites in the Puuc region, after Uxmal, are <a href="/wiki/Kabah_(Maya_site)" title="Kabah (Maya site)">Kabah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labna" title="Labna">Labna</a>, and Sayil. In the east of the Yucatán Peninsula are Coba and the small site of <a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-379">[379]</a> The Río Bec sites of the base of the peninsula include <a href="/wiki/Becan" title="Becan">Becan</a>, Chicanná, <a href="/wiki/Kohunlich" title="Kohunlich">Kohunlich</a>, and Xpuhil. The most noteworthy sites in Chiapas, other than Palenque and Yaxchilan, are Bonampak and Toniná. In the Guatemalan Highlands are Iximche, Kaminaljuyu, <a href="/wiki/Mixco_Viejo" title="Mixco Viejo">Mixco Viejo</a>, and Qʼumarkaj (also known as Utatlán).<a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a> In the northern Petén lowlands of Guatemala there are many sites, though apart from Tikal access is generally difficult. Some of the Petén sites are Dos Pilas, Seibal, and Uaxactún.<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a> Important sites in Belize include Altun Ha, Caracol, and <a href="/wiki/Xunantunich" title="Xunantunich">Xunantunich</a>.<a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div> Researchers in 2024 analyzed the genomes of ancient individuals from the Mayan city at Chichén Itzá. Results revealed they grouped together with modern Amerindian populations (especially the present day Maya) based on PCA and Admixture analysis. The 53 remains were on average modelled as 92% Indigenous American component, with 7% of European genetic contribution and 0.03% African ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Museum_collections">Museum collections</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art#Museum_collections" title="Ancient Maya art">Ancient Maya collections</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie,_Guatemala-20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie%2C_Guatemala-20.jpg/220px-Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie%2C_Guatemala-20.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie%2C_Guatemala-20.jpg/330px-Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie%2C_Guatemala-20.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie%2C_Guatemala-20.jpg/440px-Nationalmuseum_f%C3%BCr_Arch%C3%A4ologie_und_Ethnologie%2C_Guatemala-20.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, in <a href="/wiki/Guatemala_City" title="Guatemala City">Guatemala City</a></figcaption></figure> There are many museums across the world with Maya artefacts in their collections. The Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies lists over 250 museums in its Maya Museum database,<a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a> and the European Association of Mayanists lists just under 50 museums in Europe alone.<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entheogenics_and_the_Maya" title="Entheogenics and the Maya">Entheogenics and the Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Mexico-related_articles" title="Index of Mexico-related articles">Index of Mexico-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">Maya codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Maya peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Maya music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Dzitbalch%C3%A9" title="Songs of Dzitbalché">Songs of Dzitbalché</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> The Ancient Maya Kinship System, Per Hage. The University of New Mexico 2003 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/jar.59.1.3631442">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Restall and Asselbergs 2007, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-Restall,_Matthew_2004-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Restall,_Matthew_2004_3-0">^</a> Restall, Matthew, 2004. "Maya Ethnogenesis" Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, vol. 9 (1): 64–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-Restall_2017._pp._91–130-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Restall_2017._pp._91–130_4-0">^</a> Restall, Matthew and Wolfgang Gabbert, 2017. "Maya Ethnogenesis and Group Identity in Yucatan, 1500–1900." In "The Only True People" Linking Maya Identities Past and Present. Edited by Bethany J. Beyyette and Lisa J. LeCount. 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Foster 2002, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Marcus 2004b, pp. 342. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Taube 2004, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Kristan-Graham and Kowalski 2007, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Lovell 2005, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, pp. 46–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Rice and Rice 2009, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Quezada 2011, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Lovell 2000, p. 400. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Viqueira 2004, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, pp. 34–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Estrada-Belli 2011, pp. 1, 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 98. 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Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._101-315"><a href="#cite_ref-Sharer_and_Traxler_2006,_p._101_315-0">^</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Foster 2002, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Foster 2002, p. 251. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> Foster 2002, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-Foster_2002,_p._253-319">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foster_2002,_p._253_319-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foster_2002,_p._253_319-1">b</a> Foster 2002, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-SharerTraxler06p104-320">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p104_320-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p104_320-1">b</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-SharerTraxler06p102-321">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p102_321-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p102_321-1">b</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-SharerTraxler06p107-322">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p107_322-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p107_322-1">b</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> Carter 2014 "A single passage on a Late Classic hieroglyphic panel at Palenque makes two further points clear; first, that the count of bakʼtuns will accumulate to 19, as before the present era, before the number in the piktuns place will change; and second, that that number will change to 1, not to 14, just as the bakʼtuns did in 2720 BC. In other words, all piktuns except the present one contained 20 bakʼtuns, but the current one contains 33; all previous kalabtuns, the next place up, contained 20 piktuns, but the current kalabtun contains 33 of those. Presumably the same pattern obtains for the rest of the higher places. This staggered resetting of the higher-order cycles, so jarringly unexpected from a contemporary, Western perspective, suggests an attitude towards time more numerological than mathematical. 13 and 20, after all, are the key numbers of the tzolkʼin, so it is fitting that they should be incorporated into the Long Count at enormous temporal scales." </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> Van Stone 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-SharerTraxler06p110-325"><a href="#cite_ref-SharerTraxler06p110_325-0">^</a> Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> Tedlock 1992, p. 1. 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Nature. 630 (8018): 912–919. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024Natur.630..912B">2024Natur.630..912B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-024-07509-7">10.1038/s41586-024-07509-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11208145">11208145</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38867041">38867041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Ancient+genomes+reveal+insights+into+ritual+life+at+Chich%C3%A9n+Itz%C3%A1&rft.volume=630&rft.issue=8018&rft.pages=912-919&rft.date=2024-06-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11208145%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024Natur.630..912B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38867041&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-024-07509-7&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft.aulast=Barquera&rft.aufirst=Rodrigo&rft.au=Del+Castillo-Ch%C3%A1vez%2C+Oana&rft.au=N%C3%A4gele%2C+Kathrin&rft.au=P%C3%A9rez-Ramallo%2C+Patxi&rft.au=Hern%C3%A1ndez-Zaragoza%2C+Diana+Ira%C3%ADz&rft.au=Szolek%2C+Andr%C3%A1s&rft.au=Rohrlach%2C+Adam+Benjamin&rft.au=Librado%2C+Pablo&rft.au=Childebayeva%2C+Ainash&rft.au=Bianco%2C+Raffaela+Angelina&rft.au=Penman%2C+Bridget+S.&rft.au=Acu%C3%B1a-Alonzo%2C+Victor&rft.au=Lucas%2C+Mary&rft.au=Lara-Riegos%2C+Julio+C%C3%A9sar&rft.au=Moo-Mezeta%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+Ermila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11208145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> Ros. </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> WAYEB. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrams,_Elliot_M.1994" class="citation book cs1">Abrams, Elliot M. 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Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2): 29–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flag.2006.0015">10.1353/lag.2006.0015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1545-2476">1545-2476</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25765138">25765138</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/356573308">356573308</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201743707">201743707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Latin+American+Geography&rft.atitle=Cacao%2C+vanilla+and+annatto%3A+three+production+and+exchange+systems+in+the+Southern+Maya+lowlands%2C+XVI%E2%80%93XVII+centuries&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=29-52&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25765138%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Flag.2006.0015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F356573308&rft.issn=1545-2476&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201743707%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Caso+Barrera%2C+Laura&rft.au=Mario+Aliphat+Fern%C3%A1ndez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaso_BarreraAliphat2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat, Mario (2007). <a href="/wiki/Juan_Pedro_Laporte" title="Juan Pedro Laporte">J. P. Laporte</a>; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131017041731/http://asociaciontikal.com/pdf/04_-_Caso.06_-_www.pdf">"Relaciones de Verapaz y las Tierras Bajas Mayas Centrales en el siglo XVII"</a> [Relation between Verapaz and the Central Maya Lowlands in the 17th Century] (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). XX (2006): 48–58. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173275417">173275417</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asociaciontikal.com/pdf/04_-_Caso.06_-_www.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 October 2013. 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Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mayapalaceselite00chri/page/n327">315</a>–336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71244-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71244-7"><bdi>978-0-292-71244-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55889753">55889753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conclusions&rft.btitle=Maya+Palaces+and+Elite+Residences%3A+An+interdisciplinary+approach&rft.place=Austin&rft.series=Linda+Schele+series+in+Maya+and+pre-Columbian+studies&rft.pages=315-336&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55889753&rft.isbn=978-0-292-71244-7&rft.au=Christie%2C+Jessica+Joyce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmayapalaceselite00chri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCioffi-Revilla,_ClaudioTodd_Landman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Cioffi-Revilla, Claudio; Todd Landman (December 1999). 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Latin American Antiquity. 18 (4): 363–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F25478193">10.2307/25478193</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2325-5080">2325-5080</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25478193">25478193</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161238112">161238112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=In+Search+of+an+Ancient+Maya+Market&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=363-84&rft.date=2007-12&rft.issn=2325-5080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161238112%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25478193%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F25478193&rft.au=Dahlin%2C+Bruce+H.&rft.au=Christopher+T.+Jensen&rft.au=Richard+E.+Terry&rft.au=David+R.+Wright&rft.au=Timothy+Beach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdel_Águila_Flores,_Patricia2007" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">del Águila Flores, Patricia (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721084703/http://www.mcd.gob.gt/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/zaculeu-ciudad-postclasica-en-las-tierras-altas-mayas-de-guatemala.pdf">"Zaculeu: Ciudad Postclásica en las Tierras Altas Mayas de Guatemala"</a> [Zaculeu: Postclassic City in the Maya Highlands of Guatemala] (PDF) (in Spanish). 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London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-02119-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-02119-4"><bdi>978-0-500-02119-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56746987">56746987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Olmecs%3A+America%27s+First+Civilization&rft.place=London&rft.series=Ancient+peoples+and+places+series&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56746987&rft.isbn=978-0-500-02119-4&rft.au=Diehl%2C+Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Folmecsamericasfi0000dieh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle,_James_A.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Doyle, James A. 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Latin American Antiquity. 23 (4): 355–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7183%2F1045-6635.23.4.355">10.7183/1045-6635.23.4.355</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2325-5080">2325-5080</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23645603">23645603</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54395676">54395676</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164102473">164102473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Regroup+on+%22E-Groups%22%3A+Monumentality+and+Early+Centers+in+the+Middle+Preclassic+Maya+Lowlands&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=355-79&rft.date=2012-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23645603%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7183%2F1045-6635.23.4.355&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54395676&rft.issn=2325-5080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164102473%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Doyle%2C+James+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrew,_David1999" class="citation book cs1">Drew, David (1999). 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London, UK: Phoenix Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-0989-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7538-0989-1"><bdi>978-0-7538-0989-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59565970">59565970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+Chronicles+of+the+Maya+Kings&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pub=Phoenix+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59565970&rft.isbn=978-0-7538-0989-1&rft.au=Drew%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllsworth_Hamann,_Byron2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ellsworth Hamann, Byron (March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/501178">"How Maya Hieroglyphs Got Their Name: Egypt, Mexico, and China in Western Grammatology since the Fifteenth Century"</a>. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 152 (1). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1480557">1480557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=How+Maya+Hieroglyphs+Got+Their+Name%3A+Egypt%2C+Mexico%2C+and+China+in+Western+Grammatology+since+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.volume=152&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1480557&rft.issn=0003-049X&rft.au=Ellsworth+Hamann%2C+Byron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F501178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmboden1979" class="citation journal cs1">Emboden, William A. 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Potsdam: Tandem Verlag. pp. 194–215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8331-6293-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8331-6293-0"><bdi>978-3-8331-6293-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/828120761">828120761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Unidad+de+espacio+y+tiempo%3A+la+arquitectura+Maya&rft.btitle=Los+Mayas%3A+Una+Civilizaci%C3%B3n+Milenaria&rft.place=Potsdam&rft.pages=194-215&rft.pub=Tandem+Verlag&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F828120761&rft.isbn=978-3-8331-6293-0&rft.au=Hohmann-Vogrin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouston,_StephenJohn_RobertsonDavid_Stuart2000" class="citation journal cs1">Houston, Stephen; John Robertson; David Stuart (June 2000). 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Current Anthropology. 41 (3): 321–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F300142">10.1086/300142</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204">0011-3204</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/300142">10.1086/300142</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10768879">10768879</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:741601">741601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Language+of+Classic+Maya+Inscriptions&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=321-356&rft.date=2000-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A741601%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F300142&rft.issn=0011-3204&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F300142%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10768879&rft.au=Houston%2C+Stephen&rft.au=John+Robertson&rft.au=David+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutson,_Scott_R.2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hutson, Scott R. 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Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70556-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70556-2"><bdi>978-0-292-70556-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52208614">52208614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lightning+Warrior%3A+Maya+Art+and+Kingship+at+Quirigua&rft.place=Austin&rft.series=Linda+Schele+series+in+Maya+and+pre-Columbian+studies&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52208614&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70556-2&rft.au=Looper%2C+Matthew+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flightningwarrior0000loop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLove,_Michael2007" class="citation journal cs1">Love, Michael (December 2007). "Recent Research in the Southern Highlands and Pacific Coast of Mesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research. 15 (4): 275–328. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-007-9014-y">10.1007/s10814-007-9014-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-7756">1573-7756</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144511056">144511056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=Recent+Research+in+the+Southern+Highlands+and+Pacific+Coast+of+Mesoamerica&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=275-328&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144511056%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-7756&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-007-9014-y&rft.au=Love%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell,_W._George2000" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, W. George (2000). "The Highland Maya". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 392–444. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65204-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65204-9"><bdi>978-0-521-65204-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33359444">33359444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Highland+Maya&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Native+Peoples+of+the+Americas%2C+Vol.+II%3A+Mesoamerica%2C+part+2&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=392-444&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33359444&rft.isbn=978-0-521-65204-9&rft.au=Lovell%2C+W.+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovell,_W._George2005" class="citation book cs1">Lovell, W. George (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=05wSqQiu52MC">Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821</a> (3rd ed.). Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2741-6"><bdi>978-0-7735-2741-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/58051691">58051691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest+and+Survival+in+Colonial+Guatemala%3A+A+Historical+Geography+of+the+Cuchumat%C3%A1n+Highlands%2C+1500%E2%80%931821&rft.place=Montreal%2C+Canada&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F58051691&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-2741-6&rft.au=Lovell%2C+W.+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D05wSqQiu52MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacri,_Martha_J.Matthew_George_Looper2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Macri, Martha J.; Matthew George Looper (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tNO424luPRYC">The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs</a>. 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Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3497-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3497-0"><bdi>978-0-8061-3497-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/773482216">773482216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Catalog+of+Maya+Hieroglyphs&rft.place=Norman%2C+Oklahoma&rft.series=The+civilization+of+the+American+Indian+series&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F773482216&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3497-0&rft.au=Macri%2C+Martha+J.&rft.au=Matthew+George+Looper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtNO424luPRYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus,_Joyce2004a" class="citation book cs1">Marcus, Joyce (2004a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797239/9780292797239-13.pdf">"Maya Commoners: The Stereotype and the Reality"</a> (PDF). 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Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 255–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70571-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70571-5"><bdi>978-0-292-70571-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60745417">60745417</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maya+Commoners%3A+The+Stereotype+and+the+Reality&rft.btitle=Ancient+Maya+Commoners&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=255-84&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60745417&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70571-5&rft.au=Marcus%2C+Joyce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbooks%2F9780292797239%2F9780292797239-13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus,_Joyce2004" class="citation book cs1">Marcus, Joyce (2004) [2003]. 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London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05103-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05103-0"><bdi>978-0-500-05103-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47358325">47358325</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Maya+Kings+and+Queens%3A+Deciphering+the+Dynasties+of+the+Ancient+Maya&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47358325&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05103-0&rft.au=Martin%2C+Simon&rft.au=Nikolai+Grube&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofmayak00mart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasson,_Marilyn_A.Carlos_Peraza_Lope2004" class="citation book cs1">Masson, Marilyn A.; Carlos Peraza Lope (2004). 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Boulder: University Press of Colorado. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-319-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-319-8"><bdi>978-1-60732-319-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/892430422">892430422</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Militarism%2C+Misery+and+Collapse&rft.btitle=Kukulcan%27s+Realm%3A+Urban+Life+at+Ancient+Mayap%C3%A1n&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F892430422&rft.isbn=978-1-60732-319-8&rft.au=Masson%2C+Marilyn+A.&rft.au=Carlos+Peraza+Lope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D580dBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew,_Laura_E.2012" class="citation book cs1">Matthew, Laura E. 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Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3537-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3537-1"><bdi>978-0-8078-3537-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/752286995">752286995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memories+of+Conquest%3A+Becoming+Mexicano+in+Colonial+Guatemala&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.series=First+Peoples&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F752286995&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3537-1&rft.au=Matthew%2C+Laura+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRVAFbknbo_EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcVicker,_Donald1985" class="citation journal cs1">McVicker, Donald (January 1985). "The "Mayanized" Mexicans". American Antiquity. 50 (1): 82–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F280635">10.2307/280635</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2325-5080">2325-5080</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/280635">280635</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163756728">163756728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+%22Mayanized%22+Mexicans&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-101&rft.date=1985-01&rft.issn=2325-5080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163756728%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F280635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F280635&rft.au=McVicker%2C+Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilbrath,_Susan1999" class="citation book cs1">Milbrath, Susan (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797932/9780292797932-11.pdf">"Stars, the Milky Way, Comets, and Meteors"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797932">Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars</a>. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 249–293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-75225-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-75225-2"><bdi>978-0-292-75225-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40848420">40848420</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stars%2C+the+Milky+Way%2C+Comets%2C+and+Meteors&rft.btitle=Star+Gods+of+the+Maya%3A+Astronomy+in+Art%2C+Folklore%2C+and+Calendars&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=249-293&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40848420&rft.isbn=978-0-292-75225-2&rft.au=Milbrath%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbooks%2F9780292797932%2F9780292797932-11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiles,_Susanna_W.1952" class="citation book cs1">Miles, Susanna W. (1952). "An Analysis of the Modern Middle American Calendars: A Study in Conservation". In Sol Tax (ed.). Acculturation in the Americas. Proceedings and selected papers of the International Congress of Americanists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 273–284. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/180504894">180504894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Analysis+of+the+Modern+Middle+American+Calendars%3A+A+Study+in+Conservation&rft.btitle=Acculturation+in+the+Americas&rft.place=Chicago&rft.series=Proceedings+and+selected+papers+of+the+International+Congress+of+Americanists&rft.pages=273-284&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F180504894&rft.au=Miles%2C+Susanna+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller,_Mary1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Miller_(art_historian)" title="Mary Miller (art historian)">Miller, Mary</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mayaartarchitect00mill">Maya Art and Architecture</a>. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20327-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-20327-9"><bdi>978-0-500-20327-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41659173">41659173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maya+Art+and+Architecture&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41659173&rft.isbn=978-0-500-20327-9&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmayaartarchitect00mill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller,_MaryKarl_Taube1993" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/godssymbolsofa00mill">The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya</a>. Londo: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05068-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05068-2"><bdi>978-0-500-05068-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/901448866">901448866</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gods+and+Symbols+of+Ancient+Mexico+and+the+Maya&rft.place=Londo&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F901448866&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05068-2&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mary&rft.au=Karl+Taube&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgodssymbolsofa00mill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakley,_FrancisRubin,_Benjamin_B.2012" class="citation book cs1">Oakley, Francis; Rubin, Benjamin B. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3MK5u1_7CLYC&pg=PA69">"Sacral Kingship and the Origins of Religious, Social, and Political Orders"</a>. In Patrick McNamara; Wesley J. Wildman (eds.). Science and the World's Religions: Origins and Destinies. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger/ABC-CLIO. pp. 69–90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38732-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-38732-6"><bdi>978-0-313-38732-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/768417915">768417915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sacral+Kingship+and+the+Origins+of+Religious%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+Orders&rft.btitle=Science+and+the+World%27s+Religions%3A+Origins+and+Destinies&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=69-90&rft.pub=Praeger%2FABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F768417915&rft.isbn=978-0-313-38732-6&rft.au=Oakley%2C+Francis&rft.au=Rubin%2C+Benjamin+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3MK5u1_7CLYC%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlmedo_Vera,_Bertina1997" class="citation book cs1">Olmedo Vera, Bertina (1997). A. Arellano Hernández; et al. (eds.). The Mayas of the Classic Period. Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA). pp. 9–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-970-18-3005-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-970-18-3005-5"><bdi>978-970-18-3005-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42213077">42213077</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mayas+of+the+Classic+Period&rft.place=Mexico+City&rft.pages=9-99&rft.pub=Consejo+Nacional+para+la+Cultura+y+las+Artes+%28CONACULTA%29&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42213077&rft.isbn=978-970-18-3005-5&rft.au=Olmedo+Vera%2C+Bertina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips,_Charles2007" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Charles (2007) [2006]. 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J.P. Laporte; A.C. Suasnávar; B. Arroyo (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091211140452/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/77.00.pdf">"Una revisión preliminar de la historia de Takʼalik Abʼaj, departamento de Retalhuleu"</a> [A Preliminary Revision of the History of Takalik Abaj, Retalhuleu Department] (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). XIV (2000): 990–1005. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49563126">49563126</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/77.00.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 December 2009. 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Foias; Ronald L. Bishop; M. James Blackman; Stanley Guenter (2007). J.P. Laporte; B. Arroyo; H. Mejía (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110914133722/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf">"Interacciones políticas y el Sitio Ikʼ (Motul de San José): Datos de la cerámica"</a> [Political Interactions and the Ikʼ Site (Motul de San Jose): Ceramic Data] (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (in Spanish). XX (2006): 1416–1436. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173275417">173275417</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Simposio+de+Investigaciones+Arqueol%C3%B3gicas+en+Guatemala&rft.atitle=Interacciones+pol%C3%ADticas+y+el+Sitio+Ik%CA%BC+%28Motul+de+San+Jos%C3%A9%29%3A+Datos+de+la+cer%C3%A1mica&rft.volume=XX+%282006%29&rft.pages=1416-1436&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173275417&rft.au=Reents-Budet%2C+Dorie&rft.au=Antonia+E.+Foias&rft.au=Ronald+L.+Bishop&rft.au=M.+James+Blackman&rft.au=Stanley+Guenter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asociaciontikal.com%2Fpdf%2F87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestall,_MatthewFlorine_Asselbergs2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Restall" title="Matthew Restall">Restall, Matthew</a>; Florine Asselbergs (2007). Invading Guatemala: Spanish, Nahua, and Maya Accounts of the Conquest Wars. University Parkv: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02758-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-02758-6"><bdi>978-0-271-02758-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/165478850">165478850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invading+Guatemala%3A+Spanish%2C+Nahua%2C+and+Maya+Accounts+of+the+Conquest+Wars&rft.place=University+Parkv&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F165478850&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02758-6&rft.au=Restall%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Florine+Asselbergs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestall,_MatthewGabbert_Wolfgang2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Restall" title="Matthew Restall">Restall, Matthew</a>; Gabbert Wolfgang (2007). "The Only True People": Linking Maya Identities Past and Present. University Press of Colorado. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-566-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60732-566-6"><bdi>978-1-60732-566-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22The+Only+True+People%22%3A+Linking+Maya+Identities+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-60732-566-6&rft.au=Restall%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Gabbert+Wolfgang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice,_Prudence_M.Don_S._Rice2009" class="citation book cs1">Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice (2009). "Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice">The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala</a>. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice/page/n25">3</a>–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-930-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-930-8"><bdi>978-0-87081-930-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/225875268">225875268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Kowoj+and+their+Pet%C3%A9n+Neighbors&rft.btitle=The+Kowoj%3A+identity%2C+migration%2C+and+geopolitics+in+late+postclassic+Pet%C3%A9n%2C+Guatemala&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pages=3-15&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F225875268&rft.isbn=978-0-87081-930-8&rft.au=Rice%2C+Prudence+M.&rft.au=Don+S.+Rice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkowojidentitymig00rice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice,_Prudence_M.Don_S._RiceTimothy_W._PughRómulo_Sánchez_Polo2009" class="citation book cs1">Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice; Timothy W. Pugh; Rómulo Sánchez Polo (2009). "Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpetén". In Prudence M. Rice; Don S. Rice (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice">The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala</a>. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice/page/n145">123</a>–140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-930-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-930-8"><bdi>978-0-87081-930-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/225875268">225875268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Defensive+Architecture+and+the+Context+of+Warfare+at+Zacpet%C3%A9n&rft.btitle=The+Kowoj%3A+identity%2C+migration%2C+and+geopolitics+in+late+postclassic+Pet%C3%A9n%2C+Guatemala&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pages=123-140&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F225875268&rft.isbn=978-0-87081-930-8&rft.au=Rice%2C+Prudence+M.&rft.au=Don+S.+Rice&rft.au=Timothy+W.+Pugh&rft.au=R%C3%B3mulo+S%C3%A1nchez+Polo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkowojidentitymig00rice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRos,_Narin" class="citation web cs1">Ros, Narin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140708162851/http://www.famsi.org/research/museum_database.html">"Maya Museum Database"</a>. Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.famsi.org/research/museum_database.html">the original</a> on 8 July 2014. Retrieved 8 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maya+Museum+Database&rft.pub=Foundation+for+the+Advancement+of+Mesoamerican+Studies&rft.au=Ros%2C+Narin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.famsi.org%2Fresearch%2Fmuseum_database.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150608160339/http://research.famsi.org/museum_list.php?name=&city=&state=&country=&focus=&x=13&y=19">Full list from FAMSI</a> archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.famsi.org/museum_list.php?name=&city=&state=&country=&focus=&x=13&y=19">the original</a> on 2015-06-08.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenwig,_Robert_M.2010" class="citation book cs1">Rosenwig, Robert M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hMMaL4L_vMsC">The Beginnings of Mesoamerican Civilization: Inter-Regional Interaction and the Olmec</a>. 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New Series. 311 (5765): 1281–1283. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311.1281S">2006Sci...311.1281S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121745">10.1126/science.1121745</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-9203">1095-9203</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3845835">3845835</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863047799">863047799</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16400112">16400112</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46351994">46351994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Early+Maya+Writing+at+San+Bartolo%2C+Guatemala&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=5765&rft.pages=1281-1283&rft.date=2006-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46351994%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1121745&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...311.1281S&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F863047799&rft.issn=1095-9203&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3845835%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16400112&rft.au=Saturno%2C+William+A.&rft.au=David+Stuart&rft.au=Boris+Beltr%C3%A1n&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1121745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchele,_LindaPeter_Mathews1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Schele" title="Linda Schele">Schele, Linda</a>; Peter Mathews (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/codeofkingslangu00lind">The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85209-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85209-6"><bdi>978-0-684-85209-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41423034">41423034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Code+of+Kings%3A+The+language+of+seven+Maya+temples+and+tombs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F41423034&rft.isbn=978-0-684-85209-6&rft.au=Schele%2C+Linda&rft.au=Peter+Mathews&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcodeofkingslangu00lind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSFU_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Ethnology" class="citation web cs1">SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102160800/http://www.sfu.museum/hola/en/artifacts/featured/17/">"Featured Artifacts: Mayan Eccentric Flints"</a>. Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada: Simon Fraser University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfu.museum/hola/en/artifacts/featured/17/">the original</a> on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Featured+Artifacts%3A+Mayan+Eccentric+Flints&rft.place=Burnaby%2C+British+Columbia%2C+Canada&rft.pub=Simon+Fraser+University+Museum+of+Archaeology+and+Ethnology&rft.au=SFU+Museum+of+Archaeology+and+Ethnology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfu.museum%2Fhola%2Fen%2Fartifacts%2Ffeatured%2F17%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharer,_Robert_J.2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sharer" title="Robert Sharer">Sharer, Robert J.</a> (2000). "The Maya Highlands and the Adjacent Pacific Coast". In Richard E.W. Adams; Murdo J. Macleod (eds.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 449–499. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35165-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-35165-2"><bdi>978-0-521-35165-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33359444">33359444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Maya+Highlands+and+the+Adjacent+Pacific+Coast&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Native+Peoples+of+the+Americas%2C+Vol.+II%3A+Mesoamerica%2C+part+1&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=449-499&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33359444&rft.isbn=978-0-521-35165-2&rft.au=Sharer%2C+Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharer,_Robert_J.Loa_P._Traxler2006" class="citation book cs1">Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. 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Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4817-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4817-9"><bdi>978-0-8047-4817-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57577446">57577446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Maya&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.edition=6th%2C+fully+revised&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57577446&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4817-9&rft.au=Sharer%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Loa+P.+Traxler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientmaya0006shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠprajc,_Ivan2018" class="citation journal cs1">Šprajc, Ivan (2018). 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Journal of Archaeological Research. 26 (2): 197–251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-017-9109-z">10.1007/s10814-017-9109-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149439162">149439162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.atitle=Astronomy%2C+architecture%2C+and+landscape+in+Prehispanic+Mesoamerica&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=197-251&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10814-017-9109-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149439162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=%C5%A0prajc%2C+Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart,_DavidGeorge_Stuart2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Stuart_(Mayanist)" title="David Stuart (Mayanist)">Stuart, David</a>; George Stuart (2008). Palenque: Eternal City of the Maya. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05156-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05156-6"><bdi>978-0-500-05156-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/227016561">227016561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palenque%3A+Eternal+City+of+the+Maya&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F227016561&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05156-6&rft.au=Stuart%2C+David&rft.au=George+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzymanski,_Jan2013" class="citation web cs1">Szymanski, Jan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141103025416/https://depotuw.ceon.pl//bitstream/handle/item/358/Between%20Death%20and%20Divinity.pdf?sequence=1">"Between Death and Divinity. Rethinking the Significance of Triadic Groups in Ancient Maya Culture"</a> (PDF). PhD Dissertation. Warsaw: University of Warsaw. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depotuw.ceon.pl//bitstream/handle/item/358/Between%20Death%20and%20Divinity.pdf?sequence=1">the original</a> (PDF) on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 13 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PhD+Dissertation&rft.atitle=Between+Death+and+Divinity.+Rethinking+the+Significance+of+Triadic+Groups+in+Ancient+Maya+Culture&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Szymanski%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepotuw.ceon.pl%2F%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2Fitem%2F358%2FBetween%2520Death%2520and%2520Divinity.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaladoire,_EricBenoit_Colsenet1991" class="citation book cs1">Taladoire, Eric; Benoit Colsenet (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/161">"'Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanoir': The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area"</a>. In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). The Mesoamerican Ballgame. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/161">161–74</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4"><bdi>978-0-8165-1360-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51873028">51873028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Bois+Ton+Sang%2C+Beaumanoir%27%3A+The+Political+and+Conflictual+Aspects+of+the+Ballgame+in+the+Northern+Chiapas+Area&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=161-74&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51873028&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1360-4&rft.au=Taladoire%2C+Eric&rft.au=Benoit+Colsenet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse%2Fpage%2F161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanaka,_Yuki2008" class="citation book cs1">Tanaka, Yuki (2008). A Comparative Study of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing and Japanese Orthography in the Quirigua Hieroglyphic Corpus. Ann Arbor, Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-549-99989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-549-99989-8"><bdi>978-0-549-99989-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+Study+of+Maya+Hieroglyphic+Writing+and+Japanese+Orthography+in+the+Quirigua+Hieroglyphic+Corpus&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-549-99989-8&rft.au=Tanaka%2C+Yuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaube,_Karl_A.2004" class="citation book cs1">Taube, Karl A. (2004) [2003]. "Tetitla and the Maya Presence at Teotihuacan". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (ed.). The Maya and Teotihuacan : reinterpreting early classic interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 273–314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70587-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70587-6"><bdi>978-0-292-70587-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/254181446">254181446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tetitla+and+the+Maya+Presence+at+Teotihuacan&rft.btitle=The+Maya+and+Teotihuacan+%3A+reinterpreting+early+classic+interaction&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=273-314&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F254181446&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70587-6&rft.au=Taube%2C+Karl+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTedlock,_Barbara1992" class="citation book cs1">Tedlock, Barbara (1992) [1982]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UZnlFVVYe9sC">Time and the Highland Maya</a> (Revised ed.). Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-1358-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8263-1358-4"><bdi>978-0-8263-1358-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45732799">45732799</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+and+the+Highland+Maya&rft.place=Albuquerque%2C+New+Mexico&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45732799&rft.isbn=978-0-8263-1358-4&rft.au=Tedlock%2C+Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUZnlFVVYe9sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_J._Eric_S.1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Eric_S._Thompson" title="J. 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Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University: i–iv, 1–111, 113–116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-177-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-177-3"><bdi>978-0-88402-177-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41263469">41263469</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18557303">18557303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Pre-Columbian+Art+and+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+House+of+the+Bacabs%2C+Copan%2C+Honduras&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=i-iv%2C+1-111%2C+113-116&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18557303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41263469%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-177-3&rft.au=Webster%2C+David&rft.au=William+L.+Fash+Jr.&rft.au=Claude+F.+Baudez&rft.au=Berthold+Riese&rft.au=William+T.+Sanders&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams,_Josh2010" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Josh (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102170643/http://apps.missouristate.edu/art/arthist/exhibit1.php?E=2&P=49">"Mississippian and Maya Eccentric Flints"</a>. Springfield: Board of Governors, Missouri State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://art.missouristate.edu/arthist/exhibit1.php?E=2&P=49">the original</a> on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mississippian+and+Maya+Eccentric+Flints&rft.place=Springfield&rft.pub=Board+of+Governors%2C+Missouri+State+University&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Williams%2C+Josh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fart.missouristate.edu%2Farthist%2Fexhibit1.php%3FE%3D2%26P%3D49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWise,_TerenceMcBride,_Angus2008" class="citation book cs1">Wise, Terence; McBride, Angus (2008) [1980]. The Conquistadores. Men-at-Arms. Vol. 101. Oxford and New York: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-357-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85045-357-7"><bdi>978-0-85045-357-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12782941">12782941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conquistadores&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.series=Men-at-Arms&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12782941&rft.isbn=978-0-85045-357-7&rft.au=Wise%2C+Terence&rft.au=McBride%2C+Angus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitschey,_Walter_R._T.Clifford_T._Brown2012" class="citation book cs1">Witschey, Walter R. T.; Clifford T. Brown (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=59jPo4mhrOcC">Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica</a>. Plymouth, Devon, UK: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7167-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7167-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-7167-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/754105610">754105610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Mesoamerica&rft.place=Plymouth%2C+Devon%2C+UK&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F754105610&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7167-0&rft.au=Witschey%2C+Walter+R.+T.&rft.au=Clifford+T.+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D59jPo4mhrOcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZorich,_Zach2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Zorich, Zach (November–December 2012). "The Maya Sense of Time". Archaeology. Vol. 65, no. 6. New York: Archaeological Institute of America. pp. 25–29. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-8113">0003-8113</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41804605">41804605</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1481828">1481828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Maya+Sense+of+Time&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=25-29&rft.date=2012-11%2F2012-12&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1481828&rft.issn=0003-8113&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41804605%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Zorich%2C+Zach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraswell2003" class="citation book cs1">Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2003). The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70914-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70914-0"><bdi>978-0-292-70914-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49936017">49936017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Maya+and+Teotihuacan%3A+Reinterpreting+Early+Classic+Interaction&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49936017&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70914-0&rft.aulast=Braswell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraswell2014" class="citation book cs1">Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2014). The Maya and their Central American Neighbors: Settlement patterns, architecture, hieroglyphic texts, and ceramics. Oxford & New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-74487-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-74487-4"><bdi>978-0-415-74487-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/857897947">857897947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Maya+and+their+Central+American+Neighbors%3A+Settlement+patterns%2C+architecture%2C+hieroglyphic+texts%2C+and+ceramics&rft.place=Oxford+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F857897947&rft.isbn=978-0-415-74487-4&rft.aulast=Braswell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristie2003" class="citation book cs1">Christie, Jessica Joyce (2003). Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71244-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71244-7"><bdi>978-0-292-71244-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50630511">50630511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maya+Palaces+and+Elite+Residences%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Approach&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50630511&rft.isbn=978-0-292-71244-7&rft.aulast=Christie&rft.aufirst=Jessica+Joyce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemarestPrudence_M._RiceDon_Stephen_Rice2004" class="citation book cs1">Demarest, Arthur Andrew; Prudence M. Rice & Don Stephen Rice (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/terminalclassici00arth">The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation</a>. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-739-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-739-7"><bdi>978-0-87081-739-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52311867">52311867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Terminal+Classic+in+the+Maya+Lowlands%3A+Collapse%2C+Transition%2C+and+Transformation&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52311867&rft.isbn=978-0-87081-739-7&rft.aulast=Demarest&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Andrew&rft.au=Prudence+M.+Rice&rft.au=Don+Stephen+Rice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fterminalclassici00arth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzsimmons2009" class="citation book cs1">Fitzsimmons, James L. (2009). Death and the Classic Maya Kings. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71890-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71890-6"><bdi>978-0-292-71890-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/699216836">699216836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Death+and+the+Classic+Maya+Kings&rft.place=Austin%2C+Texas&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F699216836&rft.isbn=978-0-292-71890-6&rft.aulast=Fitzsimmons&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarber2004" class="citation book cs1">Garber, James (2004). The Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Archaeological Research. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-2685-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-2685-5"><bdi>978-0-8130-2685-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52334723">52334723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Maya+of+the+Belize+Valley%3A+Half+a+Century+of+Archaeological+Research&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52334723&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-2685-5&rft.aulast=Garber&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2005" class="citation book cs1">Herring, Adam (2005). Art and Writing in the Maya cities, AD 600–800: A Poetics of Line. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84246-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84246-4"><bdi>978-0-521-84246-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56834579">56834579</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+Writing+in+the+Maya+cities%2C+AD+600%E2%80%93800%3A+A+Poetics+of+Line&rft.place=Cambridge+%26+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56834579&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84246-4&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLohseFred_Valdez2004" class="citation book cs1">Lohse, Jon C. & Fred Valdez (2004). Ancient Maya Commoners. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70571-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70571-5"><bdi>978-0-292-70571-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54529926">54529926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Maya+Commoners&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54529926&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70571-5&rft.aulast=Lohse&rft.aufirst=Jon+C.&rft.au=Fred+Valdez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucero2006" class="citation book cs1">Lucero, Lisa Joyce (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/waterritualrisef00luce">Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers</a>. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70999-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70999-7"><bdi>978-0-292-70999-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/61731425">61731425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+and+Ritual%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Classic+Maya+Rulers&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F61731425&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70999-7&rft.aulast=Lucero&rft.aufirst=Lisa+Joyce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwaterritualrisef00luce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKillop2005" class="citation book cs1">McKillop, Heather Irene (2005). In Search of Maya Sea Traders. College Station: Texas A & M University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58544-389-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58544-389-5"><bdi>978-1-58544-389-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55145823">55145823</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+Maya+Sea+Traders&rft.place=College+Station&rft.pub=Texas+A+%26+M+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55145823&rft.isbn=978-1-58544-389-5&rft.aulast=McKillop&rft.aufirst=Heather+Irene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKillop2002" class="citation book cs1">McKillop, Heather Irene (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saltwhitegoldofa0000mcki">Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya</a>. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-2511-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-2511-7"><bdi>978-0-8130-2511-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48893025">48893025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Salt%3A+White+Gold+of+the+Ancient+Maya&rft.place=Gainesville&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48893025&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-2511-7&rft.aulast=McKillop&rft.aufirst=Heather+Irene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaltwhitegoldofa0000mcki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice2004" class="citation book cs1">Rice, Prudence M. (2004). Maya Political Science: Time, Astronomy, and the Cosmos. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70261-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70261-5"><bdi>978-0-292-70261-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54753496">54753496</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maya+Political+Science%3A+Time%2C+Astronomy%2C+and+the+Cosmos&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54753496&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70261-5&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Prudence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTieslerAndrea_Cucina2006" class="citation book cs1">Tiesler, Vera & Andrea Cucina (2006). Janaabʼ Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of a Maya Ruler. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-2510-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-2510-2"><bdi>978-0-8165-2510-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62593473">62593473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Janaab%CA%BC+Pakal+of+Palenque%3A+Reconstructing+the+Life+and+Death+of+a+Maya+Ruler&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62593473&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-2510-2&rft.aulast=Tiesler&rft.aufirst=Vera&rft.au=Andrea+Cucina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebster,_David_L.2002" class="citation book cs1">Webster, David L. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fallofancientmay0000webs">The Fall of the Ancient Maya</a>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05113-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05113-9"><bdi>978-0-500-05113-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Ancient+Maya&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05113-9&rft.au=Webster%2C+David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffallofancientmay0000webs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaya+civilization" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Maya civilization <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Maya+civilization&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Maya+civilization">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Maya+civilization&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Maya" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Maya">Maya</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has several original texts related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Maya_civilization" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Maya_civilization" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190904224132/http://www.famsi.org/">Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/539-primary-sources-of-maya-history-part-one">Primary sources of Maya history – part one by Ronald A. Barnett</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesoweb.com/">Mesoweb</a> by Joel Skidmore.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mayamap.org/">Maya Map</a> – A map of the Maya civilization.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Maya_civilization" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Maya" title="Template:Maya"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Maya" title="Template talk:Maya"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Maya" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Maya"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Maya_civilization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Maya civilization</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="History of the Maya civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preclassic_Maya" title="Preclassic Maya">Preclassic Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_collapse" title="Classic Maya collapse">Classic Maya collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish conquest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png/80px-Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png/120px-Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png/160px-Codex_Lacambalam_l%C3%A1mina_15.png 2x" data-file-width="1432" data-file-height="2032" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E-Group" title="E-Group">E-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triadic_pyramid" title="Triadic pyramid">Triadic pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-pyramid_complex" title="Twin-pyramid complex">Twin-pyramid complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_Revival_architecture" title="Mayan Revival architecture">Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_graffiti" title="Ancient Maya graffiti">Graffiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_ceramics" title="Maya ceramics">Ceramics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_cities" title="Mayan cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_cuisine" title="Ancient Maya cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_dance" title="Maya dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="Economy of the Maya civilization">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maritime trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya_language" title="Classic Maya language">Classic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mayan_languages" title="List of Mayan languages">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayanist" title="Mayanist">Mayanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_medicine" title="Maya medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites" title="List of Maya sites">Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_stelae" title="Maya stelae">Stelae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_textiles" title="Maya textiles">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_in_Maya_society" title="Childhood in Maya society">Childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Maya_society" title="Women in Maya society">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midwifery_in_Maya_society" title="Midwifery in Maya society">Midwifery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_priesthood" title="Maya priesthood">Priesthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Sacrifice in Maya culture">Sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">Human sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_death_rituals" title="Maya death rituals">Death rituals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_social_classes" title="Maya social classes">Social classes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajaw" title="Ajaw">Ajaw</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_households" title="Maya households">Households</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Calendar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajaw" title="Ajaw">Ajaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baktun" title="Baktun">Baktun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%CA%BC" title="Haabʼ">Haabʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCatun" title="Kʼatun">Kʼatun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCin" title="Kʼin">Kʼin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tun_(Maya_calendar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tun (Maya calendar)">Tun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzolk%CA%BCin" title="Tzolkʼin">Tzolkʼin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winal" title="Winal">Winal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_Cakchiquels" title="Annals of the Cakchiquels">Annals of the Cakchiquels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilam_Balam" title="Chilam Balam">Chilam Balam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">Codices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dresden_Codex" title="Dresden Codex">Dresden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Codex_of_Mexico" title="Maya Codex of Mexico">Grolier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Codex_(Maya)" title="Madrid Codex (Maya)">Madrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Codex" title="Paris Codex">Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popol_Vuh" title="Popol Vuh">Popol Vuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabinal_Ach%C3%AD" title="Rabinal Achí">Rabinal Achí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_of_the_Bacabs" title="Ritual of the Bacabs">Ritual of the Bacabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_Dzitbalch%C3%A9" title="Songs of Dzitbalché">Songs of Dzitbalché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%ADtulo_C%CA%BCoyoi" title="Título Cʼoyoi">Título Cʼoyoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%ADtulo_de_Totonicap%C3%A1n" title="Título de Totonicapán">Título de Totonicapán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Maya_gods_and_supernatural_beings" title="List of Maya gods and supernatural beings">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>Classic</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bacab" title="Bacab">Bacab</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chaac" title="Chaac">Chaac</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maya_death_gods" title="Maya death gods">Death gods</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/God_L" title="God L">God L</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Goddess_I" title="Goddess I">Goddess I</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maya_Hero_Twins" title="Maya Hero Twins">Hero Twins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Howler_monkey_gods" title="Howler monkey gods">Howler monkey gods</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Itzamna" title="Itzamna">Itzamna</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ixchel" title="Ixchel">Ixchel</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maya_jaguar_gods" title="Maya jaguar gods">Jaguar gods</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCawiil" title="Kʼawiil">Kʼawiil</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kinich_Ahau" title="Kinich Ahau">Kinich Ahau</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maya_maize_god" title="Maya maize god">Maize god</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mam_(Maya_mythology)" title="Mam (Maya mythology)">Mam</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maya_moon_goddess" title="Maya moon goddess">Moon goddess</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yopaat" title="Yopaat">Yopaat</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Post-Classic</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Acat_(deity)" title="Acat (deity)">Acat</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ah-Muzen-Cab" title="Ah-Muzen-Cab">Ah-Muzen-Cab</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Akna_(Maya_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akna (Maya mythology)">Akna</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chin_(deity)" title="Chin (deity)">Chin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ixtab" title="Ixtab">Ixtab</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kukulkan" title="Kukulkan">Kukulkan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yum_Kaax" title="Yum Kaax">Yum Kaax</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Popol Vuh</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Awilix" title="Awilix">Awilix</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Camazotz" title="Camazotz">Camazotz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hun_Hunahpu" title="Hun Hunahpu">Hun Hunahpu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Huracan" title="Huracan">Huracan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jacawitz" title="Jacawitz">Jacawitz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCuq%CA%BCumatz" title="Qʼuqʼumatz">Qʼuqʼumatz</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tohil" title="Tohil">Tohil</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Vucub_Caquix" title="Vucub Caquix">Vucub Caquix</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xmucane_and_Xpiacoc" title="Xmucane and Xpiacoc">Xmucane and Xpiacoc</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xquic" title="Xquic">Xquic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zipacna" title="Zipacna">Zipacna</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maya_Kings_and_Queens" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya Kings and Queens">Kings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%CA%BCalaj_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Bʼalaj Chan Kʼawiil">Bʼalaj Chan Kʼawiil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ha%CA%BC_K%CA%BCin_Xook" title="Haʼ Kʼin Xook">Haʼ Kʼin Xook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itzam_K%CA%BCan_Ahk_II" title="Itzam Kʼan Ahk II">Itzam Kʼan Ahk II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCak%CA%BC_Tiliw_Chan_Yopaat" title="Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat">Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Yat_Ahk_II" title="Kʼinich Yat Ahk II">Kʼinich Yat Ahk II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Yax_K%CA%BCuk%CA%BC_Mo%CA%BC" title="Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ">Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Yo%CA%BCnal_Ahk_I" title="Kʼinich Yoʼnal Ahk I">Kʼinich Yoʼnal Ahk I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uaxaclajuun_Ub%CA%BCaah_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil">Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yo%CA%BCnal_Ahk_III" title="Yoʼnal Ahk III">Yoʼnal Ahk III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuknoom_Ch%CA%BCeen_II" title="Yuknoom Chʼeen II">Yuknoom Chʼeen II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuknoom_Yich%CA%BCaak_K%CA%BCahk%CA%BC" title="Yuknoom Yichʼaak Kʼahkʼ">Yuknoom Yichʼaak Kʼahkʼ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: #50C878; color:white;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women_rulers_in_Maya_society" title="Women rulers in Maya society">Queens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Eveningstar" title="Lady Eveningstar">Lady Eveningstar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_of_Itzan" title="Lady of Itzan">Lady of Itzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_of_Tikal" title="Lady of Tikal">Lady of Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lady_Xoc" title="Lady Xoc">Lady Xoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sak_K%CA%BCuk%CA%BC" title="Sak Kʼukʼ">Sak Kʼukʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wak_Chanil_Ajaw" title="Wak Chanil Ajaw">Wak Chanil Ajaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yohl_Ik%CA%BCnal" title="Yohl Ikʼnal">Yohl Ikʼnal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Maya_sites" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Maya_sites" title="Template:Maya sites"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Maya_sites" title="Template talk:Maya sites"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Maya_sites" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Maya sites"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Maya_sites" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites" title="List of Maya sites">Maya sites</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actun_Tunichil_Muknal" title="Actun Tunichil Muknal">Actun Tunichil Muknal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altun_Ha" title="Altun Ha">Altun Ha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baking_Pot" title="Baking Pot">Baking Pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barton_Creek_Cave" title="Barton Creek Cave">Barton Creek Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahal_Pech" title="Cahal Pech">Cahal Pech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caracol" title="Caracol">Caracol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerros" title="Cerros">Cerros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaa_Creek" title="Chaa Creek">Chaa Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colha,_Belize" title="Colha, Belize">Colha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuello" title="Cuello">Cuello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Pilar" title="El Pilar">El Pilar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%CA%BCKabish" title="KaʼKabish">KaʼKabish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCaxob" title="Kʼaxob">Kʼaxob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Milpa" title="La Milpa">La Milpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamanai" title="Lamanai">Lamanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Belize" title="Louisville, Belize">Louisville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Dover" title="Lower Dover">Lower Dover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lubaantun" title="Lubaantun">Lubaantun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Gonzalez" title="Marco Gonzalez">Marco Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minanha" title="Minanha">Minanha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nim_Li_Punit" title="Nim Li Punit">Nim Li Punit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nohmul" title="Nohmul">Nohmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nohoch_Che%CA%BCen" title="Nohoch Cheʼen">Nohoch Cheʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacbitun" title="Pacbitun">Pacbitun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pusilha" title="Pusilha">Pusilha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Estevan_(Maya_site)" title="San Estevan (Maya site)">San Estevan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rita,_Corozal" title="Santa Rita, Corozal">Santa Rita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipu,_Belize" title="Tipu, Belize">Tipu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uxbenka" title="Uxbenka">Uxbenka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xnaheb" title="Xnaheb">Xnaheb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunantunich" title="Xunantunich">Xunantunich</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1,_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chichen Itza"><img alt="Chichen Itza" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1%2C_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg/150px-001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1%2C_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1%2C_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg/225px-001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1%2C_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1%2C_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg/300px-001_El_Castillo_o_templo_de_Kukulkan._Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1%2C_M%C3%A9xico._MPLC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguateca" title="Aguateca">Aguateca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altar_de_Sacrificios" title="Altar de Sacrificios">Altar de Sacrificios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arroyo_de_Piedra" title="Arroyo de Piedra">Arroyo de Piedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balberta" title="Balberta">Balberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bejucal_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Bejucal (Mesoamerican site)">Bejucal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancu%C3%A9n" title="Cancuén">Cancuén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerro_Quiac" title="Cerro Quiac">Cerro Quiac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chama_(Maya_site)" title="Chama (Maya site)">Chama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitinamit" title="Chitinamit">Chitinamit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocol%C3%A1" title="Chocolá">Chocolá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chutixtiox" title="Chutixtiox">Chutixtiox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotzumalhuapa" title="Cotzumalhuapa">Cotzumalhuapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dos_Pilas" title="Dos Pilas">Dos Pilas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ba%C3%BAl" title="El Baúl">El Baúl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Chal" title="El Chal">El Chal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Mirador" title="El Mirador">El Mirador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Per%C3%BA_(Maya_site)" title="El Perú (Maya site)">El Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Porvenir_(Maya_site)" title="El Porvenir (Maya site)">El Porvenir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Temblor" title="El Temblor">El Temblor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Tintal" title="El Tintal">El Tintal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Zotz" title="El Zotz">El Zotz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guayt%C3%A1n" title="Guaytán">Guaytán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holmul" title="Holmul">Holmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtun" title="Holtun">Holtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itzan" title="Itzan">Itzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iximche" title="Iximche">Iximche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixkun" title="Ixkun">Ixkun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixlu" title="Ixlu">Ixlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixtonton" title="Ixtonton">Ixtonton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixtutz" title="Ixtutz">Ixtutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaminaljuyu" title="Kaminaljuyu">Kaminaljuyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinal" title="Kinal">Kinal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCatepan" title="Kʼatepan">Kʼatepan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Amelia" title="La Amelia">La Amelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Blanca,_Peten" title="La Blanca, Peten">La Blanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Corona" title="La Corona">La Corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Joyanca" title="La Joyanca">La Joyanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Muerta" title="La Muerta">La Muerta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machaquila" title="Machaquila">Machaquila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixco_Viejo" title="Mixco Viejo">Mixco Viejo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Montana (Mesoamerican site)">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motul_de_San_Jos%C3%A9" title="Motul de San José">Motul de San José</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naachtun" title="Naachtun">Naachtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakbe" title="Nakbe">Nakbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakum" title="Nakum">Nakum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naranjo" title="Naranjo">Naranjo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pajaral" title="Pajaral">Pajaral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piedras_Negras_(Maya_site)" title="Piedras Negras (Maya site)">Piedras Negras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punta_de_Chimino" title="Punta de Chimino">Punta de Chimino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirigu%C3%A1" title="Quiriguá">Quiriguá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%CA%BCumarkaj" title="Qʼumarkaj">Qʼumarkaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Azul" title="Río Azul">Río Azul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacul,_El_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Sacul, El Petén">Sacul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Bartolo_(Maya_site)" title="San Bartolo (Maya site)">San Bartolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Clemente,_El_Pet%C3%A9n" title="San Clemente, El Petén">San Clemente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seibal" title="Seibal">Seibal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takalik_Abaj" title="Takalik Abaj">Takalik Abaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamarindito" title="Tamarindito">Tamarindito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayasal_(archaeological_site)" title="Tayasal (archaeological site)">Tayasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topoxte" title="Topoxte">Topoxte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tres_Islas" title="Tres Islas">Tres Islas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uaxactun" title="Uaxactun">Uaxactun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ucanal" title="Ucanal">Ucanal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wajxaklajun" title="Wajxaklajun">Wajxaklajun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witzna" title="Witzna">Witzna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xultun" title="Xultun">Xultun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaxha" title="Yaxha">Yaxha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zacpeten" title="Zacpeten">Zacpeten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaculeu" title="Zaculeu">Zaculeu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapote_Bobal" title="Zapote Bobal">Zapote Bobal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Puente_(Maya_site)" title="El Puente (Maya site)">El Puente</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acanceh" title="Acanceh">Acanceh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aguada_F%C3%A9nix" title="Aguada Fénix">Aguada Fénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ake" title="Ake">Aké</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balamku" title="Balamku">Balamku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balankanche" title="Balankanche">Balankanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Becan" title="Becan">Becan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonampak" title="Bonampak">Bonampak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chacchoben" title="Chacchoben">Chacchoben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chact%C3%BAn" title="Chactún">Chactún</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicann%C3%A1" title="Chicanná">Chicanná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinkultic" title="Chinkultic">Chinkultic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunchucmil" title="Chunchucmil">Chunchucmil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunhuhub" title="Chunhuhub">Chunhuhub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunlim%C3%B3n" title="Chunlimón">Chunlimón</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coba" title="Coba">Coba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comalcalco_(archaeological_site)" title="Comalcalco (archaeological site)">Comalcalco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzibanche" title="Dzibanche">Dzibanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzibilchaltun" title="Dzibilchaltun">Dzibilchaltun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edzna" title="Edzna">Edzna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ek%CA%BC_Balam" title="Ekʼ Balam">Ekʼ Balam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hormiguero,_Mexico" title="Hormiguero, Mexico">Hormiguero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izamal" title="Izamal">Izamal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaina_Island" title="Jaina Island">Jaina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolja%CA%BC" title="Joljaʼ">Joljaʼ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabah_(Maya_site)" title="Kabah (Maya site)">Kabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiuic" title="Kiuic">Kiuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohunlich" title="Kohunlich">Kohunlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komchen" title="Komchen">Komchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labna" title="Labna">Labna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Mar" title="La Mar">La Mar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayapan" title="Mayapan">Mayapan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%C3%AD,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Maní, Yucatán">Maní</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Reforma" title="Moral Reforma">Moral Reforma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muyil" title="Muyil">Muyil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocomt%C3%BAn" title="Ocomtún">Ocomtún</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxkintok" title="Oxkintok">Oxkintok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palenque" title="Palenque">Palenque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_de_Ayutla_(Maya_site)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plan de Ayutla (Maya site)">Plan de Ayutla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomona,_Tabasco" title="Pomona, Tabasco">Pomona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punta_Sur" title="Punta Sur">Punta Sur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Bec" title="Río Bec">Río Bec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Gervasio_(Maya_site)" title="San Gervasio (Maya site)">San Gervasio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayil" title="Sayil">Sayil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamchen" title="Tamchen">Tamchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonin%C3%A1" title="Toniná">Toniná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tortuguero_(Maya_site)" title="Tortuguero (Maya site)">Tortuguero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uxmal" title="Uxmal">Uxmal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uxul" title="Uxul">Uxul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valeriana_(archaeological_site)" title="Valeriana (archaeological site)">Valeriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xcaret" title="Xcaret">Xcaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xelha" title="Xelha">Xelha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xlapak" title="Xlapak">Xlapak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xpuhil" title="Xpuhil">Xpuhil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xtampak" title="Xtampak">Xtampak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaxchilan" title="Yaxchilan">Yaxchilan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaxun%C3%A1" title="Yaxuná">Yaxuná</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yula" title="Yula">Yula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yo%CA%BCokop" title="Yoʼokop">Yoʼokop </a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Maya_sites_in_Mexico" title="Category:Maya sites in Mexico">for more articles see Category:Maya sites in Mexico</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cara_Sucia_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cara Sucia (Mesoamerican site)">Cara Sucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_Blanca,_El_Salvador" title="Casa Blanca, El Salvador">Casa Blanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cihuat%C3%A1n" title="Cihuatán">Cihuatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joya_de_Cer%C3%A9n" title="Joya de Cerén">Joya de Cerén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Andr%C3%A9s,_El_Salvador" title="San Andrés, El Salvador">San Andrés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tazumal" title="Tazumal">Tazumal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pre-Columbian_civilizations_and_cultures" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;background: #FFDEAD"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pre-Columbian_era" title="Template:Pre-Columbian era"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pre-Columbian_era" title="Template talk:Pre-Columbian era"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Columbian_era" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pre-Columbian era"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pre-Columbian_civilizations_and_cultures" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">Cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">Archaeological periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Puebloans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_Mississippian_culture" title="Caddoan Mississippian culture">Caddoan Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichimeca" title="Chichimeca">Chichimeca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coles_Creek_culture" title="Coles Creek culture">Coles Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorset_culture" title="Dorset culture">Dorset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marksville_culture" title="Marksville culture">Marksville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oshara_tradition" title="Oshara tradition">Oshara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picosa_culture" title="Picosa culture">Picosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaquemine_culture" title="Plaquemine culture">Plaquemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Bayou_culture" title="Plum Bayou culture">Plum Bayou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinagua" title="Sinagua">Sinagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thule_people" title="Thule people">Thule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troyville_culture" title="Troyville culture">Troyville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weeden_Island_culture" title="Weeden Island culture">Weeden Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerican chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acolhua" title="Acolhua">Acolhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacha" title="Capacha">Capacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcatzingo" title="Chalcatzingo">Chalcatzingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chup%C3%ADcuaro" title="Chupícuaro">Chupícuaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Cocl%C3%A9" title="Gran Coclé">Coclé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuicuilco" title="Cuicuilco">Cuicuilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquis" title="Diquis">Diquis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture" title="Epi-Olmec culture">Epi-Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huastec_civilization" title="Huastec civilization">Huastec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izapa" title="Izapa">Izapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezcala_culture" title="Mezcala culture">Mezcala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec" title="Mixtec">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nicoya" title="Kingdom of Nicoya">Nicoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">Pipil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Mexico_shaft_tomb_tradition" title="Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition">Shaft tomb tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepanec" title="Tepanec">Tepanec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuchitl%C3%A1n_culture" title="Teuchitlán culture">Teuchitlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlatilco_culture" title="Tlatilco culture">Tlatilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Veracruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veraguas_culture" title="Veraguas culture">Veraguas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;width:10em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andean civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="List of Indigenous peoples of South America">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Cabraline_history_of_Brazil" title="Pre-Cabraline history of Brazil">Cultures of Pre-Cabraline Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Bolivia" title="Pre-Columbian Bolivia">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehispanic_history_of_Chile" title="Prehispanic history of Chile">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Chile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Chile" title="List of archaeological sites in Chile">Archaeological sites in Chile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cultures_of_Colombia" title="Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Colombia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Colombia" title="List of archaeological sites in Colombia">Archaeological sites in Colombia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador" title="Pre-Columbian Ecuador">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Cultural periods of Peru</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Peru" title="List of archaeological sites in Peru">Archaeological sites in Peru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_period_in_Venezuela" title="Pre-Columbian period in Venezuela">Cultures of Pre-Columbian Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Abra" title="El Abra">El Abra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amotape_complex" title="Amotape complex">Amotape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atacama_people" title="Atacama people">Atacameño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymara_kingdoms" title="Aymara kingdoms">Aymara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calima_culture" title="Calima culture">Calima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari" title="Cañari">Cañaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capul%C3%AD_culture" title="Capulí culture">Capulí</a>/<a href="/wiki/Capul%C3%AD_culture#Nariño" title="Capulí culture">Nariño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caral%E2%80%93Supe_civilization" title="Caral–Supe civilization">Caral–Supe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casma%E2%80%93Sechin_culture" title="Casma–Sechin culture">Casma–Sechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chachapoya_culture" title="Chachapoya culture">Chachapoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chancay_culture" title="Chancay culture">Chancay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chango_people" title="Chango people">Chango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimor" title="Chimor">Chimú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinchorro_culture" title="Chinchorro culture">Chinchorro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiripa_culture" title="Chiripa culture">Chiripa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorrera_culture" title="Chorrera culture">Chorrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupisnique" title="Cupisnique">Cupisnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaguita" title="Diaguita">Diaguita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco_people" title="Gran Chaco people">Gran Chaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huetar_people" title="Huetar people">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalina_people" title="Kalina people">Kalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuhikugu" title="Kuhikugu">Kuhikugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumaco-La_Tolita_culture" title="Tumaco-La Tolita culture">La Tolita (Tumaco)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_culture_(archaeology)" title="Las Vegas culture (archaeology)">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauricocha_culture" title="Lauricocha culture">Lauricocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanos_de_Moxos_(archaeology)" title="Llanos de Moxos (archaeology)">Llanos de Moxos (Bolivia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lima_culture" title="Lima culture">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokono" title="Lokono">Lokono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupaca" title="Lupaca">Lupaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luzia_Woman" title="Luzia Woman">Luzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mante%C3%B1o-Huancavilca_culture" title="Manteño-Huancavilca culture">Manteño-Huancavilca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_history" title="Mapuche history">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marajoara_culture" title="Marajoara culture">Marajoara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollo_culture" title="Mollo culture">Mollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Verde" title="Monte Verde">Monte Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omagua_people" title="Omagua people">Omagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paij%C3%A1n_culture" title="Paiján culture">Paiján</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa_people" title="Piaroa people">Piaroa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pukara_culture" title="Pukara culture">Pucará</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pucar%C3%A1_de_Tilcara" title="Pucará de Tilcara">Pucará de Tilcara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebrada_de_Humahuaca" title="Quebrada de Humahuaca">Quebrada de Humahuaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbaya" title="Quimbaya">Quimbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladoid" title="Saladoid">Saladoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Agust%C3%ADn_culture" title="San Agustín culture">San Agustín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuar" title="Shuar">Shuar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sican_culture" title="Sican culture">Sican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno">Taíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tairona" title="Tairona">Tairona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tierradentro" title="Tierradentro">Tierradentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timoto%E2%80%93Cuica_people" title="Timoto–Cuica people">Timoto–Cuica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyop%C3%A1n" title="Toyopán">Toyopán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuncahu%C3%A1n" title="Tuncahuán">Tuncahuán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valdivia_culture" title="Valdivia culture">Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wankarani_culture" title="Wankarani culture">Wankarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_culture" title="Wari culture">Wari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen%C3%BA" title="Zenú">Zenú</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;padding:0; background:transparent;"><div><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6;;background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Maya</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca</a></th><th scope="col" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></th></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Capital</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_cities" title="Mayan cities">Multiple</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Tunja" title="Tunja">Hunza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacat%C3%A1" title="Bacatá">Bacatá</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Cusco" title="Cusco">Cusco</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Language</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan Languages</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Chibcha_language" title="Chibcha language">Muysc Cubun</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Writing</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Script</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Numerals</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Numerals</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">Quipu</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Religion</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">Human Sacrifice</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Maya_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Maya culture">Human Sacrifice</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_religion" title="Muisca religion">Religion</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Religion</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Mythology</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Mythology</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Calendar</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Calendar</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Calendar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Astronomy</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_calendar" title="Muisca calendar">Calendar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Muisca_astronomy" title="Muisca astronomy">Astronomy</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_the_Incas" title="Mathematics of the Incas">Mathematics</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Society</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_society" title="Aztec society">Society</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_society" title="Maya society">Society</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trade_in_Maya_civilization" title="Trade in Maya civilization">Trade</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_economy" title="Muisca economy">Economy</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_society" title="Inca society">Society</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_warfare" title="Aztec warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_warfare" title="Maya warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_warfare" title="Muisca warfare">Warfare</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_army" title="Inca army">Army</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Women</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Aztec_civilization" title="Women in Aztec civilization">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Maya_society" title="Women in Maya society">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Muisca_society" title="Women in Muisca society">Women</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire#Gender_roles" title="Inca Empire">Gender Roles</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Architecture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_architecture" title="Muisca architecture">Architecture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_architecture" title="Inca architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Inca_road_system" title="Inca road system">Road System</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Art</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Art_and_cultural_production" title="Aztecs">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Art</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire#Arts_and_technology" title="Inca Empire">Art</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Music</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Music_and_song" title="Aztecs">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_music" title="Maya music">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_music" title="Muisca music">Music</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Andean_music" title="Andean music">Andean Music</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Chinampa" title="Chinampa">Chinampas</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Agriculture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_agriculture" title="Muisca agriculture">Agriculture</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_agriculture" title="Inca agriculture">Agriculture</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Cuisine</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_cuisine" title="Aztec cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_cuisine" title="Ancient Maya cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca_cuisine" title="Muisca cuisine">Cuisine</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_cuisine" title="Inca cuisine">Cuisine</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> History</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Aztecs" title="History of the Aztecs">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maya_civilization" title="History of the Maya civilization">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Muisca" title="Template:History of the Muisca">History</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Incas" title="History of the Incas">Inca history</a> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Inca_State" title="Neo-Inca State">Neo-Inca State</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Mayans</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Muisca" title="Muisca">Muisca</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Incas</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-odd navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Notable Rulers</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_I" title="Moctezuma I">Moctezuma I</a> <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/K%CA%BCinich_Janaab%CA%BC_Pakal" title="Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal">Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal</a> <a href="/wiki/Uaxaclajuun_Ub%CA%BCaah_K%CA%BCawiil" title="Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil">Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil</a> <a href="/wiki/Jasaw_Chan_K%CA%BCawiil_I" title="Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I">Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Nemequene" title="Nemequene">Nemequene</a> <a href="/wiki/Quemuenchatocha" title="Quemuenchatocha">Quemuenchatocha</a> <a href="/wiki/Tisquesusa" title="Tisquesusa">Tisquesusa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tundama" title="Tundama">Tundama</a> <a href="/wiki/Zoratama" title="Zoratama">Zoratama</a></td><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"> <a href="/wiki/Manco_C%C3%A1pac" title="Manco Cápac">Manco Cápac</a> <a href="/wiki/Pachacuti" title="Pachacuti">Pachacuti</a> <a href="/wiki/Atahualpa" title="Atahualpa">Atahualpa</a> <a href="/wiki/Manco_Inca_Yupanqui" title="Manco Inca Yupanqui">Manco Inca Yupanqui</a> <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru" title="Túpac Amaru">Túpac Amaru</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><th scope="row" class="navbox-list navbox-even navbox-group" style="background: #FEEFD6; width:10em; border-bottom:1px #fff solid;"> Conquest</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish Conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Spanish Conquest</a> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish Conquest of Yucatán</a> (<a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Montejo" title="Francisco de Montejo">Francisco de Montejo</a>) <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish Conquest of Guatemala</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Spanish Conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a>) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conquistadors_in_Colombia" title="List of conquistadors in Colombia">List of Conquistadors</a>)</td><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Spanish Conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><div id="See_also">See also</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_the_Americas" title="Category:Archaeological sites in the Americas">Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mesoamerica" title="Portal:Mesoamerica">Portal:Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramics_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Indigenous cuisine of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems" title="Mesoamerican writing systems">Mesoamerican writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting_in_the_Americas_before_European_colonization" title="Painting in the Americas before European colonization">Painting in the Americas before European colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Pre-Columbian art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FEEFD6;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/32px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/48px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg/64px-Lascar_Avenue_of_the_Dead_and_the_Pyramid_of_the_Sun_in_the_background_%284566574277%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Civilizations" title="Portal:Civilizations">Civilizations 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