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class="vector-toc-link" href="#命名"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 命名 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-命名-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-物理性质" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#物理性质"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 物理性质 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-物理性质-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关物理性质子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-物理性质-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-量子關係式" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#量子關係式"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 量子關係式 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-量子關係式-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-光子的靜質量" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#光子的靜質量"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 光子的靜質量 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-光子的靜質量-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-其他性質" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#其他性質"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 其他性質 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-其他性質-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-历史发展" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#历史发展"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 历史发展 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-历史发展-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-早期的反对意见" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#早期的反对意见"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 早期的反对意见 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-早期的反对意见-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-与物质的相互作用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#与物质的相互作用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 与物质的相互作用 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-与物质的相互作用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-光子与量子力学" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#光子与量子力学"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 光子与量子力学 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-光子与量子力学-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> 开关光子与量子力学子章节 </button> <ul id="toc-光子与量子力学-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-波粒二象性和不确定性原理" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#波粒二象性和不确定性原理"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 波粒二象性和不确定性原理 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-波粒二象性和不确定性原理-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-受激辐射和自发辐射" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a 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class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > 开关目录 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">光子</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。112种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-112" aria-hidden="true" > 112种语言 </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%B3n" title="Fotón – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fotón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوتون – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فوتون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوطون – 摩洛哥阿拉伯文" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="فوطون" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="摩洛哥阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%B3n" title="Fotón – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fotón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фатон – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фатон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фатон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фатон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A8" title="ফোটন – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফোটন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%B3" title="Fotó – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fotó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%86%D9%86" title="فۆتۆن – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فۆتۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffoton" title="Ffoton – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffoton" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Φωτόνιο – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φωτόνιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotono" title="Fotono – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fotono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%B3n" title="Fotón – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fotón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footon" title="Footon – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Footon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoi" title="Fotoi – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fotoi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوتون – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فوتون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoni" title="Fotoni – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fotoni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodon" title="Foodon – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Foodon" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3t%C3%B3n" title="Fótón – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fótón" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%B3n" title="Fotón – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fotón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AB%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%89%E0%AA%A8" title="ફોટૉન – 古吉拉特语" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ફોટૉન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="古吉拉特语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9F" title="פוטון – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוטון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="फोटॉन – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फोटॉन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 海地克里奥尔语" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="海地克里奥尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="优良条目"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Ֆոտոն – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆոտոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotono" title="Fotono – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fotono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lj%C3%B3seind" title="Ljóseind – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ljóseind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotone" title="Fotone – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fotone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90" title="光子 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="光子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuotan" title="Fuotan – 牙買加克里奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Fuotan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克里奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ფოტონი – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფოტონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಫೋಟಾನ್ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಫೋಟಾನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%EC%9E%90" title="광자 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="광자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%BE%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پھوٹان – 克什米尔语" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="پھوٹان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="克什米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fut%C3%B9n" title="Futùn – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Futùn" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotonas" title="Fotonas – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fotonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotons" title="Fotons – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fotons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voankazavana" title="Voankazavana – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Voankazavana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BA" title="ഫോട്ടോൺ – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫോട്ടോൺ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8" title="फोटॉन – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फोटॉन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%96%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဖိုတွန် – 缅甸语" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဖိုတွန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="缅甸语" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8" title="फोटोन – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="फोटोन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suudifa" title="Suudifa – 奥罗莫语" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Suudifa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奥罗莫语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AB%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ଫୋଟନ୍‌ – 奥里亚语" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଫୋଟନ୍‌" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="奥里亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A8" title="ਫ਼ੋਟੌਨ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫ਼ੋਟੌਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوٹون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فوٹون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوټون – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فوټون" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%A3o" title="Fotão – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fotão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phutun" title="Phutun – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Phutun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="प्रकाशाणु – 梵语" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="प्रकाशाणु" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="梵语" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoni" title="Fotoni – 西西里语" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Fotoni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%BD%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فوٽان – 信德语" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فوٽان" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德语" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fot%C3%B3n" title="Fotón – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fotón" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoni" title="Fotoni – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fotoni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 沙特菲士蘭文" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="沙特菲士蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 巽他语" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoni" title="Fotoni – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Fotoni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81" title="ஒளியணு – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒளியணு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఫోటాన్ – 泰卢固语" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఫోటాన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="泰卢固语" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="โฟตอน – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โฟตอน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Фотон – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фотон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%B9%D9%88%D9%86" title="فوٹون – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فوٹون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton" title="Foton – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Foton" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="典范条目"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon" title="Photon – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Photon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90" title="光子 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="光子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9F" title="פאטאן – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאטאן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kng-ch%C3%BA" title="Kng-chú – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kng-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90" title="光子 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="光子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibane" title="Ibane – 祖鲁语" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ibane" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="祖鲁语" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox td div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox td div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important;color:var(--color-base,#202122)}}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox td div.NavHead:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox td div.NavHead:not(.notheme)[style]{background:transparent!important}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="background:"><caption class="infobox-title">光子</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:LASER.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/LASER.jpg/275px-LASER.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/LASER.jpg/413px-LASER.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/LASER.jpg/550px-LASER.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="3096" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">光子从激光的相干光束中射出</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="">组成</th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="基本粒子">基本粒子</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E7%8B%AC%E7%AB%8B%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="近独立粒子统计力学">系</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="玻色子">玻色子</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="基本相互作用">基本相互作用</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%8A%9B" title="電磁力">電磁力</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="">符号</th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \gamma }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>γ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \gamma }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a223c880b0ce3da8f64ee33c4f0010beee400b1a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.262ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \gamma }"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="">理论</th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦">阿爾伯特·愛因斯坦</a> (1905年) <a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="吉尔伯特·路易斯">吉尔伯特·路易斯</a>（1926年）：命名“光子（photon）”</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%98%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F" title="不变质量">质量</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">0<a href="#cite_note-BJ545-1">[1]</a> <6982100000000000000♠1×10−18 [[eV/c2]] <a href="#cite_note-Particle_table_2009-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0%E8%A1%B0%E5%87%8F#平均寿命" title="指数衰减">平均寿命</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">穩定<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷">電荷</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">0 <6946160217648700000♠1×10−35 <a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%94%B5%E8%8D%B7" title="基本电荷">e</a><a href="#cite_note-Particle_table_2009-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%8D%B7" title="色荷">色荷</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">0</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B" title="自旋">自旋</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">1<a href="#cite_note-BJ545-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="">自旋态</th><td class="infobox-data" style=""><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r58896141">.mw-parser-output .serif{font-family:Times,serif}</style>+1 ℏ,  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r58896141">−1 ℏ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style=""><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E7%A8%B1" title="宇稱">宇称</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="">-1</td></tr></tbody></table> 光子（英語：Photon）是一種<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="基本粒子">基本粒子</a>，是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2" title="电磁波">電磁輻射</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90" title="量子">量子</a>。在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%A0%B4%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="量子場論">量子場論</a>裏是負責傳遞<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%8A%9B" title="電磁力">電磁力</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8A%9B%E8%BC%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="力載子（页面不存在）">力載子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/force_carrier" class="extiw" title="en:force carrier">force carrier</a>）<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">[4]</a>:17-18。這種作用力的效應在微觀層次或宏觀層次都可以很容易地觀察到，因為光子的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%98%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F" title="不变质量">靜止質量</a>為零<a href="#cite_note-rel_mass-6">[註 1]</a>，它可以移動至很遠距離，这也意味着它在<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%A9%BA" title="真空">真空</a>中的传播速度是<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E9%80%9F" title="光速">光速</a>。如同其它微觀粒子，光子具有<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%B2%92%E4%BA%8C%E8%B1%A1%E6%80%A7" title="波粒二象性">波粒二象性</a>，能夠展現出波動性與粒子性。例如，它能在<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E7%B8%AB%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="雙縫實驗">雙縫實驗</a>裡展示出波動性，也能在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E9%9B%BB%E6%95%88%E6%87%89" class="mw-redirect" title="光電效應">光電效應</a>實驗裏展示出粒子性<a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:1060-1068。 <a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦">阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦</a>在1905年至1917年间發展出光子的現代概念，這是為了解釋一些與光的古典波動模型不相符合的實驗結果。当时被普遍接受的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%A6" title="电磁学">经典电磁理论</a>，尽管能夠論述關於光是<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2" title="电磁波">电磁波</a>的概念，但是无法正確解释<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E9%AB%94%E8%BC%BB%E5%B0%84" class="mw-redirect" title="黑體輻射">黑體輻射</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%85%89%E7%94%B5%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" class="mw-redirect" title="外光电效应">光电效应</a>等实验现象。半古典理論在<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B%E7%BB%84" class="mw-redirect" title="麦克斯韦方程组">麦克斯韦方程组</a>的框架下将物质吸收光和发射光所涉及的能量量子化，而行進的光波仍採古典方法處理；如此可對黑體輻射的實驗結果做出合理解釋。爱因斯坦的主張與<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="马克斯·普朗克">普朗克</a>的半古典理論明顯不同，他提出光本身就是量子化的概念，當時愛因斯坦稱之為「光量子」（英語：light quantum）<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1905-8">[6]</a>。1926年，美国物理化学家<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="吉尔伯特·路易斯">吉尔伯特·路易斯</a>正式提出“光子（photon）”的命名。<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> 雖然半古典理論對於量子力學的初始發展做出重大貢獻，從於1923年觀測到的電子對於單獨光子的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E6%99%AE%E9%A0%93%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84" title="康普頓散射">康普頓散射</a>開始，更多的實驗證據使愛因斯坦光量子假說得到充分證實<a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:1063-1065<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a>。由於這關鍵發現，愛因斯坦於1921年獲頒<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%BE%E8%B2%9D%E7%88%BE%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E7%8D%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="諾貝爾物理學獎">諾貝爾物理學獎</a><a href="#cite_note-nobelprize1921-13">[11]</a>。 光子的概念带动了实验和理论物理学在多个领域的巨大进展，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%87%9D%E8%81%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚">玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="量子场论">量子场论</a>、量子力学的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E8%A9%AE%E9%87%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="統計詮釋">统计诠释</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="量子光學">量子光學</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97" class="mw-redirect" title="量子計算">量子計算</a>等。在物理学外的其他领域裡，這概念也找到很多重要應用，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="光化学">光化学</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%AB%98%E5%88%86%E8%BE%A8%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E8%A1%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="高分辨顯微術（页面不存在）">高分辨顯微術</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/two-photon_excitation_microscopy" class="extiw" title="en:two-photon excitation microscopy">two-photon excitation microscopy</a>），以及<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%A7%E5%85%89%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F%E8%BD%AC%E7%A7%BB" title="荧光共振能量转移">分子间距测量</a>等。在当代相关研究中，光子是研究<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA" title="量子计算机">量子计算机</a>的基本元素，也在复杂的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E7%BA%96%E9%80%9A%E8%A8%8A" title="光纖通訊">光通信技术</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%AF%86%E7%A2%BC%E5%AD%B8" title="量子密碼學">量子密码学</a>等领域有重要的研究价值。 根据<a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="粒子物理學">粒子物理</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="标准模型">标准模型</a>，光子的存在可以满足物理定律在<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E7%A9%BA" title="时空">时空</a>内每一点具有特定<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7_(%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6)" title="对称性 (物理学)">对称性</a>的理論要求。這種對稱性稱為<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="规范对称性">规范对称性</a>，它可以決定光子的内禀属性，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F" title="质量">质量</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷">电荷</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B" title="自旋">自旋</a>等<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">[4]</a>:358ff。光子的自旋為1，因此是<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="玻色子">玻色子</a>，不遵守<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A1%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%8D%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="泡利不相容原理">泡利不相容原理</a><a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:1221。 <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="命名">命名</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：命名">编辑</a>]</div> 光子起初被<a href="/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="爱因斯坦">爱因斯坦</a>命名为「光量子」<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1905-8">[6]</a>。光子的现代英文名称photon源于<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%85%8A%E8%AF%AD" title="希腊语">希腊文</a> φῶς（在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E5%AD%97" class="mw-redirect" title="罗马字">罗马字</a>下写为 phôs），即光的意思。這名稱是由<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="物理化学">物理化学</a>家<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%B7%AF%E6%98%93%E6%96%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="吉尔伯特·路易斯">吉尔伯特·路易斯</a>於1926年在他的一个假设性理论中创建的<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1926-14">[12]</a>。在路易斯的理论中，photon指的是一種新種類原子，是光的載子，像原子一般，不能被创造也不能被毁灭<a href="#cite_note-Kragh-15">[13]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%91%9F%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E6%99%AE%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="阿瑟·康普頓">阿瑟·康普頓</a>在一篇發表於1928年的論文裏特別提到，路易斯曾經建議使用這術語<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a>。在這之前，這術語曾經在不同地方至少有四次被用到過。尽管由于路易斯的理论与大多数实验结果相违背而从未得到公认，photon这術語很快被很多物理学家所采用<a href="#cite_note-Kragh-15">[13]</a>。 在物理学领域，光子通常用希腊字母 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r58896141"><var class="serif">γ</var>（音：<a href="/wiki/%CE%93" title="Γ">Gamma</a>）表示。这一符号表示有可能来源于<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD" title="法国">法国</a>物理学家<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BF%9D%E7%BE%85%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="保羅·维拉德（页面不存在）">保羅·维拉德</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Villard" class="extiw" title="en:Paul Villard">Paul Villard</a>）于1900年发现的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%84%E7%BA%BF" title="伽马射线">伽玛射线</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a>。伽玛射线由<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%A7%E5%86%85%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%8D%A2%E7%91%9F%E7%A6%8F" title="欧内斯特·卢瑟福">欧内斯特·卢瑟福</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a>物理学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%88%B1%E5%BE%B7%E5%8D%8E%C2%B7%E5%AE%89%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7" title="爱德华·安德拉德">爱德华·安德拉德</a>于1914年证实是电磁辐射的一种形式<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a>。在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="化学">化学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B" title="光学工程">光学工程</a>领域，光子经常被写为 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r58896141"><var class="serif">hν</var><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a>，即用它的能量来表示；有时也用 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r58896141"><var class="serif">f</var> 来表示其频率，即写为 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r58896141"><var class="serif">hf</var><a href="#cite_note-Liddle2015-22">[20]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="物理性质">物理性质</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：物理性质">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="量子關係式">量子關係式</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：量子關係式">编辑</a>]</div> 光子遵守基本<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90" title="量子">量子</a>關係式： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu =\hbar \omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mi>ω</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu =\hbar \omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4d967b27858abe0ceb0b374fe181dcf18aa96bf0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:13.296ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu =\hbar \omega }">，</dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p={\frac {h}{\lambda }}=\hbar k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>h</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p={\frac {h}{\lambda }}=\hbar k}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/11d57763091ce70cd40054cc9b1ac5cf754499e2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:12.165ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p={\frac {h}{\lambda }}=\hbar k}">，<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></dd></dl> 其中 <ul><li>E為<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>；</li> <li>h為<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E5%B8%B8%E6%95%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="普朗克常數">普朗克常數</a>；</li> <li><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \hbar }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \hbar }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/de68de3a92517953436c93b5a76461d49160cc41" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.306ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \hbar }">為約化普朗克常數或稱<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%84%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="狄拉克">狄拉克</a>常數，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \hbar =h/{2\pi }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \hbar =h/{2\pi }}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c4dddfd7dfe936fcc9b864cb97b812a59728606a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.401ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \hbar =h/{2\pi }}">；</li> <li>ν為<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%BB%E7%8E%87_(%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8)" title="頻率 (物理學)">頻率</a>；</li> <li>ω為<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%92%E9%A0%BB%E7%8E%87" class="mw-redirect" title="角頻率">角頻率</a>，ω = 2πν；</li> <li>p為<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="動量">動量</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%83%E6%95%B0" title="范数">大小</a>；</li> <li>λ為<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E9%95%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="波長">波長</a>；</li> <li>k為<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%95%B8" title="波數">波數</a>。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="光子的靜質量">光子的靜質量</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：光子的靜質量">编辑</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84833064">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%AD%E4%B9%89%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA" title="狭义相对论">狭义相对论</a></div> 光子的静止质量严格为0<a href="#cite_note-rel_mass-6">[註 1]</a>。根據<a href="/wiki/%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E5%A0%B4%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="規範場論">規範場論</a>，如果光子静质量不为0，那么<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E4%BB%91%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="库仑定律">库仑定律</a>也不是严格的平方反比定律<a href="#cite_note-exception-25">[註 2]</a>。使用上述量子關係式以及爱因斯坦<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E8%83%BD%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="質能方程">質能等價關係</a>可約略得到光子质量的上限： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h\nu =m_{\gamma }c^{2}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h\nu =m_{\gamma }c^{2}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/35f9f062072b72713f21d4e9c6f809c4cb6af2f9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.283ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h\nu =m_{\gamma }c^{2}\,}"></dd></dl> 此處<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9882d6fe0389d02a80ba0320d94a7d896ad9d3d8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.552ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }\,}">即是光子质量的上限，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c15bbbb971240cf328aba572178f091684585468" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.232ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu }">是任意电磁波的频率，位于超低频段的<a href="/wiki/%E8%88%92%E6%9B%BC%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="舒曼共振">舒曼共振</a>已知最低频率约为7.8赫兹。<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }<h\nu /c^{2}=6\times 10^{-50}\operatorname {kg} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo><</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <mn>6</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>50</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mi>kg</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }<h\nu /c^{2}=6\times 10^{-50}\operatorname {kg} }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fbba42de5a325e0d97571e57edec04e5f5a64b72" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:27.416ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }<h\nu /c^{2}=6\times 10^{-50}\operatorname {kg} }"></dd></dl> 这个值仅比现在得到的广为接受的上限值高出一个数量级<a href="#cite_note-Jackson-24">[22]</a>:5-9。更多細節，請参见<a href="#光子：规范玻色子">光子：规范玻色子</a>一节中对於光子质量的讨论。 根據<a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%AD%E4%B9%89%E7%9B%B8%E5%AF%B9%E8%AE%BA" title="狭义相对论">狭义相对论</a>，质量为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/37129e832c2c81b9f146dd22228d409bd099b295" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.427ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m\,}">的粒子，其能量<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}">和动量<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}">的关系为 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E^{2}=p^{2}c^{2}+m^{2}c^{4}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>+</mo> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E^{2}=p^{2}c^{2}+m^{2}c^{4}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32c0817ccb0ef49848af23bb15df53a698541563" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:18.615ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E^{2}=p^{2}c^{2}+m^{2}c^{4}\,}">。下方內容及本句參考自<a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:1046。</dd></dl> 由於光子的質量為0，光子的能量與動量的關係變為 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=pc}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=pc}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5498982f39427c7573448da10de26a7b3209e47a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.05ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=pc}">。</dd></dl> 因此前述的量子關係式中，光子的能量與其频率<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c15bbbb971240cf328aba572178f091684585468" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.232ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu }">或波長<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }">有關： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=\hbar \omega =h\nu ={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mi>ω</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mi>λ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=\hbar \omega =h\nu ={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ce3f4f21edb23ddd9a4a0941d0faf4a12cdaee74" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:19.576ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=\hbar \omega =h\nu ={\frac {hc}{\lambda }}}">，</dd></dl> 這裡用到<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E9%80%9F" title="光速">光速</a>與頻率、波長的關係式： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c=\nu \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>ν</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c=\nu \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0ce7275c821a17e1af7782133f8203bb6a73cdcd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.693ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c=\nu \lambda }">。<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy-27">[24]</a></dd></dl> 同理，光子的動量向量與動量<a href="/wiki/%E8%8C%83%E6%95%B0" title="范数">大小</a>的關係式為 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\hbar \mathbf {k} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">p</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">k</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\hbar \mathbf {k} }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/95e73faf974069648fc56ca99c29c35950e6819c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.301ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\hbar \mathbf {k} }">，</dd> <dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p=\hbar k={\frac {h}{\lambda }}={\frac {h\nu }{c}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mi>k</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>h</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> <mi>c</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p=\hbar k={\frac {h}{\lambda }}={\frac {h\nu }{c}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4049e884a5706f08c5efbcd93df1a9f0b6989ef4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:18.671ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p=\hbar k={\frac {h}{\lambda }}={\frac {h\nu }{c}}}">；</dd></dl> 其中，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">k</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9ea699cbc1f843f2e855577d57529430ec33a1ed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.411ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {k} }">是波向量，其大小<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k\equiv ||\mathbf {k} ||=2\pi /\lambda \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> <mo>≡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">k</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>2</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>λ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k\equiv ||\mathbf {k} ||=2\pi /\lambda \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/741a2aff1423a198a37e9f7e2149d8507f8eef39" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.806ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k\equiv ||\mathbf {k} ||=2\pi /\lambda \,}">即為<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E6%95%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="波数">波数</a>，方向為光子的传播方向。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="其他性質">其他性質</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：其他性質">编辑</a>]</div> 光子的自旋和宇称：JPC = 1--。 光子本身还携带有与其频率无关的内秉角动量<a href="#cite_note-spin-28">[25]</a>：<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B" title="自旋">自旋角动量</a>，其大小为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\hbar }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mn>2</mn> </msqrt> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\hbar }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5a51e6e9d375419624d5e2364231cc4fa3938adb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.405ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\hbar }"><a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2004-29">[26]</a>:171-172，并且自旋角动量在其运动方向上的分量，即<a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="螺旋性">螺旋性</a>，一定为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \pm \hbar \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>±</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \pm \hbar \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1cd9133bbf6790c07b3372484e42b96afdaf89e2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.502ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \pm \hbar \,}">，两种可能的螺旋性分别对应着光子的两种<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%93%E5%81%8F%E6%8C%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="圓偏振">圆偏振</a>态，右旋偏振態和左旋偏振態<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a>:27-29<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">[4]</a>:137-138, 234。 光子的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%9F%A2" title="波矢">波向量</a>决定了它的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E9%95%BF" title="波长">波长</a>和传播方向。光子的自旋为1，質量為0，因此自旋只能有兩種相互垂直的<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E5%90%91" class="mw-redirect" title="方向">方向</a>，而且都垂直於波向量。由於自旋決定了<a href="/wiki/%E5%81%8F%E6%8C%AF" title="偏振">偏振</a>，光子具有两种可能的偏振态，例如，這兩種偏振態可以是垂直偏振態、水平偏振態，也可以是右旋偏振態、左旋偏振態<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">[4]</a>:242-243。 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg/220px-Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg/330px-Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg/440px-Mutual_Annihilation_of_a_Positron_Electron_pair.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="567" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>用<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E6%9B%BC%E5%9B%BE" title="费曼图">费曼图</a>表示的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="正電子">正电子</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">负电子</a>湮滅。</figcaption></figure> 光子的电荷为零<a href="#cite_note-chargeless-31">[28]</a>，<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E8%A1%B0%E6%9C%9F" title="半衰期">半衰期</a>无限长。光子是<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="玻色子">玻色子</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a>:29-30，因此<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%95%E5%AD%90%E6%95%B8" title="輕子數">轻子数</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90%E6%95%B0" title="重子数">重子数</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%B3_(%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8)" title="味 (粒子物理學)">味量子數</a>都为0<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a>:31<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">[4]</a>:80-82，而且不遵守<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A1%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%8D%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="泡利不相容原理">泡利不相容原理</a><a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:1221。 光子能够在很多自然过程中产生，例如：在分子、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子">原子</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>从高能级向低能级<a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%83%E8%BF%81" class="mw-disambig" title="跃迁">跃迁</a>时会辐射光子，粒子和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="反粒子">反粒子</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%B9%AE%E7%81%AD" title="湮灭">湮灭</a>时也会产生光子；在對應於上述過程的<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%B6%E9%97%B4%E5%8F%8D%E6%BC%94%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="时间反演对称性">时间反演</a>过程中，光子能够被吸收，即分子、原子或原子核从低能级向高能级跃迁，粒子和反粒子对的產生<a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:572, 1114, 1172。 从光子的能量、动量公式可导出一个推论：粒子和其反粒子的湮灭过程必會产生至少两个光子。原因是在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E9%87%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E7%B3%BB" title="动量中心系">動量中心系</a>下粒子和其反粒子组成的系统总动量为零，由于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E9%87%8F%E5%AE%88%E6%81%92%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="动量守恒定律">动量守恒定律</a>，产生的光子的总动量也必须为零，而单个光子总具有不为零的大小为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p={h\nu }/{c}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p={h\nu }/{c}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f7e753655068f52c417190a321c710b1eb93e8e7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:9.485ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p={h\nu }/{c}\,}">的动量，因此系统只能产生两个或两个以上的光子来满足总动量为零<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">[4]</a>:64-65。产生光子的频率，即它们的能量，则由<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E9%87%8F%E5%AE%88%E6%81%92%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B#动量守恒定律的本质" title="动量守恒定律">能量-动量守恒定律</a>（四维动量守恒）决定。单光子生成电子-反电子对的过程不可能在真空中自发产生，這是因為這過程無法遵守動量守恆，從電子與反電子對的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A8%E9%87%8F%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E7%B3%BB" title="动量中心系">動量中心系</a>觀察，它們的總動量為零，但是光子的動量無法被抵銷，因此，須要有額外一個帶質量粒子參與，例如一個<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>，這過程才能發生<a href="#cite_note-Giancoli2008-34">[31]</a>:996<a href="#cite_note-French1968-35">[32]</a>:189-191。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="历史发展">历史发展</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：历史发展">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89" title="光">光</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_Diffraction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Young_Diffraction.png/200px-Young_Diffraction.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Young_Diffraction.png/300px-Young_Diffraction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Young_Diffraction.png/400px-Young_Diffraction.png 2x" data-file-width="1988" data-file-height="882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%9D%A8" title="托马斯·杨">托马斯·杨</a>於1801年进行的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E7%B8%AB%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="雙縫實驗">双缝干涉实验</a>證實光波动說，同時否定了光微粒说的有力证据<a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:964。</figcaption></figure> 在17世紀與18世紀時期，在學術界主要有兩種論述光的學說：光微粒说與光波動說。根據光微粒说，光是由无数微小粒子组成的物质。雖然這可以解釋光的直線移動與反射，但並不能正確地解釋<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%98%E5%B0%84" title="折射">折射</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8D%E5%B0%84" title="衍射">衍射</a>等现象<a href="#cite_note-Whittaker-36">[33]</a>:17-19。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%92%E5%86%85%C2%B7%E7%AC%9B%E5%8D%A1%E5%B0%94" title="勒内·笛卡尔">勒内·笛卡尔</a>（1637年）<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E8%83%A1%E5%85%8B" title="罗伯特·胡克">罗伯特·胡克</a>（1665年）<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E8%92%82%E5%AE%89%C2%B7%E6%83%A0%E6%9B%B4%E6%96%AF" title="克里斯蒂安·惠更斯">克里斯蒂安·惠更斯</a>（1678年）<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a>等人主張<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E6%B3%A2%E5%8B%95%E8%AA%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="光波動說">光波动说</a>，認為光是瀰漫在宇宙中的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%A5%E5%A4%AA" title="以太">以太</a>所傳播的擾動。雖然光波動說可以解釋光為什麼能夠進行直線傳播與球面傳播，並且解釋反射與折射機制，但是無法解衍射機制<a href="#cite_note-Hecht2002-40">[37]</a>:2-3, 104-105。当时由于<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="艾萨克·牛顿">艾薩克·牛顿</a>的权威影响力<a href="#cite_note-Newton1730-41">[38]</a>，光微粒说仍然占有主导地位<a href="#cite_note-Hecht2002-40">[37]</a>:4。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%81%E4%B9%9D%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" class="mw-redirect" title="十九世紀">十九世纪</a>初，<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%98%E9%A9%AC%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%9D%A8" title="托马斯·杨">托马斯·杨</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A5%E5%8F%A4%E6%96%AF%E4%B8%81%C2%B7%E8%8F%B2%E6%B6%85%E8%80%B3" title="奥古斯丁·菲涅耳">奥古斯丁·菲涅耳</a>的实验清晰地证实了光的干涉和衍射特性，並且用光波動說合理解釋這些特性。到1830年左右，光波动说已经完全被学界接受<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a>:xiii-xiv。1865年，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="詹姆斯·麦克斯韦">詹姆斯·麦克斯韦</a>的理论预言光是一种<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2" title="电磁波">电磁波</a><a href="#cite_note-maxwell-43">[40]</a>，证实电磁波存在的实验由<a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%9B%A0%E9%87%8C%E5%B8%8C%C2%B7%E8%B5%AB%E5%85%B9" title="海因里希·赫兹">海因里希·赫茲</a>在1888年完成<a href="#cite_note-hertz-44">[41]</a>，这被認為标志着光微粒说的彻底终结<a href="#cite_note-Optics-45">[42]</a>。 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Light-wave.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Light-wave.svg/340px-Light-wave.svg.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Light-wave.svg/510px-Light-wave.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Light-wave.svg/680px-Light-wave.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="詹姆斯·麦克斯韦">詹姆斯·麦克斯韦</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B%E7%BB%84" class="mw-redirect" title="麦克斯韦方程组">光的电磁理论</a>将光描述为振动的正交电场和磁场，这一理论在1900年左右似乎已经相当完备，然而电磁理论不能解释所有的实验现象，这导致<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="马克斯·普朗克">普朗克</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B0%94%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6" title="阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦">爱因斯坦</a>提出的用E=hν来描述能量最小单位的光量子假说产生。其后的实验表明这种光量子还具有动量，是一种基本粒子：光子概念的诞生，开创了人类对于电磁场量子化的更深入的研究。</figcaption></figure> 然而，麦克斯韦理论下的光的电磁说并不能解释光的所有性质。例如在经典电磁理论中，光波的能量只与波场的能量密度（<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%BB%E7%85%A7%E5%BA%A6" title="輻照度">輻照度</a>）有关，与光波的频率无关；但很多相关实验，例如在<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="光化学">光化学</a>的某些反应中，只有当光照频率超过某一阈值时反应才会发生，而在阈值以下无论如何提高<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%BB%E7%85%A7%E5%BA%A6" title="輻照度">輻照度</a>，反应都不会发生。类似的例子还有<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%85%89%E7%94%B5%E6%95%88%E5%BA%94" class="mw-redirect" title="外光电效应">光电效应</a>实验，只有當照射足夠高頻率的光束於金屬版時，光電子才會被發射出來；光電子的能量只與频率有关，而與輻照度无关<a href="#cite_note-Halliday-7">[5]</a>:1060-1063<a href="#cite_note-48">[註 3]</a>。 与此同时，由众多物理学家进行的对于<a href="/wiki/%E9%BB%91%E4%BD%93%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84" title="黑体辐射">黑体辐射</a>长达四十多年（1860-1900）的研究<a href="#cite_note-Wien1911-49">[45]</a>因<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="马克斯·普朗克">普朗克</a>建立的假说而得到终结<a href="#cite_note-Planck1901-50">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Planck1918-51">[47]</a>，普朗克提出任何系统发射或吸收频率为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32a13ab64f1a72c7827e70aed42c8fcb323bd7bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.619ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu \,}">的电磁波的能量总是<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">的整数倍。爱因斯坦由此提出的光量子假说则能够成功对光电效应作出解释<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1905-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Einstein1909-52">[48]</a>，爱因斯坦因此获得1921年的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%BA%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6%E5%A5%96" title="诺贝尔物理学奖">诺贝尔物理学奖</a><a href="#cite_note-nobelprize1921-13">[11]</a>。爱因斯坦的理论先进性在于，在麦克斯韦的经典电磁理论中电磁场的能量是连续的，能够具有任意大小的值，而由于物质发射或吸收电磁波的能量是量子化的，这使得很多物理学家试图去寻找是怎样一种存在于物质中的约束限制了电磁波的能量只能为量子化的值；而爱因斯坦则开创性地提出电磁场的能量本身就是量子化的<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1905-8">[6]</a>。爱因斯坦并没有质疑麦克斯韦理论的正确性，但他也指出如果将麦克斯韦理论中的经典光波场的能量集中到一个个运动互不影响的光量子上，很多类似于光电效应的实验能够被很好地解释<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1905-8">[6]</a>。在1909年<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1909-52">[48]</a> 和1916年<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1916b-53">[49]</a>，爱因斯坦指出如果普朗克的<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E9%BB%91%E4%BD%93%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="普朗克黑体辐射定律">黑体辐射定律</a>成立，则电磁波的量子必须具有<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p={\frac {h}{\lambda }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>h</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p={\frac {h}{\lambda }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/88f22af43e3fc6f7d59e7cbbb727c070a1987cb4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:6.549ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p={\frac {h}{\lambda }}}">的动量，以赋予它们完美的粒子性。光子的动量在1926年由康普顿在实验中观测到<a href="#cite_note-Compton1923-54">[50]</a>，康普顿也因此获得1927年的诺贝尔奖<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a>。 爱因斯坦等人的工作证明了光子的存在，随之而来的问题是：如何将麦克斯韦关于光的电磁理论和光量子理论统一起来呢？爱因斯坦始终未能找到统一两者的理论<a href="#cite_note-Pais1982-56">[52]</a>，但如今这个问题的解答已经被包含在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%BB%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="量子電動力學">量子电动力学</a>和其其后续的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="标准模型理论">标准模型理论</a>中。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="早期的反对意见">早期的反对意见</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：早期的反对意见">编辑</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bohr_atom_model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bohr_atom_model.svg/250px-Bohr_atom_model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bohr_atom_model.svg/375px-Bohr_atom_model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bohr_atom_model.svg/500px-Bohr_atom_model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption>直到1923年大多数物理学家都不愿接受电磁辐射本身是量子化的事实。相反，他们试图从物质结构的量子化出发寻找解释，例如玻尔的氢原子模型。这些半经典理论尽管被实验证明不成立，却开创了<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="量子力学">量子力学</a>的先河。</figcaption></figure> 爱因斯坦在1905年提出的光量子理论在二十世纪的前二十年中多次由不同的实验方法得到证实，这一点在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%AF%86%E7%AB%8B%E6%A0%B9" title="罗伯特·密立根">罗伯特·密立根</a>的诺贝尔演讲中有叙述<a href="#cite_note-Millikan1923-57">[53]</a>。然而在<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E6%99%AE%E9%A0%93%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84" title="康普頓散射">康普顿实验</a>证明光子具有和其频率成正比的动量之前<a href="#cite_note-Compton1923-54">[50]</a>，大多数物理学家都不愿意相信电磁辐射也有粒子性的一面（参见<a href="/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E6%81%A9" title="威廉·维恩">维恩</a><a href="#cite_note-Wien1911-49">[45]</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B" title="马克斯·普朗克">普朗克</a><a href="#cite_note-Planck1918-51">[47]</a>、密立根<a href="#cite_note-Millikan1923-57">[53]</a>的诺贝尔演讲）。考虑到麦克斯韦理论的高度完备性和正确性，这种质疑是可以理解的，基于这种质疑，很多物理学家都从物质结构中寻找这种吸收或辐射量子化能量的未知原因。<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E5%B0%94%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E5%B0%94" title="尼尔斯·玻尔">玻尔</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%AB%BE%C2%B7%E7%B4%A2%E6%9C%AB%E8%8F%B2" title="阿諾·索末菲">索末菲</a>等人建立了带有量子化轨道的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E5%B0%94%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="玻尔模型">原子模型</a>，从而能够定性地解释原子谱线和物质吸收或发射光的能量量子化问题；这种原子模型和实际的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%A2%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="氢原子">氢原子</a>符合得相当好，但不适用于其他任何原子。只有当<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E7%91%9F%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E6%99%AE%E9%A1%BF" title="阿瑟·康普顿">康普顿</a>做了光子被自由<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>散射的实验后，光本身即是量子的理论才被广泛接受（由于电子没有内在结构，因此不存在光子在其中不同能级间跃迁的可能）<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a>。 即使是在康普顿实验之后，玻尔、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A1%9E%E7%BC%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E8%AF%BA%E4%BA%9A%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E8%8E%B1%E9%BB%98" title="塞缪尔·诺亚·克莱默">克莱默</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E8%8E%B1%E7%89%B9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="約翰·斯莱特（页面不存在）">約翰·斯莱特</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Slater" class="extiw" title="en:John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a>）仍然提出了所谓BKS （Bohr-Kramers-Slater）模型<a href="#cite_note-Bohr1924-59">[55]</a>，意图在于在麦克斯韦理论的框架下为解释光量子问题做最后的尝试。这个模型的建立是基于两个相当偏激的假设： <ul><li>物质与电磁辐射的相互作用中，动量和能量的守恒定律只有在取平均时才成立，而在吸收或发射的微小元过程中守恒律不成立；这个假设避免了讨论<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E7%BA%A7" title="能级">能级</a><a href="/wiki/%E8%B7%83%E8%BF%81" class="mw-disambig" title="跃迁">跃迁</a>时出现的能量不连续性，而将其理解为连续释放能量的渐变行为。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB" title="因果关系">因果律</a>被抛弃，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E5%8F%91%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84" title="自发辐射">自发辐射</a>的过程只是一种“虚拟的”电磁场导致的辐射。<a href="#cite_note-Niels_Bohr's_Times:_In_Physics,_Philosophy,_and_Polity-60">[56]</a>:236</li></ul> 尽管如此，在改进的康普顿散射实验中人们得知光子的动量和能量守恒即使是在微小的元过程中也符合得极其好；而在康普顿散射过程中，从电子的震动到新光子的产生，观测到的因果律满足时间达到了10皮秒。这使得玻尔和他的同行为他们的模型举行了“尽可能光荣的葬礼”<a href="#cite_note-Pais1982-56">[52]</a>；不过，BKS模型启发了<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%C2%B7%E6%B5%B7%E6%A3%AE%E5%A0%A1" title="维尔纳·海森堡">海森堡</a>的灵感，帮助发展了他的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A9%E9%99%A3%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="矩陣力學">量子力学</a><a href="#cite_note-Heisenberg1932-61">[57]</a>。 还有少数物理学家曾一直致力于建立电磁场并非量子化的<a href="#cite_note-Mandel1976-62">[58]</a>，而物质遵守量子力学的半经典模型。尽管到了二十世纪七十年代支持光子说的物理和化学实验依据已经相当丰富，证据可能还是不能被认为绝对确凿；因为这些实验都依赖于光与物质的相互作用，而一个足够复杂的关于物质的量子力学理论则仍然有可能去解释这些实验现象。无论如何，七八十年代进行的光子相关性实验已经完美地否定了所有半经典理论的正确性。由此，爱因斯坦关于光量子化的假说已经完全得到证实<a href="#cite_note-67">[註 4]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="与物质的相互作用">与物质的相互作用</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：与物质的相互作用">编辑</a>]</div> 光子在<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%80%8F%E6%98%8E%E7%89%A9%E8%B4%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="透明物质（页面不存在）">透明物质</a>中的传播速度要小于其在真空中的速度。例如在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%98%B3" title="太阳">太阳</a>内核产生的光子在到达太阳表面的路程中要经过无数次碰撞，到达表面所需时间可达一百万年<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a>，而一旦辐射到太空中只需8.3分钟就可到达地球。基于经典电磁理论的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%8A%A8%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="波动光学">波动光学</a>对此的解释是光波的电场引起了物质内部电子的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%A5%B5%E5%8C%96" title="電極化">极化</a>，极化场和原有的光电场发生干涉造成波的延迟，这种效应在宏观上表现为<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%A0%E4%BD%95%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" title="几何光学">几何光学</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%98%E5%B0%84%E7%8E%87" title="折射率">折射率</a>；而从光量子的角度来看，这个过程可以被描述为光子与处于激发态的物质粒子（<a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%96%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="準粒子">準粒子</a>，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E5%AD%90" title="声子">声子</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E7%99%BC%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="激發子">激發子</a>）混合成为一个<a href="/wiki/%E5%81%8F%E6%8C%AF%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="偏振子">偏振子</a>，偏振子具有非零的有效质量，这意味着它的运动速度不能达到光速。对于不同频率的光，在物质中的运动速度可能是不同的，这种现象叫做<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E7%9A%84%E8%89%B2%E6%95%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="光的色散">色散</a>。偏振子的传播速度是光波的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E9%80%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="群速">群速</a>，是真正的光波能量的传播速度，由能量对动量的导数给出： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v={\frac {\mathrm {d} \omega }{\mathrm {d} k}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} E}{\mathrm {d} p}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>E</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v={\frac {\mathrm {d} \omega }{\mathrm {d} k}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} E}{\mathrm {d} p}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7cb7c969a67d2cfe4321cb7a3bb731b68a4041cc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:14.803ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v={\frac {\mathrm {d} \omega }{\mathrm {d} k}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} E}{\mathrm {d} p}}}"></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RetinalCisandTrans.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/RetinalCisandTrans.png/250px-RetinalCisandTrans.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/RetinalCisandTrans.png/375px-RetinalCisandTrans.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/RetinalCisandTrans.png/500px-RetinalCisandTrans.png 2x" data-file-width="1040" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%86%E9%BB%84%E9%86%9B" title="视黄醛">视黄醛</a>在经过恰当波长的光子照射后分子结构会被拉直</figcaption></figure> 公式中变量的意义同前，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}">和<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}">是偏振子的能量和动量，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \omega }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ω</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \omega }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/48eff443f9de7a985bb94ca3bde20813ea737be8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.446ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \omega }">和<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>k</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}">是其角频率和波数。光子与其他准粒子的相互作用能够从<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E6%9B%BC%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84" class="mw-redirect" title="拉曼散射">拉曼散射</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%83%E9%87%8C%E6%B7%B5%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="布里淵散射（页面不存在）">布里淵散射</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillouin_scattering" class="extiw" title="en:Brillouin scattering">Brillouin scattering</a>）中观测到。 光子也能够被分子、原子或原子核吸收，引发它们能级的跃迁。一个經典的例子是<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%86%E9%BB%84%E9%86%9B" title="视黄醛">视黄醛</a>（C20H28O，见右图）的分子跃迁，这是由诺贝尔奖得主、<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="生物化学">生物化学</a>家<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E6%B2%83%E5%B0%94%E5%BE%B7" title="乔治·沃尔德">乔治·沃尔德</a>和他的同事于1958年发现的。光子的吸收甚至能够打破<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6%E9%94%AE" title="化学键">化学键</a>，例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%AF" title="氯">氯</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E8%A7%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="光解">光解</a>过程，这是<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="光化学">光化学</a>的研究主题。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="光子与量子力学">光子与量子力学</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：光子与量子力学">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="波粒二象性和不确定性原理">波粒二象性和不确定性原理</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：波粒二象性和不确定性原理">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%B2%92%E4%BA%8C%E8%B1%A1%E6%80%A7" title="波粒二象性">波粒二象性</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8E%8B%E7%BC%A9%E7%9B%B8%E5%B9%B2%E6%80%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="压缩相干态（页面不存在）">压缩相干态</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E7%A1%AE%E5%AE%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="不确定性原理">不确定性原理</a></div> 光子和其他量子一样，同时具有波和粒子的双重性质，这种<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E7%B2%92%E4%BA%8C%E8%B1%A1%E6%80%A7" title="波粒二象性">波粒二象性</a>很难直观地说明。在其波长的尺度上，光表现出<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%B2%E6%B6%89_(%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6)" title="干涉 (物理学)">干涉</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8D%E5%B0%84" title="衍射">衍射</a>等波的现象；例如一个单个光子在进行<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E7%B8%AB%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97" title="雙縫實驗">双缝实验</a>时打到屏上的概率分布与很多个光子（即通常状态下的电磁辐射）集体通过双缝时形成的干涉条纹相同，这种干涉条纹的分布可由<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B%E7%BB%84" class="mw-redirect" title="麦克斯韦方程组">麦克斯韦方程组</a>决定<a href="#cite_note-Taylor1909-69">[64]</a>。然而，实验证实单个光子并不等同于一个短暂的电磁脉冲，在传播过程中光子不会扩散，穿过<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6%E5%88%86%E6%9D%9F%E5%99%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="光学分束器（页面不存在）">光学分束器</a>时也不会分成两个<a href="#cite_note-Saleh-70">[65]</a>；光子也不是一种传统的粒子，单个光子在双缝实验中的概率分布似乎说明当它穿过双缝之一时“知道”另一条的存在。光子看上去像是一种无尺寸的粒子，原因是它能够被那些尺寸远小于其波长的粒子，例如<a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a>（10-15米）和同样无尺寸的电子，整体地吸收或发射。根据我们当前对光子的理解，光子是产生<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E5%9C%BA" title="电磁场">电磁场</a>的原因，而光子本身的存在是局域的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7_(%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6)" title="对称性 (物理学)">规范对称性</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="量子场论">量子场论</a>定律的结果。 <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heisenberg_gamma_ray_microscope.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Heisenberg_gamma_ray_microscope.png/200px-Heisenberg_gamma_ray_microscope.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Heisenberg_gamma_ray_microscope.png 1.5x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption>海森堡的假想实验：通过一个高分辨率的伽玛射线显微镜来确定一个电子位置（用蓝色表示）。入射的伽玛射线（用绿色表示）被电子散射到显微镜的孔径角θ内，被散射的伽玛射线用红色表示。经典光学告诉我们电子的位置不确定度不可能小于由孔径角和光波波长确定的一个值。</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%C2%B7%E6%B5%B7%E6%A3%AE%E5%A0%A1" title="维尔纳·海森堡">海森堡</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E7%A1%AE%E5%AE%9A%E6%80%A7%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="不确定性原理">不确定性原理</a>，作为量子力学中的一条重要基本法则，指出一个粒子同方向的位置和动量不可能在同一时刻被确定。值得注意的是，对于带有电荷的物质粒子，不确定性原理本身即要求将光量子化为光子，这里需要用到光子的动量和能量与频率的相关性。关于这一点的解说有一个很漂亮的示例<a href="#cite_note-Heisenberg1927-71">[66]</a>，这是海森堡的一个假想实验，讨论的是用一个理想的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%BD%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%84%E7%BA%BF" title="伽马射线">伽玛射线</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%A1%AF%E5%BE%AE%E9%8F%A1" title="顯微鏡">显微镜</a>去确定一个电子的位置的情形。假设电子的位置确定在显微镜的<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%88%A9%E6%BA%96%E5%89%87" class="mw-redirect" title="瑞利準則">分辨本领</a>可达的范围之内，这用经典光学表示为 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta x\sim {\frac {\lambda }{\sin \theta }}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>λ</mi> <mrow> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta x\sim {\frac {\lambda }{\sin \theta }}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e272651ec82f0cb6e7b113b077b2551112ceb534" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:11.533ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta x\sim {\frac {\lambda }{\sin \theta }}}"></dd></dl> 这里θ是显微镜的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%94%E5%BE%91%E8%A7%92" title="孔徑角">孔径角</a>。由此得到的位置不确定度<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta x\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta x\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5f54a25baffd4e59bbb972d72813b87f621c5a14" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.653ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta x\,}">可以随着用来观测电子的光<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E9%95%BF" title="波长">波长</a>λ 的减小而变得尽可能小；然而此时由于波长λ的减小，用来观测电子的光子动量增大，这使得光子在电子上发生散射造成电子的动量变得越来越不确定。如果光不是量子化的，则电子的动量不确定度则可以通过减小輻照度来逐渐降低。这种情况是不可能发生的因为同时调节波长和輻照度就相当于能够同时确定位置和动量，这违反了不确定性原理。与之相反的是，爱因斯坦的光量子理论是符合不确定性原理的：当光子被散射到孔径角内，传递的动量不确定度为 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta p\sim p_{\text{photon}}\sin \theta ={\frac {h}{\lambda }}\sin \theta }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mo>∼</mo> <msub> <mi>p</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>photon</mtext> </mrow> </msub> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>h</mi> <mi>λ</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>θ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta p\sim p_{\text{photon}}\sin \theta ={\frac {h}{\lambda }}\sin \theta }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a5c51a95021924d06a66c7539bae76aa27a2d387" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:27.361ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta p\sim p_{\text{photon}}\sin \theta ={\frac {h}{\lambda }}\sin \theta }"></dd></dl> 这就得到了海森堡不确定性原理<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta x\Delta p\,\sim \,h}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>∼</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>h</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta x\Delta p\,\sim \,h}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec4f4061c3f79e6e3f3bad78e5ea31dd790758b6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.582ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta x\Delta p\,\sim \,h}">，这意味着整个世界都是量子化的，包括物质和场都遵循量子定律<a href="#cite_note-72">[67]</a>:10f。 对于光子类似的一条不确定性原理是说无法同时测量一束电磁波中光子的数量n（参见<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A6%8F%E5%85%8B%E6%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="福克態（页面不存在）">福克態</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fock_State" class="extiw" title="en:Fock State">Fock State</a>）與下文的<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#二次量子化">二次量子化</a>）和这束电磁波的相位φ，两者不确定度的关系为 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta n\Delta \phi \,>\,1}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mo>></mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mn>1</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta n\Delta \phi \,>\,1}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/dc5075ecb053ac14f6bb9f8dee4d559af74d83c5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.687ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta n\Delta \phi \,>\,1}"></dd></dl> 详细内容可参考<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%B9%B2%E6%80%81" title="相干态">相干态</a>和<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A3%93%E7%B8%AE%E7%9B%B8%E5%B9%B2%E6%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="壓縮相干態（页面不存在）">壓縮相干態</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squeezed_coherent_state" class="extiw" title="en:Squeezed coherent state">Squeezed coherent state</a>）。 光子的波动性是指经典的电磁波呢，还是量子力学的几率波呢？ 光子和像电子那样的物质粒子都能够在双缝实验中形成类似的干涉条纹。在数学上，干涉条纹分布的计算既可以用经典波动干涉的方法，也能够完全从量子力学<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%87%BD%E6%95%B0" title="波函数">波函数</a>的方法推导出<a href="#cite_note-73">[68]</a>。由于单个光子穿过双缝时也会发生干涉，这种干涉很容易让人理解为光子的波函数的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E7%8E%87%E5%B9%85" title="機率幅">几率波</a>干涉；因为这种干涉完全无法用经典电磁理论解释，几率波的概念似乎更接近光子波动性的本质。不过一般教材在讨论光子的波动性时只使用经典电磁理论，而<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA%E6%B3%A2" title="物質波">物质粒子的波动性</a>只使用波动力学，这涉及到在物理学界光子的波函数本身仍然是一个有争议的概念。经典波动来自<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B%E7%BB%84" class="mw-redirect" title="麦克斯韦方程组">麦克斯韦方程组</a>，而波函数来自<a href="/wiki/%E8%96%9B%E5%AE%9A%E8%B0%94%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B" title="薛定谔方程">薛定谔方程</a>，但大多数物理学家都不认为这意味着对于光子而言麦克斯韦方程是薛定谔方程的简化形式<a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a>，原因是通常意义下的薛定谔的几率波函数概念无法应用到光子上<a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a>，光子的波函数无法拥有非相对论波动力学中薛定谔方程的所有性质。光子没有质量，无法定域化一个光子，这造成光子没有一个定义完备的位置本征态<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} \rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">r</mi> </mrow> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} \rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3d86ef4665f4fd222f128b598d66776b211e9dac" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.654ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} \rangle }">，不确定性原理的一般形式 <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta x\Delta p>h/2\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>p</mi> <mo>></mo> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta x\Delta p>h/2\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1fc22c571d2bc7420ecf529c4d59affb6556d322" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:13.52ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta x\Delta p>h/2\,}">对于光子而言没有定义。尽管现在有一些建立光子波函数的尝试<a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a>，这些都没有得到广泛认可和应用。现在被普遍接受的观点是光子的二次量子化理论，即在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%BB%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="量子電動力學">量子电动力学</a>中，光子是量子化的电磁场激发模式<a href="#cite_note-Ryder1996-81">[76]</a>:126ff。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型">玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：玻色-爱因斯坦光子气体模型">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E6%B0%94%E4%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色气体">玻色气体</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦统计">玻色-爱因斯坦统计</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AE%9A%E7%90%86" title="自旋統計定理">自旋统计定理</a></div> 1924年，<a href="/wiki/%E8%96%A9%E7%89%B9%E5%BB%B6%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%C2%B7%E7%B4%8D%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2" title="薩特延德拉·納特·玻色">萨特延德拉·纳特·玻色</a>在没有借助电磁理论的情形下推导出了普朗克的<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E9%BB%91%E4%BD%93%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="普朗克黑体辐射定律">黑体辐射定律</a>，他所用的方法是对<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E7%A9%BA%E9%96%93" title="相空間">相空间</a>内粗粒计数（coarse-grained counting）的修正<a href="#cite_note-Bose1924-82">[77]</a>。爱因斯坦证明了这种修正等价于认为光子是严格的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E5%90%8C%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="全同粒子">全同粒子</a>，并暗示了一种“神秘的非定域的相互作用”<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1924-83">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Einstein1925-84">[79]</a>，这种相互作用在今天被理解为量子力学对称态的要求。此项工作引出了<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E5%B9%B2%E6%80%81" title="相干态">相干态</a>的概念，并导致了<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a>的发展。爱因斯坦将玻色的结构体系推广至物质粒子（<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="玻色子">玻色子</a>），并预言它们在足够低的温度下会凝聚到能量最低的量子态上；1995年，人们在实验中成功实现了<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%87%9D%E8%81%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚">玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚态</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a>。 如果电磁场的线性叠加原理成立，光子必须服从<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦统计">玻色-爱因斯坦统计</a>。（整数<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B" title="自旋">自旋</a>的粒子是玻色子，而1/2奇数倍自旋的粒子是<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="费米子">费米子</a>；<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E6%97%8B%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%AE%9A%E7%90%86" title="自旋統計定理">自旋统计定理</a>的结论是所有玻色子服从<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦统计">玻色-爱因斯坦分布</a>，而所有费米子服从<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3-%E7%8B%84%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1" title="费米-狄拉克统计">费米-狄拉克分布</a>，或是说它们受到<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A1%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%8D%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86" title="泡利不相容原理">泡利不相容原理</a>的制约，每一个量子态上最多只能有一个费米子。）简单说来，假使光子是费米子，则激光不可能在任意<a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%BB%E7%85%A7%E5%BA%A6" title="輻照度">輻照度</a>下同时辐射出大量处在同一状态的具有相同运动方向的相干光子，因此光子只能是玻色子<a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="受激辐射和自发辐射">受激辐射和自发辐射</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：受激辐射和自发辐射">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E6%BF%80%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84" class="mw-redirect" title="受激辐射">受激辐射</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stimulatedemission.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Stimulatedemission.png/400px-Stimulatedemission.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Stimulatedemission.png/600px-Stimulatedemission.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Stimulatedemission.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>受激辐射（是一个光子“克隆”其自身的过程）是由爱因斯坦在用速率方程的方法推导 E=hν时预言的，这一工作引领了激光的发展，也驱动了研究光的本性的一系列量子方法的产生，如半经典理论和量子电动力学</figcaption></figure> 1916年，爱因斯坦发现普朗克的量子假说<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">能够从一个速率方程中导出。假设有一个处于<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%B9%B3%E8%A1%A1" title="熱平衡">热平衡</a>状态的空腔，内部充满了能够被系统吸收或发射的电磁辐射。热平衡状态要求系统中具有频率<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32a13ab64f1a72c7827e70aed42c8fcb323bd7bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.619ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu \,}">的光子的数密度<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n(\nu )\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ν</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n(\nu )\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fa492b18b0f0614bf00faaa9158e217f78b278f0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.823ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n(\nu )\,}">为不随时间变化的常数，这样系统发射光子的速率一定等于吸收光子的速率<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1916a-87">[82]</a>。 爱因斯坦假设一个系统从低能级<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2304839f34bd129b7bac56c86433443591c58481" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.012ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}">向高能级<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{i}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{i}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/018507937c7ddef5a470b1c8f3eadad632ea51d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.902ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{i}\,}"><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%B7%83%E8%BF%81" title="量子跃迁">跃迁</a>时吸收频率为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32a13ab64f1a72c7827e70aed42c8fcb323bd7bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.619ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu \,}">的光子的速率<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{ji}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{ji}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/746b7cbb7ea394c5771286c1db03b6de13f9b0d5" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{ji}\,}">与处于低能级<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2304839f34bd129b7bac56c86433443591c58481" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.012ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}">的分子数<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{j}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N_{j}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3bfa8df134d0acaae9aaedccfcdee1025c7c9d0b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.163ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{j}\,}">，以及周围具有此种频率<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32a13ab64f1a72c7827e70aed42c8fcb323bd7bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.619ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu \,}">的光子数密度成正比： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{ji}=N_{j}B_{ji}\rho (\nu )\!}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ν</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{ji}=N_{j}B_{ji}\rho (\nu )\!}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6c77cd3b1d4802a0110925a4cfe934b76a66a45b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-right: -0.166ex; width:16.379ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{ji}=N_{j}B_{ji}\rho (\nu )\!}"></dd></dl> 其中<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ji}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ji}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fb8390b825b2f1a792b1f47b70360681eb8b23f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ji}\,}">是系统的吸收系数。 爱因斯坦还进一步假设从高能级<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{i}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{i}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/018507937c7ddef5a470b1c8f3eadad632ea51d3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.902ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{i}\,}">向低能级<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2304839f34bd129b7bac56c86433443591c58481" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.012ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E_{j}\,}">跃迁时发射频率为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32a13ab64f1a72c7827e70aed42c8fcb323bd7bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.619ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu \,}">的光子的反向速率<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f00063e67ab1f0afab4df6553a1f3536f3e1a400" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{ij}\,}">由两项组成： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle R_{ij}=N_{i}A_{ij}+N_{i}B_{ij}\rho (\nu )\!}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>ν</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle R_{ij}=N_{i}A_{ij}+N_{i}B_{ij}\rho (\nu )\!}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3715c7cb37eb0865f07655b7b0318c8308279369" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-right: -0.166ex; width:24.996ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle R_{ij}=N_{i}A_{ij}+N_{i}B_{ij}\rho (\nu )\!}"></dd></dl> 其中<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6557a5afa709c378e20f312df6180db22166e304" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.607ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}">是与系统自发辐射的系数，而<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6a00275f6d974519c1fbcb508a0f1c459a5760" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}">是受激辐射的系数。爱因斯坦证明在系统处于热平衡时，普朗克的量子假说<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">是这些假设成立的必然结果，并且这与系统的材料组成无关。 这一运动学模型相当简单而颇含物理意义。爱因斯坦还证明了系统的吸收系数<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ji}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>j</mi> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ji}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5fb8390b825b2f1a792b1f47b70360681eb8b23f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ji}\,}">等于受激辐射的系数<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6a00275f6d974519c1fbcb508a0f1c459a5760" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}">；以及可能更值得注意的一个关系<a href="#cite_note-Griffiths2004-29">[26]</a>:355-356： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{ij}={\frac {8\pi h\nu ^{3}}{c^{3}}}B_{ij}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mn>8</mn> <mi>π</mi> <mi>h</mi> <msup> <mi>ν</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{ij}={\frac {8\pi h\nu ^{3}}{c^{3}}}B_{ij}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7f2a4e156c9f565bdc08e9352f0d593569805332" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:16.541ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{ij}={\frac {8\pi h\nu ^{3}}{c^{3}}}B_{ij}}"></dd></dl> 爱因斯坦没有尝试给出系数的形式从而进一步完善这个理论的速率方程，但他指出<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6557a5afa709c378e20f312df6180db22166e304" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.607ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}">和<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6a00275f6d974519c1fbcb508a0f1c459a5760" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}">的形式应该能够从“经修正能够适用于量子假说的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="力学">力学</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="电动力学">电动力学</a>”中推导出，这一预言已经分别在量子力学和<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%BB%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="量子電動力學">量子电动力学</a>中得到证实，计算这些系数的确需要借助这两者包含的第一性原理。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E7%8B%84%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B" title="保罗·狄拉克">保罗·狄拉克</a>在1926年用半经典近似的方法得到了<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6a00275f6d974519c1fbcb508a0f1c459a5760" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}">的形式<a href="#cite_note-Dirac1926-88">[83]</a>，其后在1927年通过第一性原理推导出了所有系数的形式<a href="#cite_note-Dirac1927a-89">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dirac1927b-90">[85]</a>。狄拉克的工作是量子电动力学的基石，这种电磁场的量子化又叫做<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E5%89%87%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8C%96" title="正則量子化">二次量子化</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="量子场论">量子场论</a><a href="#cite_note-Heisenberg1929-91">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heisenberg1930-92">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fermi1932-93">[88]</a>，这是相对于早期的量子力学所研究的在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%BF%E9%98%B1" title="势阱">势阱</a>中运动的物质粒子的量子化（代表着“一次量子化”）而言的。 爱因斯坦曾为他这一理论的不完整性所困扰，因为方程并没有给出自发辐射光子确定的运动方向，而今天我们知道自发辐射的光子不存在确定的运动方向，只存在某些特定的几率，这是量子力学的统计诠释的结果。最早去思考光微粒运动的概率本性的人是<a href="/wiki/%E8%89%BE%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E7%89%9B%E9%A1%BF" title="艾萨克·牛顿">牛顿</a>，他在处理<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E6%8A%98%E5%B0%84" title="双折射">双折射</a>问题，以及光在界面上部分反射部分折射的问题时做出假设：在光微粒中有某些未知的变量决定了光微粒将走哪条路径<a href="#cite_note-Newton1730-41">[38]</a>。类似地，爱因斯坦也寄希望于能找到一个更完备的理论，从而能够完全消除这种不确定性，他和量子力学由此开始分道扬镳<a href="#cite_note-Pais1982-56">[52]</a>。具有讽刺意味的是，<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E6%81%A9" title="马克斯·玻恩">马克斯·玻恩</a>却受到爱因斯坦试图完善这一理论的启发，建立了波函数的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E8%A9%AE%E9%87%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="統計詮釋">统计诠释</a><a href="#cite_note-Born1926a-94">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-Born1926b-95">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[註 5]</a>。由全同玻色子组成的孤立系统，处于热平衡时，分布在能级εi的粒子数为，Ni＝gi/（e^(α+βεi）-1）。α为拉格朗日乘子、β＝1/（kT），由体系温度，粒子密度和粒子质量决定。εi为能级i的能量，gi为能级的简并度。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="光子与量子场论">光子与量子场论</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：光子与量子场论">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="二次量子化">二次量子化</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：二次量子化">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="量子场论">量子场论</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Visible_EM_modes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Visible_EM_modes.png/200px-Visible_EM_modes.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Visible_EM_modes.png/300px-Visible_EM_modes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Visible_EM_modes.png/400px-Visible_EM_modes.png 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>不同的“电磁波模式” 可以被认为是彼此独立的谐振子，一个光子对应着该种模式的对应能量的最小单位<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"></figcaption></figure> 1910年，<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%BC%E5%BE%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%9C" title="彼得·德拜">彼得·德拜</a>从一个相对简单的假设推导出了普朗克的<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E9%BB%91%E4%BD%93%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="普朗克黑体辐射定律">黑体辐射定律</a><a href="#cite_note-Debye1910-98">[92]</a>。他成功地将一个谐振腔内的电磁场分解成其<a href="/wiki/%E5%82%85%E9%87%8C%E5%8F%B6%E7%BA%A7%E6%95%B0" title="傅里叶级数">傅立叶模式</a>，并假设了每一种模式的能量都是<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">的整数倍，将这些模式求和就得到了黑体辐射定律。不过，德拜的方法没有能够给出爱因斯坦于1909年得到的黑体辐射能量涨落公式的正确形式<a href="#cite_note-Einstein1909-52">[48]</a>。 1925年，<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E7%8E%BB%E6%81%A9" title="马克斯·玻恩">马克斯·玻恩</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%B0%94%E7%BA%B3%C2%B7%E6%B5%B7%E6%A3%AE%E5%A0%A1" title="维尔纳·海森堡">海森堡</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%95%E6%96%AF%E5%BA%93%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E7%BA%A6%E5%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="帕斯库尔·约当">帕斯库尔·约当</a>对德拜的概念做了关键性的重新阐述<a href="#cite_note-Born1925-99">[93]</a>。在经典理论中就可以证明，电磁场的傅立叶模式，这个由其波矢k和偏振态标记的平面<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2" title="电磁波">电磁波</a>的一组完备集合，和无耦合的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%A7%E6%8C%AF%E5%AD%90" title="諧振子">谐振子</a>的一组集合等价。在量子力学中，这组谐振子的能级可用<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">表示，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/32a13ab64f1a72c7827e70aed42c8fcb323bd7bf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.619ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nu \,}">是谐振子的频率。而下一个关键步骤就是证明电磁场的每一种傅立叶模式的能级都对应可用<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=nh\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>n</mi> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=nh\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/55fecb53d07721b812f967b3dac85fd6c13e2be1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.227ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=nh\nu \,}">表示的具有n个光子的一个态，每一个光子的能量是<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">。这种方法给出了正确的能量涨落公式。 <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertex_correction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vertex_correction.svg/220px-Vertex_correction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vertex_correction.svg/330px-Vertex_correction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Vertex_correction.svg/440px-Vertex_correction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="271" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>在量子场论中，一个可观测事件的概率来源于对所有可能过程的概率振幅（一个<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E6%95%B0_(%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%A6)" title="复数 (数学)">复数</a>）求和。在这里的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%B9%E6%9B%BC%E5%9B%BE" title="费曼图">费曼图</a>中，概率等于振幅之和的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9D%E5%AF%B9%E5%80%BC" title="绝对值">模</a>的平方</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E7%8B%84%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B" title="保罗·狄拉克">狄拉克</a>在此基础上做了进一步推导<a href="#cite_note-Dirac1927a-89">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dirac1927b-90">[85]</a>，他将一个电荷和电磁场的相互作用处理为引起光子能级<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%B7%83%E8%BF%81" title="量子跃迁">跃迁</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E6%93%BE%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="微擾理論">微扰</a>，能级跃迁造成了光子数量的变化，但总体上系统满足能量和动量守恒。狄拉克成功地从第一性原理导出了爱因斯坦系数<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>A</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6557a5afa709c378e20f312df6180db22166e304" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.607ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{ij}\,}">和<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>B</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0e6a00275f6d974519c1fbcb508a0f1c459a5760" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.628ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{ij}\,}">的形式，并证明了光子的<a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2-%E7%88%B1%E5%9B%A0%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="玻色-爱因斯坦统计">玻色-爱因斯坦统计</a>是电磁场量子化的自然结果（玻色的推导过程正好相反，他在假设玻色-爱因斯坦统计成立的条件下导出了普朗克公式）。在狄拉克的时代，人们还不知道包括光子之内的所有玻色子都服从玻色-爱因斯坦统计。 狄拉克的二阶微扰理论会涉及到<a href="/wiki/%E8%99%9B%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="虛粒子">虚光子</a>，虚光子可以认为是极短暂的电磁场的中间态，如静电场或静磁场中的相互作用就是由虚光子来传递。在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="量子场论">量子场论</a>中，可观测事件的概率振幅是由对所有可能的中间态求和得到的，包括那些没有物理意义的态。这样虚光子并没有如<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=pc\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mi>c</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=pc\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/546d01928336fb18d36ed35a0a91c4c0cbe7d664" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.437ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=pc\,}">这样公式的约束，而且可能会存在两个以外的偏振态，在某些规范条件下光子可能会有三个甚至四个偏振态。尽管虚光子不能被观测到，它们对可观测事件的概率的贡献是可以测量到的。当然，二阶微扰以及更高阶的微扰在数学上会使求和的结果无限大，对于这种不存在物理意义的结果解决的技巧是<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E6%95%B4%E5%8C%96" title="重整化">重整化</a>。其他种类的虚粒子也能够对求和产生贡献，例如在两个光子的相互作用中的虚<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">电子</a>-<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="正電子">正电子</a>对<a href="#cite_note-Itzykson-100">[94]</a>:355-357, 385-401。 在现代物理的符号系统中，电磁场的量子态是用一个<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A6%8F%E5%85%8B%E6%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="福克態（页面不存在）">福克態</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fock_State" class="extiw" title="en:Fock State">Fock State</a>）来表示，这是每一种电磁场模式对应的量子态的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%A0%E9%87%8F%E7%A7%AF" title="张量积">张量积</a>： <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |n_{k_{0}}\rangle \otimes |n_{k_{1}}\rangle \otimes \dots \otimes |n_{k_{n}}\rangle \dots }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>⊗</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>⊗</mo> <mo>⋯</mo> <mo>⊗</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo>…</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |n_{k_{0}}\rangle \otimes |n_{k_{1}}\rangle \otimes \dots \otimes |n_{k_{n}}\rangle \dots }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1bf1d8ffa71f6f78681ad32f6ff5870627b1cd79" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:29.088ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |n_{k_{0}}\rangle \otimes |n_{k_{1}}\rangle \otimes \dots \otimes |n_{k_{n}}\rangle \dots }"></dd></dl> 这里<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |n_{k_{i}}\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |n_{k_{i}}\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/261582c861f317f3e8cd9e33c36c8d10e0d62a49" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:4.66ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |n_{k_{i}}\rangle }">表示的量子态意为有<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,n_{k_{i}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,n_{k_{i}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a6945fb83c5b12e2c726c9a26195feb2207b0d1d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.495ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,n_{k_{i}}}">个光子处于模式<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{i}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{i}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a874efda3e1f08483ae1208284e61c188a7040c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.398ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{i}\,}">下。在这种符号系统中，模式<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{i}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{i}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a874efda3e1f08483ae1208284e61c188a7040c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.398ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{i}\,}">下产生一个新光子的过程被记做<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |n_{k_{i}}\rangle \rightarrow |n_{k_{i}}+1\rangle }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">|</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>n</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>i</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |n_{k_{i}}\rangle \rightarrow |n_{k_{i}}+1\rangle }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/98ad7c2b75079bb41e6e1719263ff9fc799e8161" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:16.937ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |n_{k_{i}}\rangle \rightarrow |n_{k_{i}}+1\rangle }">。这只是波恩、海森堡和约当的概念的一种数学表述，并没有更多的物理内容。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="光子：规范玻色子">光子：规范玻色子</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：光子：规范玻色子">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="规范场论">规范场论</a></div> 电磁场可用规范场论来理解为要求时空中每一个位置都满足<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB" title="对称关系">对称性</a>要求的结果<a href="#cite_note-Ryder-101">[95]</a>。对于电磁场，这种规范对称性是复数的局域<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%94%E7%BE%A4" title="阿贝尔群">阿贝尔</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%88%E6%AD%A3%E7%BE%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="么正群">U(1)</a>对称性，复数代表着可以自由改变其相位，而不改变其实数部分，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E6%A0%BC%E6%9C%97%E6%97%A5%E9%87%8F" title="拉格朗日量">拉格朗日量</a>是复数的实部。 在对称不破缺的前提下，<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="规范场论">阿贝尔规范场</a>的量子必须是无质量的、不带电荷的玻色子，因此理论预言光子为无质量无电荷并带有整数自旋的粒子。电磁相互作用的形式决定了光子的自旋一定为±1，即<a href="/wiki/%E8%9E%BA%E6%97%8B%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="螺旋性">螺旋性</a>一定为<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \pm \hbar \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>±</mo> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \pm \hbar \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1cd9133bbf6790c07b3372484e42b96afdaf89e2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.502ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \pm \hbar \,}">，对应着光子经典概念中的左旋和右旋；而虚光子也可能会具有无物理意义的其他自旋态<a href="#cite_note-Ryder-101">[95]</a>。物理学家一直在致力于检查实验结果和标准模型的预言相矛盾之处，特别是从实验中计算光子所带电荷和内秉质量的上限，任何一个值非零都是对标准模型致命的破坏。然而，目前为止所有实验都证明光子具有的电荷和内秉质量为零<a href="#cite_note-massless-102">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[106]</a>，现今最为广泛接受的上限值分别为5×10−52<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%93%E4%BB%91" title="库仑">库仑</a>（3×10−33倍<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%94%B5%E8%8D%B7" title="基本电荷">基本电荷</a>）和1.1×10−52千克（6×10-17 <a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E4%BC%8F%E7%89%B9" title="電子伏特">电子伏特</a>）<a href="#cite_note-113">[107]</a>。 在流行的<a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="标准模型理论">标准模型</a>中，光子是<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%B1%E7%94%B5%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="弱电相互作用">弱电相互作用</a>的四个规范玻色子之一，其他三个是参与<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%B1%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="弱相互作用">弱相互作用</a>的W+, W−和Z0，它们都具有内秉质量，因此需要一种SU(2)规范对称破缺的机制来解释。光子和<a href="/wiki/W_%E5%8F%8A_Z_%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" class="mw-redirect" title="W 及 Z 玻色子">W、Z玻色子</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%BC%B1%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="電弱理論">電弱理論</a>是由<a href="/wiki/%E8%B0%A2%E5%B0%94%E7%99%BB%C2%B7%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E8%82%96" title="谢尔登·格拉肖">格拉肖</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%8D%9C%E6%9D%9C%E5%8B%92%C2%B7%E8%90%A8%E6%8B%89%E5%A7%86" title="阿卜杜勒·萨拉姆">萨拉姆</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%92%82%E6%96%87%C2%B7%E6%B8%A9%E4%BC%AF%E6%A0%BC" title="史蒂文·温伯格">温伯格</a>完成的，三人因此项工作获得1979年的诺贝尔物理学奖<a href="#cite_note-Glashow-114">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Salam-115">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weinberg-116">[110]</a>。而<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%80%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA" title="大统一理论">大统一理论</a>的创立，是物理学家试图将这四种规范玻色子和传递<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%BA%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="强相互作用">强相互作用</a>的八种<a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A0%E5%AD%90" title="膠子">胶子</a>规范玻色子联系起来的尝试；然而大统一理论的一些关键性预言，例如<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">质子</a>的衰减，还没有在实验中得到证实<a href="#cite_note-Krane1987-117">[111]</a>:746-752。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="光子的结构">光子的结构</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：光子的结构">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%89%B2%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="量子色动力学">量子色动力学</a></div> 所谓光子结构的测量，在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%89%B2%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="量子色動力學">量子色动力学</a>中是指观测光子场的量子涨落<a href="#cite_note-118">[112]</a>，这种能量涨落用一个光子的结构方程来描述。目前对光子结构的测量一般都依赖于对光子与电子，以及正负电子的对撞时的深度非线性散射的观测<a href="#cite_note-119">[113]</a>。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="对系统质量的贡献">对系统质量的贡献</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=17" title="编辑章节：对系统质量的贡献">编辑</a>]</div> 当一个系统辐射出一个光子，从相对系统静止的参考系来看，能量相应地降低了一个光子对应的能量<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/eb9d655a84c46d31c444941ef5886e4b5a0b430f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.832ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu \,}">，这造成系统质量降低了<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E/c^{2}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E/c^{2}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2175a849660a19e55736c68ddb003c21116572a8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.386ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E/c^{2}\,}">；同样地，系统吸收光子时质量也会增加相应的值。 这一概念被应用于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E7%BD%97%C2%B7%E7%8B%84%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B" title="保罗·狄拉克">狄拉克</a>发起的理论——<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E9%9B%BB%E5%8B%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="量子電動力學">量子电动力学</a>的关键性预言中。在這理論裏，電子（或更普遍性的，輕子）的質量被修正，將虚光子的質量贡献納入計算，應用到<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E6%95%B4%E5%8C%96" title="重整化">重整化</a>技術<a href="#cite_note-Itzykson-100">[94]</a>:329-334。這種「輻射修正」在量子电动力学裏給出一些預言，例如，輕子的<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%81%B6%E6%9E%81%E7%9F%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="磁偶极矩">磁偶極矩</a><a href="#cite_note-Itzykson-100">[94]</a>:347-348、<a href="/wiki/%E8%98%AD%E5%A7%86%E4%BD%8D%E7%A7%BB" title="蘭姆位移">兰姆位移</a><a href="#cite_note-Itzykson-100">[94]</a>:358-364、束缚轻子对的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E7%B2%BE%E7%BB%86%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84" title="超精细结构">超精细结构</a>（例如<a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Μ介子素">μ介子素</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="电子偶素">电子偶素</a>）<a href="#cite_note-Itzykson-100">[94]</a>:493ff。 既然光子对<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F-%E5%8B%95%E9%87%8F%E5%BC%B5%E9%87%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="能量-動量張量">能量-动量张量</a>有贡献，根据<a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%A3%E7%BE%A9%E7%9B%B8%E5%B0%8D%E8%AB%96" title="廣義相對論">广义相对论</a>它们也会产生<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%A0%B4" title="引力場">引力场</a>。反过来，光子本身也会受到引力场的作用，在弯曲的时空中它们的路径也会发生弯曲，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E4%BD%93%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="天体物理学">天体物理学</a>中这被应用为<a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E9%80%8F%E9%95%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="引力透镜">引力透镜</a>。在强引力场中运动时光子的频率会发生<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%8A%9B%E7%B4%85%E7%A7%BB" title="重力紅移">引力红移</a>，这一点已经在<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%BE%90%E5%BE%B7-%E9%9B%B7%E5%B8%83%E5%8D%A1%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="龐德-雷布卡實驗（页面不存在）">龐德-雷布卡實驗</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound-Rebka_experiment" class="extiw" title="en:Pound-Rebka experiment">Pound-Rebka experiment</a>）中得到证实。当然，这些效应并不仅限于光子，而对经典的电磁波同样成立<a href="#cite_note-120">[114]</a>:86ff, 108ff。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="技术应用">技术应用</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=18" title="编辑章节：技术应用">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" title="非线性光学">非线性光学</a></div> 这里讨论的是光子在当今技术中的应用，而不是泛指可在传统光学下应用的光学仪器（如<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%8F%E9%95%9C" title="透镜">透镜</a>）。<a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a>的原理是上文讨论的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%97%E6%BF%80%E8%BE%90%E5%B0%84" class="mw-redirect" title="受激辐射">受激辐射</a>。 对单个光子的探测可用多种方法，传统的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E7%94%B5%E5%80%8D%E5%A2%9E%E7%AE%A1" title="光电倍增管">光电倍增管</a>利用光电效应：当有光子到达金属板激发出电子时，所形成的光电流将被放大引起雪崩放电<a href="#cite_note-Cophotonics1993-121">[115]</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7%E8%80%A6%E5%90%88%E5%85%83%E4%BB%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="電荷耦合元件">电荷耦合元件</a>（CCD）应用<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%AF%BC%E4%BD%93" title="半导体">半导体</a>中类似的效应，入射的光子在一个微型电容器上激发出电子从而可被探测到。其他探测器，如<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%96%E9%9D%A9%E8%AE%A1%E6%95%B0%E5%99%A8" title="盖革计数器">盖革计数器</a>利用光子能够<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A6%BB" title="电离">电离</a>气体分子的性质，从而在导体中形成可检测的电流<a href="#cite_note-Kitchin-122">[116]</a>:17-31, 37-38, 154。 普朗克的能量公式<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=h\nu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mi>ν</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=h\nu }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/c6c0386dc6d9530519404f95570fcc8548ed2326" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.445ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=h\nu }">经常在工程和化学中被用来计算存在光子吸收时的能量变化，以及能级跃迁时发射光的频率。例如，在<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%92%E5%85%89%E7%87%88" class="mw-redirect" title="熒光燈">荧光灯</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E5%B0%84%E5%85%89%E8%AD%9C" title="發射光譜">发射光谱</a>的设计中，會使用擁有不同電子能階的氣體分子，然後調整電子的能量並且用這些電子去碰撞气体分子，這樣，可以得到想要的<a href="/wiki/%E8%8D%A7%E5%85%89" title="荧光">荧光</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[註 6]</a>。 在某些情形下，单独一个光子无能力激发一个能级的跃迁，而需要有两个光子同时激发。这就提供了更高分辨率的显微技术，因为样品只有在两束不同颜色的光所照射的高度重叠的部分之内才会吸收能量，而这部分的体积要比单独一束光照射到并引起激发的部分小很多，这种技术被应用于<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8C%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90%E6%BF%80%E5%8F%91%E6%98%BE%E5%BE%AE%E9%95%9C" title="双光子激发显微镜">双光子激发显微镜</a>中。而且，应用弱光照射能够减小光照对样品的影响<a href="#cite_note-124">[117]</a>。 有时候两个系统的能级跃迁会发生耦合，即一个系统吸收光子，而另一个系统从中“窃取”了这部分能量并释放出不同频率的光子。这是<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8D%A7%E5%85%89%E5%85%B1%E6%8C%AF%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F%E4%BC%A0%E9%80%92&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="荧光共振能量传递（页面不存在）">荧光共振能量传递</a>的基础，被应用于<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="分子生物學">分子生物學</a>來研究蛋白質與蛋白質之間的相互作用.<a href="#cite_note-125">[118]</a>:529ff。 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="近期研究">近期研究</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=19" title="编辑章节：近期研究">编辑</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="量子光學">量子光學</a></div> <a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" title="量子光学">量子光学</a>是<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" title="物理光学">物理光学</a>中相对于波动光学的另一个分支。未來超快的<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA" title="量子计算机">量子计算机</a>的基本运算元素可能是光子<a href="#cite_note-126">[119]</a>，而在这方面重点研究的对象是<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E7%BA%8F%E7%B5%90" title="量子纏結">量子纏結態</a>。<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" title="非线性光学">非线性光学</a>是当前光学另一个活跃的领域<a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a>，它研究的课题包括光纤中的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E7%BA%BF%E6%80%A7%E6%95%A3%E5%B0%84&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非线性散射（页面不存在）">非线性散射</a>效应、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E6%B3%A2%E6%B7%B7%E9%A0%BB" title="四波混頻">四波混频</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90%E5%90%B8%E6%94%B6" title="雙光子吸收">双光子吸收</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%9B%B8%E4%BD%8D%E8%AA%BF%E8%AE%8A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="自相位調變（页面不存在）">自相位調變</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-phase_modulation" class="extiw" title="en:Self-phase modulation">Self-phase modulation</a>）、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8%E5%8F%83%E6%95%B8%E6%8C%AF%E7%9B%AA%E5%99%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="光學參數振盪器（页面不存在）">光學參數振盪器</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_parametric_oscillator" class="extiw" title="en:Optical parametric oscillator">Optical parametric oscillator</a>）等。不过这些课题中并不都要求假设光子的存在，在建模过程中原子经常被处理为一个非线性振子。非线性效应中的<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%99%BC%E5%8F%83%E9%87%8F%E4%B8%8B%E8%BD%89%E6%8F%9B" title="自發參量下轉換">自发参量下转换</a>经常被用来产生单光子态。光子是<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E7%BA%96%E9%80%9A%E8%A8%8A" title="光纖通訊">光通信</a>领域某些方面的关键因素，特别是在<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%AF%86%E7%A2%BC%E5%AD%B8" title="量子密碼學">量子密码学</a>中<a href="#cite_note-129">[註 7]</a>。 2019年7月31日，<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%9E%8B%E5%BC%B7%E5%AD%90%E5%B0%8D%E6%92%9E%E6%A9%9F" title="大型強子對撞機">大型強子對撞機</a>的超環面儀器實驗團隊宣布找到<a class="mw-selflink selflink">光子</a>與<a class="mw-selflink selflink">光子</a>散射的確切證據，超過背景期望值8.2 個<a href="/wiki/%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E5%B7%AE" title="標準差">標準差</a>。<a href="#cite_note-130">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参见">参见</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=20" title="编辑章节：参见">编辑</a>]</div> <div role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portal 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/49px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:物理学">物理学主题</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89" title="光">光</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2" title="电磁波">电磁波</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%A6" title="光学">光学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%85%89" title="激光">激光</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="註釋">註釋</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=21" title="编辑章节：註釋">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rel_mass-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rel_mass_6-0">1.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rel_mass_6-1">1.1</a> 条目中所提到的有关理论和实验都表明光子的内秉质量精确为0。而文章中有时候提到“相对论质量” 的概念，是指光子的能量按<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> <msup> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f73dbd37a0cac34406ee89057fa1b36a1e6a18e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.976ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}">折算成质量的值。在高能物理中，粒子的质量经常是用能量表示的，因此要注意两者的不同。對於波長為<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }">或能量為<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}">的光子而言，質量為<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h/\lambda c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>λ</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h/\lambda c}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/45ad23f8790b8dd1636c0d4ef5a0b31f5f757f6a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.864ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h/\lambda c}">或<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E/c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E/c}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ef7aa09020a75465180c6a3c32773b30a041ce69" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.945ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E/c}">，但這種用法在科學文獻裏已不常見。更多資訊，請查閱參考網頁<cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/photon_mass.html">What is the mass of a photon?</a>. [2014-06-06]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140531100537/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/photon_mass.html">存档</a>于2014-05-31）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=What+is+the+mass+of+a+photon%3F&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmath.ucr.edu%2Fhome%2Fbaez%2Fphysics%2FParticleAndNuclear%2Fphoton_mass.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-exception-25"><a href="#cite_ref-exception_25-0">^</a> 假若光子的靜止質量不為0，則根據規範場論，從向量場的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E7%BE%85%E5%8D%A1%E6%8B%89%E6%A0%BC%E6%9C%97%E6%97%A5%E9%87%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="普羅卡拉格朗日量（页面不存在）">普羅卡拉格朗日量</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proca_lagrangian" class="extiw" title="en:Proca lagrangian">Proca lagrangian</a>），可以推導出<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%8B%A2" title="電勢">電勢</a><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi (x)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi (x)}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/546b660b2f3cfb5f34be7b3ed8371d54f5c74227" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.524ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi (x)}">的形式為 <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi (x)=qe^{-\mu r}/r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>q</mi> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>μ</mi> <mi>r</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi (x)=qe^{-\mu r}/r}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06df8ff666ba764f35143fe268d59e157a979b92" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.23ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi (x)=qe^{-\mu r}/r}">；</dd></dl> 其中，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q}">是電荷，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d1ecb613aa2984f0576f70f86650b7c2a132538" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r}">是離電荷的距離，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu =m_{\gamma }c/\hbar }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu =m_{\gamma }c/\hbar }</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/755b2b5fb6d53dff49db614fc1b53d817959efcf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.141ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu =m_{\gamma }c/\hbar }">是光子的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E6%99%AE%E9%A0%93%E6%B3%A2%E9%95%B7" title="康普頓波長">康普頓波長</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%80%92%E6%95%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="倒數">倒數</a>，<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>γ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/063e3e2c57c8a6042894f7b9de4dd4e86f23ae24" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.165ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\gamma }}">是光子的靜止質量。<a href="#cite_note-Jackson-24">[22]</a>:600-601 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> 假設輻照度超過大約1013 W/cm2，則<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E6%93%BE%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="微擾理論">微擾理論</a>開始失效，必需將微擾理論忽略的項目納入計算，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%89%E8%B3%AA%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="有質能量（页面不存在）">有質能量</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ponderomotive_energy" class="extiw" title="en:ponderomotive energy">ponderomotive energy</a>）就是其中一種效應。電子被釋出後，感受到電場的作用，因此開始振盪，經過週期平均後的震盪能量稱為電子的有質能量<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbbiAhmad2001-47">[44]</a>:143-146。相與比較，日光的輻照度只有0.1 W/cm2。 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> 这些实验的结果无法用任何经典光学理论解释，因为这些结果涉及到了量子测量过程的抗相关性（anticorrelation）。1974年，<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E5%8A%B3%E6%B3%BD" title="约翰·克劳泽">約翰·克勞澤</a>首先完成了此类实验<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a>，他在结果中发现了违反经典的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%AF%E8%A5%BF-%E6%96%BD%E7%93%A6%E8%8C%A8%E4%B8%8D%E7%AD%89%E5%BC%8F" title="柯西-施瓦茨不等式">柯西-施瓦茨不等式</a>的情况。1977年，金贝尔（Kimble）等人证实了光子与光分束器作用时类似的抗聚束效应<a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a>，其后格兰杰尔（Grangier）等人在1986年的光子抗相关实验中简化了金贝尔等人的实验方法并消除了实验误差源<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a>，J. 索恩（J. J. Thorn）等人在2004年将此实验进一步简化<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a>。 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> 特別而言，愛因斯坦曾經嘗試發展一個從未發表的「鬼場理論」，在這理論裏，類點光子的運動被遵守<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%8B%E5%A3%AB%E5%A8%81%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B%E5%BC%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="馬克士威方程式">馬克士威方程式</a>的鬼場所機率性導航。波恩聲稱，從這理論裏得到啟發<a href="#cite_note-ghost_field-96">[91]</a>。 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> 一個例子是美國專利Nr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=5212709.PN.&OS=PN/5212709&RS=PN/5212709">5212709</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20160603235046/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=5212709.PN.&OS=PN%2F5212709&RS=PN%2F5212709">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> 關於量子光學各種分支領域的入門信息，請參閱相關書籍<a href="#cite_note-128">[121]</a>。 </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献">参考文献</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&section=22" title="编辑章节：参考文献">编辑</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-BJ545-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BJ545_1-0">1.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BJ545_1-1">1.1</a> <cite class="citation book">B.H. Bransden and C.J. Joachain. Quantum Mechanics 2e. : 545. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780582356917" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-582-35691-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=B.H.+Bransden+and+C.J.+Joachain&rft.btitle=Quantum+Mechanics&rft.edition=2e&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=545&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Particle_table_2009-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Particle_table_2009_2-0">2.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Particle_table_2009_2-1">2.1</a> <cite class="citation journal">Amsler, C. et al. (Particle Data Group). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2009/tables/rpp2009-sum-gauge-higgs-bosons.pdf">Review of Particle Physics: Gauge and Higgs bosons</a> (PDF). Physics Letters B. 2008 +2009 partial update, 667: 1 [2014-02-06]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhLB..667....1P">Bibcode:2008PhLB..667....1P</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018">doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605110249/http://pdg.lbl.gov/2009/tables/rpp2009-sum-gauge-higgs-bosons.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2011-06-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics%3A+Gauge+and+Higgs+bosons&rft.au=Amsler%2C+C.+%27%27et+al.%27%27+%28Particle+Data+Group%29&rft.chron=2008+%2B2009+partial+update&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.pages=1&rft.volume=667&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdg.lbl.gov%2F2009%2Ftables%2Frpp2009-sum-gauge-higgs-bosons.pdf&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PhLB..667....1P&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  请检查<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|date=</code>中的日期值 (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#bad_date" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2005/tables/gxxx.pdf">Official particle table for gauge and Higgs bosons</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20161228152948/http://pdg.lbl.gov/2005/tables/gxxx.pdf">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffiths2008-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2008_5-0">4.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2008_5-1">4.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2008_5-2">4.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2008_5-3">4.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2008_5-4">4.4</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2008_5-5">4.5</a> <cite id="CITEREFGriffiths,_David_J.2008" class="citation">Griffiths, David J., Introduction to Elementary Particles 2nd revised, WILEY-VCH, 2008, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3-527-40601-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-3-527-40601-2">ISBN 978-3-527-40601-2</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+David+J.&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Elementary+Particles&rft.date=2008&rft.edition=2nd+revised&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-3-527-40601-2&rft.pub=WILEY-VCH&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Halliday-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-0">5.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-1">5.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-2">5.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-3">5.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-4">5.4</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-5">5.5</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-6">5.6</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halliday_7-7">5.7</a> <cite id="CITEREFHallidayResnickWalker2005" class="citation">Halliday, David; 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Lewis</a>. Atomic Heritage Foundation. [2019-03-09]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502170112/https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/gilbert-n-lewis">存档</a>于2019-05-02） （英语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Gilbert+N.+Lewis&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atomic+Heritage+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atomicheritage.org%2Fprofile%2Fgilbert-n-lewis&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190502171300/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201212/physicshistory.cfm">December 18, 1926: Gilbert Lewis coins “photon” in letter to Nature</a>. www.aps.org. [2019-03-09]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201212/physicshistory.cfm">原始内容</a>存档于2019-05-02） （英语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=December+18%2C+1926%3A+Gilbert+Lewis+coins+%E2%80%9Cphoton%E2%80%9D+in+letter+to+Nature&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aps.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F201212%2Fphysicshistory.cfm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Kimble, H.J.; Dagenais, M.; Mandel, L.; Dagenais; Mandel. 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SCIENTIFIC ELEMENTS (International Book Series), Vol. I, Applications of Smarandache's Notions to Mathematics, Physics, and Other Sciences. 9 February 2008: 73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Fu%2C+Yuhua%3B+Mao%2C+Linfan%3B+Bencze%2C+Mihaly&rft.btitle=SCIENTIFIC+ELEMENTS+%28International+Book+Series%29%2C+Vol.+I%2C+Applications+of+Smarandache%27s+Notions+to+Mathematics%2C+Physics%2C+and+Other+Sciences&rft.date=2008-02-09&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=73&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kotobank.jp/word/光子-62136">光子(こうし)とは - コトバンク</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200820105358/https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90-62136">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） （日語） </li> <li id="cite_note-Liddle2015-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Liddle2015_22-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Andrew Liddle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6n64CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">An Introduction to Modern Cosmology</a>. John Wiley & Sons. 27 April 2015: 16 [2017-04-13]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-118-69025-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-118-69025-3">ISBN 978-1-118-69025-3</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170228092132/https://books.google.com/books?id=6n64CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">存档</a>于2017-02-28）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Andrew+Liddle&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Modern+Cosmology&rft.date=2015-04-27&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-118-69025-3&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6n64CAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Erkoc, Sakir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u6mC_7vvotMC&pg=PA18&dq=E%3Dhν&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwix3pPI66HTAhXq7oMKHUxhCjMQ6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=E%3Dhν&f=false">Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics</a>. CRC Press. July 28, 2006: 18. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1584887324" title="Special:网络书源/978-1584887324">ISBN 978-1584887324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Erkoc%2C+Sakir&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Quantum+Mechanics&rft.date=2006-07-28&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1584887324&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du6mC_7vvotMC%26pg%3DPA18%26dq%3DE%253Dh%CE%BD%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwix3pPI66HTAhXq7oMKHUxhCjMQ6AEIMTAC%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DE%253Dh%CE%BD%26f%3Dfalse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文）Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_24-0">22.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_24-1">22.1</a> <cite class="citation book">Jackson, John D. Classical Electrodynamics Third Edition (Hardcover). Wiley. 1998. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780471309321" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.btitle=Classical+Electrodynamics+Third+Edition+%28Hardcover%29&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Wiley&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite class="citation arxiv">Rusov, V.D. Can Resonant Oscillations of the Earth Ionosphere Influence the Human Brain Biorhythm?. 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/1208.4970">arXiv:1208.4970</a> <img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/archive/physics.gen-ph">physics.gen-ph</a>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Can+Resonant+Oscillations+of+the+Earth+Ionosphere+Influence+the+Human+Brain+Biorhythm%3F&rft.aufirst=V.D.&rft.aulast=Rusov&rft.date=2012&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1208.4970&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  Department of Theoretical and Experimental Nuclear Physics, Odessa National Polytechnic University, Ukraine </li> <li id="cite_note-Cassidy-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Cassidy_27-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">David C. Cassidy; Gerald James Holton; Floyd James Rutherford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rpQo7f9F1xUC&pg=PA340">Understanding physics</a>. Birkhäuser. 2002: 339 ff [2017-04-13]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-387-98756-8" title="Special:网络书源/0-387-98756-8">ISBN 0-387-98756-8</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170208041543/https://books.google.com/books?id=rpQo7f9F1xUC&pg=PA340">存档</a>于2017-02-08）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=David+C.+Cassidy&rft.au=Floyd+James+Rutherford&rft.au=Gerald+James+Holton&rft.btitle=Understanding+physics&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-387-98756-8&rft.pages=339+%27%27ff%27%27&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrpQo7f9F1xUC%26pg%3DPA340&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-spin-28"><a href="#cite_ref-spin_28-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Raman, C.V.; Bhagavantam, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160603235132/http://dspace.rri.res.in/bitstream/2289/2123/1/1931%20IJP%20V6%20p353.pdf">Experimental proof of the spin of the photon</a> (PDF). Indian Journal of Physics. 1931, 6: 353 [2014-06-07]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.rri.res.in/bitstream/2289/2123/1/1931%20IJP%20V6%20p353.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2016-06-03）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Experimental+proof+of+the+spin+of+the+photon&rft.au=Bhagavantam%2C+S.&rft.aufirst=C.V.&rft.aulast=Raman&rft.date=1931&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indian+Journal+of+Physics&rft.pages=353&rft.volume=6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace.rri.res.in%2Fbitstream%2F2289%2F2123%2F1%2F1931%2520IJP%2520V6%2520p353.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffiths2004-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2004_29-0">26.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Griffiths2004_29-1">26.1</a> <cite id="CITEREFGriffiths,_David_J.2004" class="citation">Griffiths, David J., Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.), Prentice Hall, 2004, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-13-111892-7" title="Special:网络书源/0-13-111892-7">ISBN 0-13-111892-7</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+David+J.&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Quantum+Mechanics+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-13-111892-7&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Burgess, C.; Moore, G. The Standard Model. A Primer. Cambridge University Press. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-521-86036-9" title="Special:网络书源/0-521-86036-9">ISBN 0-521-86036-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Moore%2C+G.&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.aulast=Burgess&rft.btitle=The+Standard+Model.+A+Primer&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-86036-9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-chargeless-31"><a href="#cite_ref-chargeless_31-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Kobychev, V V; Popov, S B. Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources. Astronomy Letters. 2005, 31: 147–151. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2F1.1883345">doi:10.1134/1.1883345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Constraints+on+the+photon+charge+from+observations+of+extragalactic+sources&rft.aufirst=V+V&rft.aulast=Kobychev&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+Letters&rft.pages=147-151&rft.volume=31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2F1.1883345&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Aitchison, I.J.R.; Hey, A.J.G. Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction: From Relativistic Quantum Mechanics to QED, Volume 1. IOP Publishing. 2012. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781466512993" title="Special:网络书源/9781466512993">ISBN 9781466512993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Hey%2C+A.J.G.&rft.aufirst=I.J.R.&rft.aulast=Aitchison&rft.btitle=Gauge+Theories+in+Particle+Physics%3A+A+Practical+Introduction%3A+From+Relativistic+Quantum+Mechanics+to+QED%2C+Volume+1&rft.date=2012&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9781466512993&rft.pub=IOP+Publishing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Amsler, C.; et al. Review of Particle Physics. Physics Letters B. 2008, 667: 1–1340. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhLB..667....1P">Bibcode:2008PhLB..667....1P</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018">doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Review+of+Particle+Physics&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.aulast=Amsler&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Letters+B&rft.pages=1-1340&rft.volume=667&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PhLB..667....1P&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2008.07.018&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Giancoli2008-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Giancoli2008_34-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Douglas C. Giancoli. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=xz-UEdtRmzkC">Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics</a>. Pearson Education. 21 March 2008. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-13-149508-1" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-13-149508-1">ISBN 978-0-13-149508-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Douglas+C.+Giancoli&rft.btitle=Physics+for+Scientists+and+Engineers+with+Modern+Physics&rft.date=2008-03-21&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-13-149508-1&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxz-UEdtRmzkC&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-French1968-35"><a href="#cite_ref-French1968_35-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFrench1968" class="citation">French, Anthony, Special Relativity (Mit Introductory Physics Series), United States of America: W. W. Norton, 1968, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0748764228" title="Special:网络书源/978-0748764228">ISBN 978-0748764228</a> （英语）</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.aulast=French&rft.btitle=Special+Relativity+%28Mit+Introductory+Physics+Series%29&rft.date=1968&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0748764228&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Whittaker-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Whittaker_36-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWhittaker1951" class="citation">Whittaker, E. T., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archive.org/details/historyoftheorie00whitrich">A history of the theories of aether and electricity. Vol 1</a>, Nelson, London, 1951</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=E.+T.&rft.aulast=Whittaker&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+theories+of+aether+and+electricity.+Vol+1&rft.date=1951&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Nelson%2C+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryoftheorie00whitrich&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Descartes, R. Discours de la méthode (<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95%E8%AE%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="方法论">方法论</a>). 1637.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=R&rft.aulast=Descartes&rft.btitle=Discours+de+la+m%C3%A9thode+%28%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95%E8%AE%BA%29&rft.date=1637&rft.genre=book&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  （法文） </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Hooke, R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202101129/http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/HistSciTech.HookeMicro">"Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and inquiries thereupon...</a>. 1665 [2008-03-31]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/HistSciTech.HookeMicro">原始内容</a>存档于2008-12-02）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=R&rft.aulast=Hooke&rft.btitle=%22Micrographia%3A+or+some+physiological+descriptions+of+minute+bodies+made+by+magnifying+glasses+with+observations+and+inquiries+thereupon...&rft.date=1665&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.wisc.edu%2F1711.dl%2FHistSciTech.HookeMicro&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Huygens, C. Traite de la lumiere (关于光的论文). 1678.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=C&rft.aulast=Huygens&rft.btitle=Traite+de+la+lumiere+%28%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E%E5%85%89%E7%9A%84%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%29&rft.date=1678&rft.genre=book&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  （法文）. <a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E8%85%BE%E5%A0%A1%E8%AE%A1%E5%88%92" title="古腾堡计划">古腾堡计划</a>有<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14725">英文翻译</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090924193528/http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14725">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） </li> <li id="cite_note-Hecht2002-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hecht2002_40-0">37.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hecht2002_40-1">37.1</a> <cite id="CITEREFHecht2002" class="citation">Hecht, Eugene, Optics 4th, United States of America: Addison Wesley, 2002, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-8053-8566-5" title="Special:网络书源/0-8053-8566-5">ISBN 0-8053-8566-5</a> （英语）</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft.aulast=Hecht&rft.btitle=Optics&rft.date=2002&rft.edition=4th&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-8053-8566-5&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton1730-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newton1730_41-0">38.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newton1730_41-1">38.1</a> <cite class="citation book">Newton, I. Opticks 4th edition. Dover Publications. 1730: Book II, Part III, Propositions XII–XX; Queries 25–29. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780486602059" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-486-60205-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=I&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.btitle=Opticks&rft.date=1730&rft.edition=4th+edition&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=Book+II%2C+Part+III%2C+Propositions+XII-XX%3B+Queries+25-29&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Buchwald, Jed Z. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofwavetheory0000buch">The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century</a>. University of Chicago Press. 1989. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780226078861" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-226-07886-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Jed+Z.&rft.aulast=Buchwald&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Wave+Theory+of+Light%3A+Optical+Theory+and+Experiment+in+the+Early+Nineteenth+Century&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofwavetheory0000buch&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-maxwell-43"><a href="#cite_ref-maxwell_43-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Maxwell, JC. A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1865, 155: 459–512.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=A+Dynamical+Theory+of+the+Electromagnetic+Field&rft.aufirst=JC&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.date=1865&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.pages=459-512&rft.volume=155&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  This article followed a presentation by Maxwell on 8 December 1864 to the Royal Society.（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-hertz-44"><a href="#cite_ref-hertz_44-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Hertz, H. Über Strahlen elektrischer Kraft. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin). 1888, 1888: 1297–1307.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+Strahlen+elektrischer+Kraft&rft.aufirst=H&rft.aulast=Hertz&rft.date=1888&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sitzungsberichte+der+Preussischen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften+%28Berlin%29&rft.pages=1297-1307&rft.volume=1888&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Optics-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Optics_45-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Hecht, Eugene. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Optics-4th-Eugene-Hecht/dp/0805385665">Optics</a> 4 edition. Addison-Wesley. [2017-04-18]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780805385663" title="Special:网络书源/9780805385663">ISBN 9780805385663</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170419002544/https://www.amazon.com/Optics-4th-Eugene-Hecht/dp/0805385665">存档</a>于2017-04-19） （英语）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft.aulast=Hecht&rft.btitle=Optics&rft.edition=4+edition&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9780805385663&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FOptics-4th-Eugene-Hecht%2Fdp%2F0805385665&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite class="citation conference">Bruce, Boreham; Hora, Heinrich; Paul, Bolton. Photon density and the correspondence principle of electromagnetic interaction. 12th international conference. AIP Conference Proceedings 369: pp. 1234–1243. 1996. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.50410">doi:10.1063/1.50410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Hora%2C+Heinrich&rft.au=Paul%2C+Bolton&rft.aufirst=Boreham&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.btitle=12th+international+conference.+AIP+Conference+Proceedings&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=conference&rft.pages=pp.+1234-1243&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.50410&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-AbbiAhmad2001-47"><a href="#cite_ref-AbbiAhmad2001_47-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">S. C. Abbi; S. A. Ahmad. Nonlinear Optics and Laser Spectroscopy. Alpha Science International, Limited. 1 January 2001. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-81-7319-354-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-81-7319-354-5">ISBN 978-81-7319-354-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=S.+A.+Ahmad&rft.au=S.+C.+Abbi&rft.btitle=Nonlinear+Optics+and+Laser+Spectroscopy&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-81-7319-354-5&rft.pub=Alpha+Science+International%2C+Limited&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Wien1911-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wien1911_49-0">45.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wien1911_49-1">45.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1911/wien-lecture.html">Wilhelm Wien Nobel Lecture</a>. [2008-03-31]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/60qYAPx3N?url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1911/wien-lecture.html">存档</a>于2011-08-11）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Wilhelm+Wien+Nobel+Lecture&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1911%2Fwien-lecture.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> .（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Planck1901-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Planck1901_50-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Planck, M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1901_4_3/page/553">Über das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum</a>. Annalen der Physik. 1901, 4: 553–563.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+das+Gesetz+der+Energieverteilung+im+Normalspectrum&rft.aufirst=M&rft.aulast=Planck&rft.date=1901&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.pages=553-563&rft.volume=4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_annalen-der-physik_1901_4_3%2Fpage%2F553&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Planck1918-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Planck1918_51-0">47.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Planck1918_51-1">47.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/planck-lecture.html">Max Planck's Nobel Lecture</a>. [2008-03-31]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/60qYB4t3f?url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1918/planck-lecture.html">存档</a>于2011-08-11）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Max+Planck%27s+Nobel+Lecture&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1918%2Fplanck-lecture.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  .（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Einstein1909-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein1909_52-0">48.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein1909_52-1">48.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Einstein1909_52-2">48.2</a> <cite class="citation journal">Einstein, A. Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung (trans. The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation). Physikalische Zeitschrift. 1909, 10: 817–825.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Entwicklung+unserer+Anschauungen+%C3%BCber+das+Wesen+und+die+Konstitution+der+Strahlung+%28trans.+The+Development+of+Our+Views+on+the+Composition+and+Essence+of+Radiation%29&rft.aufirst=A&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.date=1909&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physikalische+Zeitschrift&rft.pages=817-825&rft.volume=10&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Einstein1916b-53"><a href="#cite_ref-Einstein1916b_53-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Einstein, A. Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung. Mitteilungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Zürich. 1916b, 16: 47.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Zur+Quantentheorie+der+Strahlung&rft.aufirst=A&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.date=1916&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mitteilungen+der+Physikalischen+Gesellschaft+zu+Z%C3%BCrich&rft.pages=47&rft.volume=16&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  Also Physikalische Zeitschrift, 18, 121–128 (1917). （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Compton1923-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Compton1923_54-0">50.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Compton1923_54-1">50.1</a> <cite class="citation journal">Compton, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/gap/Compton/01_Compton.html">A Quantum Theory of the Scattering of X-rays by Light Elements</a>. <a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA" title="物理评论">Physical Review</a>. 1923, 21: 483–502 [2008-03-31]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080311083907/http://www.aip.org/history/gap/Compton/01_Compton.html">存档</a>于2008-03-11）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=A+Quantum+Theory+of+the+Scattering+of+X-rays+by+Light+Elements&rft.aufirst=A&rft.aulast=Compton&rft.date=1923&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.pages=483-502&rft.volume=21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aip.org%2Fhistory%2Fgap%2FCompton%2F01_Compton.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/index.html">The Nobel Prize in Physics 1927</a>. Nobel Foundation. [2008-10-09]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081201041754/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1927/index.html">存档</a>于2008-12-01）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1927&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1927%2Findex.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Pais1982-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pais1982_56-0">52.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pais1982_56-1">52.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pais1982_56-2">52.2</a> <cite class="citation book">Pais, A. Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford University Press. 1982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=A&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.btitle=Subtle+is+the+Lord%3A+The+Science+and+the+Life+of+Albert+Einstein&rft.date=1982&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Millikan1923-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Millikan1923_57-0">53.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millikan1923_57-1">53.1</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1923/millikan-lecture.html">Robert A. Millikan's Nobel Lecture</a>. [2008-03-31]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/60qYBzVPt?url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1923/millikan-lecture.html">存档</a>于2011-08-11）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.btitle=Robert+A.+Millikan%27s+Nobel+Lecture&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1923%2Fmillikan-lecture.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> .（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Hendry, J. The development of attitudes to the wave-particle duality of light and quantum theory, 1900–1920. Annals of Science. 1980, 37 (1): 59–79. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033798000200121">doi:10.1080/00033798000200121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+development+of+attitudes+to+the+wave-particle+duality+of+light+and+quantum+theory%2C+1900%E2%80%931920&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.aulast=Hendry&rft.date=1980&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=1&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.pages=59-79&rft.volume=37&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033798000200121&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Bohr1924-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Bohr1924_59-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Bohr, N; Kramers HA and Slater JC. The Quantum Theory of Radiation. Philosophical Magazine. 1924, 47: 785–802.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Quantum+Theory+of+Radiation&rft.aufirst=N&rft.aulast=Bohr&rft.date=1924&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.pages=785-802&rft.volume=47&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) （英文）Also Zeitschrift für Physik, 24, 69 (1924).（德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Niels_Bohr's_Times:_In_Physics,_Philosophy,_and_Polity-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Niels_Bohr's_Times:_In_Physics,_Philosophy,_and_Polity_60-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Abraham Pais. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-VBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236&dq=niels+bohr%27s+time&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK85GQoKjTAhVE94MKHRaSDiIQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=niels%20bohr's%20time&f=false">Niels Bohr's Times: In Physics, Philosophy, and Polity</a>. [2017-04-18]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220513003716/https://books.google.com/books?id=b-VBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236&dq=niels+bohr%27s+time&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK85GQoKjTAhVE94MKHRaSDiIQ6AEIJDAA#v=onepage&q=niels%20bohr's%20time&f=false">存档</a>于2022-05-13）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Abraham+Pais&rft.btitle=Niels+Bohr%27s+Times%3A+In+Physics%2C+Philosophy%2C+and+Polity&rft.genre=book&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db-VBDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA236%26dq%3Dniels%2Bbohr%2527s%2Btime%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D0ahUKEwiK85GQoKjTAhVE94MKHRaSDiIQ6AEIJDAA%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dniels%2520bohr%27s%2520time%26f%3Dfalse&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Heisenberg1932-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Heisenberg1932_61-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-lecture.html">Heisenberg Nobel lecture</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110719053050/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-lecture.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）.（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Mandel1976-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Mandel1976_62-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Mandel, L. E. Wolf, ed. , 编. The case for and against semiclassical radiation theory. Progress in Optics (North-Holland). 1976, XIII: 27–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+case+for+and+against+semiclassical+radiation+theory&rft.aufirst=L&rft.aulast=Mandel&rft.date=1976&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Optics&rft.pages=27-69&rft.volume=XIII&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Clauser, JF. Experimental distinction between the quantum and classical field-theoretic predictions for the photoelectric effect. Phys. Rev. D. 1974, 9: 853–860.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Experimental+distinction+between+the+quantum+and+classical+field-theoretic+predictions+for+the+photoelectric+effect&rft.aufirst=JF.&rft.aulast=Clauser&rft.date=1974&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+D&rft.pages=853-860&rft.volume=9&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> （anti-bunching effect）<cite class="citation journal">Kimble, HJ; Dagenais M, and Mandel L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v39/i11/p691_1">Photon Anti-bunching in Resonance Fluorescence</a>. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1977, 39: 691–695.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Photon+Anti-bunching+in+Resonance+Fluorescence&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft.aulast=Kimble&rft.date=1977&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.+Rev.+Lett.&rft.pages=691-695&rft.volume=39&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fprola.aps.org%2Fabstract%2FPRL%2Fv39%2Fi11%2Fp691_1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Grangier, P; Roger G, and Aspect A. Experimental Evidence for a Photon Anticorrelation Effect on a Beam Splitter: A New Light on Single-Photon Interferences. Europhysics Letters. 1986, 1: 501–504.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Experimental+Evidence+for+a+Photon+Anticorrelation+Effect+on+a+Beam+Splitter%3A+A+New+Light+on+Single-Photon+Interferences&rft.aufirst=P&rft.aulast=Grangier&rft.date=1986&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europhysics+Letters&rft.pages=501-504&rft.volume=1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Thorn, JJ; Neel MS, Donato VW, Bergreen GS, Davies RE and Beck M. Observing the quantum behavior of light in an undergraduate laboratory. American Journal of Physics. 2004, 72: 1210–1219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Observing+the+quantum+behavior+of+light+in+an+undergraduate+laboratory&rft.aufirst=JJ&rft.aulast=Thorn&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.pages=1210-1219&rft.volume=72&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Robert Naeye. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=06_9B7S_q_YC&pg=PA16&dq=million-year+surface+sun+photon&as_brr=3&ei=gYsyR6iELpLgtgOkttmvAQ&sig=70D3g1ajnoVyvnoY1qBAIV0yIf4">Through the Eyes of Hubble: Birth, Life and Violent Death of Stars</a>. CRC Press. 1998 [2008-03-31]. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0750304847" title="Special:网络书源/0750304847">ISBN 0750304847</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722012105/http://books.google.com/books?id=06_9B7S_q_YC&pg=PA16&dq=million-year+surface+sun+photon&as_brr=3&ei=gYsyR6iELpLgtgOkttmvAQ&sig=70D3g1ajnoVyvnoY1qBAIV0yIf4">存档</a>于2011-07-22）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Robert+Naeye&rft.btitle=Through+the+Eyes+of+Hubble%3A+Birth%2C+Life+and+Violent+Death+of+Stars&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0750304847&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D06_9B7S_q_YC%26pg%3DPA16%26dq%3Dmillion-year%2Bsurface%2Bsun%2Bphoton%26as_brr%3D3%26ei%3DgYsyR6iELpLgtgOkttmvAQ%26sig%3D70D3g1ajnoVyvnoY1qBAIV0yIf4&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor1909-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor1909_69-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Taylor, GI. Interference fringes with feeble light. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 1909, 15: 114–115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Interference+fringes+with+feeble+light&rft.aufirst=GI&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.date=1909&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Cambridge+Philosophical+Society&rft.pages=114-115&rft.volume=15&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Saleh-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Saleh_70-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Saleh, B. E. A. and Teich, M. C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofph0000sale">Fundamentals of Photonics</a>. Wiley. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-471-35832-0" title="Special:网络书源/0-471-35832-0">ISBN 0-471-35832-0</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Saleh%2C+B.+E.+A.+and+Teich%2C+M.+C.&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Photonics&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-471-35832-0&rft.pub=Wiley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffundamentalsofph0000sale&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Heisenberg1927-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Heisenberg1927_71-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Heisenberg, W. Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik. Zeitschrift für Physik. 1927, 43: 172–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+den+anschaulichen+Inhalt+der+quantentheoretischen+Kinematik+und+Mechanik&rft.aufirst=W&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.date=1927&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.pages=172-198&rft.volume=43&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Schiff, L.I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantummechanics0000schi">Quantum Mechanics</a> 3rd. McGraw-Hill. 1968. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B001B3MINM">ASIN B001B3MINM</a>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-07-055287-8" title="Special:网络书源/0-07-055287-8">ISBN 0-07-055287-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=L.I.&rft.aulast=Schiff&rft.btitle=Quantum+Mechanics&rft.date=1968&rft.edition=3rd&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-07-055287-8&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquantummechanics0000schi&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Thomas V Marcella. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arxiv.org/ftp/quant-ph/papers/0703/0703126.pdf">Quantum interference with slits</a> (PDF). [2008-04-02]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160223181934/http://arxiv.org/ftp/quant-ph/papers/0703/0703126.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2016-02-23）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Quantum+interference+with+slits&rft.au=Thomas+V+Marcella&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fftp%2Fquant-ph%2Fpapers%2F0703%2F0703126.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Kramers, HA. Quantum Mechanics. 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Cambridge University Press. 6 June 1996. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-521-47814-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-521-47814-4">ISBN 978-0-521-47814-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Lewis+H.+Ryder&rft.btitle=Quantum+Field+Theory&rft.date=1996-06-06&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47814-4&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquantumfieldtheo0000ryde_a7q5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Bose1924-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Bose1924_82-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Bose, SN. Plancks Gesetz und Lichtquantenhypothese. 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Science. 1995, 269: 198–201.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Observation+of+Bose%E2%80%93Einstein+Condensation+in+a+Dilute+Atomic+Vapor&rft.aufirst=MH&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.pages=198-201&rft.volume=269&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinks.jstor.org%2Fsici%3Fsici%3D0036-8075%252819950714%25293%253A269%253A5221%253C198%253AOOBCIA%253E2.0.CO%253B2-G&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Streater, R.F.; Wightman, A.S. PCT, Spin and Statistics, and All That. 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Zeitschrift für Physik. 1930, 59: 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Zur+Quantentheorie+der+Wellenfelder&rft.aufirst=W&rft.aulast=Heisenberg&rft.date=1930&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.pages=139&rft.volume=59&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Fermi1932-93"><a href="#cite_ref-Fermi1932_93-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Fermi, E. Quantum Theory of Radiation. 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Annalen der Physik. 1910, 33: 1427–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Der+Wahrscheinlichkeitsbegriff+in+der+Theorie+der+Strahlung&rft.aufirst=P&rft.aulast=Debye&rft.date=1910&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.pages=1427-34&rft.volume=33&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_annalen-der-physik_1910_33_16%2Fpage%2F1427&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Born1925-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Born1925_99-0">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Born, M; Heisenberg W and Jordan P. Quantenmechanik II. Zeitschrift für Physik. 1925, 35: 557–615.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Quantenmechanik+II&rft.aufirst=M&rft.aulast=Born&rft.date=1925&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.pages=557-615&rft.volume=35&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>) （德文） </li> <li id="cite_note-Itzykson-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Itzykson_100-0">94.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Itzykson_100-1">94.1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Itzykson_100-2">94.2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Itzykson_100-3">94.3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Itzykson_100-4">94.4</a> <cite class="citation book">Itzykson, C.; Zuber, J.-B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo0000itzy">Quantum Field Theory</a>. McGraw-Hill. 1980. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-07-032071-3" title="Special:网络书源/0-07-032071-3">ISBN 0-07-032071-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Zuber%2C+J.-B.&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.aulast=Itzykson&rft.btitle=Quantum+Field+Theory&rft.date=1980&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-07-032071-3&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquantumfieldtheo0000itzy&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Ryder-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ryder_101-0">95.0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ryder_101-1">95.1</a> <cite class="citation book">Ryder, LH. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantumfieldtheo0000ryde_a7q5">Quantum field theory</a> 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press. 1996. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9780521478144" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-521-47814-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=LH&rft.aulast=Ryder&rft.btitle=Quantum+field+theory&rft.date=1996&rft.edition=2nd+edition&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fquantumfieldtheo0000ryde_a7q5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (<a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">link</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-massless-102"><a href="#cite_ref-massless_102-0">^</a> (a) <cite class="citation journal">Goldhaber, AS. Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Limits on The Photon Mass. Reviews of Modern Physics. 1971, 43: 277–96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Terrestrial+and+Extraterrestrial+Limits+on+The+Photon+Mass&rft.aufirst=AS&rft.aulast=Goldhaber&rft.date=1971&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.pages=277-96.&rft.volume=43&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> (b) <cite class="citation journal">Fischbach, E; Kloor H, Langel RA, Lui ATY, and Peredo M. 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Physical Review Letters. 1975, 35: 1402–1405.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Limit+on+Photon+Mass+Deduced+from+Pioneer-10+Observations+of+Jupiter%27s+Magnetic+Field&rft.aufirst=L&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.date=1975&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.pages=1402-1405.&rft.volume=35&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> (e) <cite class="citation journal">Luo, J; Shao CG, Liu ZZ, and Hu ZK. Determination of the limit of photon mass and cosmic magnetic vector with rotating torsion balance. Physical Review A. 1999, 270: 288–292.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Determination+of+the+limit+of+photon+mass+and+cosmic+magnetic+vector+with+rotating+torsion+balance&rft.aufirst=J&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+A&rft.pages=288-292.&rft.volume=270&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> (f) <cite class="citation journal">Schaeffer, BE. Severe limits on variations of the speed of light with frequency. Physical Review Letters. 1999, 82: 4964–4966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Severe+limits+on+variations+of+the+speed+of+light+with+frequency&rft.aufirst=BE&rft.aulast=Schaeffer&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.pages=4964-4966.&rft.volume=82&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> (g) <cite class="citation journal">Luo, J; Tu LC, Hu ZK, and Luan EJ. New experimental limit on the photon rest mass with a rotating torsion balance. Physical Review Letters. 2003, 90: Art. No. 081801.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=New+experimental+limit+on+the+photon+rest+mass+with+a+rotating+torsion+balance&rft.aufirst=J&rft.aulast=Luo&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.pages=Art.+No.+081801&rft.volume=90&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> (h) <cite class="citation journal">Williams, ER; Faller JE and Hill HA. New Experimental Test of Coulomb's Law: A Laboratory Upper Limit on the Photon Rest Mass. Physical Review Letters. 1971, 26: 721–724.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=New+Experimental+Test+of+Coulomb%27s+Law%3A+A+Laboratory+Upper+Limit+on+the+Photon+Rest+Mass&rft.aufirst=ER&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.date=1971&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.pages=721-724&rft.volume=26&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> (i) <cite class="citation journal">Lakes, R. Experimental Limits on the Photon Mass and Cosmic Magnetic Vector Potential. Physical Review Letters. 1998, 80: 1826.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Experimental+Limits+on+the+Photon+Mass+and+Cosmic+Magnetic+Vector+Potential&rft.aufirst=R&rft.aulast=Lakes&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.pages=1826&rft.volume=80&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> (j) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/listings/s000.pdf">2006 PDG listing for photon</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20080408151051/http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/listings/s000.pdf">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group) Journal of Physics G 33, 1 (2006).（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> (k) <cite class="citation journal">Adelberger, E; Dvali, G and Gruzinov, A. Photon Mass Bound Destroyed by Vortices. Physical Review Letters: Art. 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[2008-04-01]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070221162847/http://www.slac.stanford.edu/econf/C990809/docs/butterworth.pdf">存档</a> (PDF)于2007-02-21）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Jonathan+M.+Butterworth&rft.btitle=Structure+of+the+Photon&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slac.stanford.edu%2Feconf%2FC990809%2Fdocs%2Fbutterworth.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> .（英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Nisius, Richard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/9912049">The Photon Structure from Deep Inelastic Electron-Photon Scattering</a>. Phys.Rept. 2000, 332: 165–317 [2008-04-01]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104184235/https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/9912049">存档</a>于2016-11-04）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=The+Photon+Structure+from+Deep+Inelastic+Electron-Photon+Scattering&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.aulast=Nisius&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phys.Rept&rft.pages=165-317&rft.volume=332&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fabs%2Fhep-ex%2F9912049&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Stephani, H.; Stewart, J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/advancedgeneralr00stew_731">General Relativity: An Introduction to the Theory of Gravitational Field</a>. Cambridge University Press. 1990: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/advancedgeneralr00stew_731/page/n46">86</a> ff, 108 ff. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-521-37941-5" title="Special:网络书源/0-521-37941-5">ISBN 0-521-37941-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Stewart%2C+J.&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.aulast=Stephani&rft.btitle=General+Relativity%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Theory+of+Gravitational+Field&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-521-37941-5&rft.pages=86+ff%2C+108+ff.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadvancedgeneralr00stew_731&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Cophotonics1993-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Cophotonics1993_121-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">North American Philips Co; Philips photonics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305011225/http://pages.jh.edu/~iic/Photomultipliers.pdf">Photomultiplier Tubes: Principles & Applications</a> (PDF). Philips Photonics International Marketing. 1993 [2015-06-11]. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.jh.edu/~iic/Photomultipliers.pdf">原始内容</a> (PDF)存档于2016-03-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=North+American+Philips+Co&rft.au=Philips+photonics&rft.btitle=Photomultiplier+Tubes%3A+Principles+%26+Applications&rft.date=1993&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Philips+Photonics+International+Marketing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.jh.edu%2F~iic%2FPhotomultipliers.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-Kitchin-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Kitchin_122-0">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Kitchin, C.R. Astrophysical Techniques. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. 2008. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/1-4200-8243-4" title="Special:网络书源/1-4200-8243-4">ISBN 1-4200-8243-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=C.R.&rft.aulast=Kitchin&rft.btitle=Astrophysical+Techniques&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1-4200-8243-4&rft.place=Boca+Raton+%28FL%29&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <cite class="citation journal">Denk, W.; Svoboda, K. Photon upmanship: Why multiphoton imaging is more than a gimmick. Neuron. 1997, 18 (3): 351–357. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9115730">PMID 9115730</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0896-6273%2800%2981237-4">doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)81237-4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Photon+upmanship%3A+Why+multiphoton+imaging+is+more+than+a+gimmick&rft.au=Denk%2C+W.%3B+Svoboda%2C+K.&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Neuron&rft.pages=351-357&rft.volume=18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0896-6273%2800%2981237-4&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9115730&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Lakowicz, Joseph R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesoffluo0000lako">Principles of fluorescence spectroscopy</a> 2nd. New York, NY: Kluwer Acad./Plenum Publ. 1999. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-306-46093-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-306-46093-7">ISBN 978-0-306-46093-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=Joseph+R.&rft.aulast=Lakowicz&rft.btitle=Principles+of+fluorescence+spectroscopy&rft.date=1999&rft.edition=2nd&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-306-46093-7&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Kluwer+Acad.%2FPlenum+Publ.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesoffluo0000lako&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-03/uob-scf032608.php">Silicon chips for optical quantum computing</a>. EurekAlert!. AAAS. 27 March 2008 [2015-06-11]. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190503034523/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-03/uob-scf032608.php">存档</a>于2019-05-03）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Silicon+chips+for+optical+quantum+computing&rft.date=2008-03-27&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EurekAlert%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2008-03%2Fuob-scf032608.php&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Y. R. Shen. The Principles of Nonlinear Optics. Wiley-Interscience. 2002. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0471430803" title="Special:网络书源/978-0471430803">ISBN 978-0471430803</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.au=Y.+R.+Shen&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Nonlinear+Optics&rft.date=2002&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0471430803&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"> （英文） </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <cite class="citation book">Fox, M. Quantum Optics: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2006. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-19-856673-5" title="Special:网络书源/0-19-856673-5">ISBN 0-19-856673-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.btitle=Quantum+Optics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-856673-5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">  </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <cite class="citation web">Chen, Sophia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.aps.org/synopsis-for/10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.052001?utm_campaign=weekly&utm_medium=email&utm_source=emailalert">Synopsis: Ion Collisions Reveal Photon-Photon Scattering</a>. Physics. APS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&rft.atitle=Synopsis%3A+Ion+Collisions+Reveal+Photon-Photon+Scattering&rft.aufirst=Sophia&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.aps.org%2Fsynopsis-for%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.123.052001%3Futm_campaign%3Dweekly%26utm_medium%3Demail%26utm_source%3Demailalert&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">  </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="夸克">夸克</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="上夸克">u</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="上夸克">u</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="下夸克">d</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="下夸克">d</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="C夸克">c</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="C夸克">c</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="奇夸克">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="奇夸克">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%82%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="頂夸克">t</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%82%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="頂夸克">t</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%95%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="底夸克">b</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%95%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B" title="底夸克">b</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%BC%95%E5%AD%90" title="輕子">輕子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90" title="电子">e-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90" title="正電子">e+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E5%AD%90" title="Μ子">μ-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E5%AD%90" title="Μ子">μ+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A4%E5%AD%90" title="Τ子">τ-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%CF%84%E5%AD%90" title="反τ子">τ+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="电中微子">νe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E9%9B%BB%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="反電中微子">ve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Μ中微子">νμ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Μ中微子">vμ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A4%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Τ中微子">ντ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A4%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="Τ中微子">vτ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="玻色子">玻色子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="标量玻色子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E9%87%8F%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="标量玻色子">标量玻色子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="希格斯玻色子">H</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="规范玻色子">规范玻色子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A0%E5%AD%90" title="膠子">g</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E5%8F%8AZ%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="W及Z玻色子">W±</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E5%8F%8AZ%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="W及Z玻色子">Z0</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E5%90%88%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="复合粒子">复合粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%BA%E5%AD%90" title="强子">强子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="重子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="重子">重子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%94%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Δ粒子">Δ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%AD%90" title="核子">核子</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="質子">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%90" title="反質子">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="中子">n</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%90" title="反中子">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%AD%90" title="超子">超子</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9B%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Λ粒子">Λ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A3%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Σ粒子">Σ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%9E%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Ξ粒子">Ξ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A9%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Ω粒子">Ω</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="介子">介子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A0%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Π介子">π</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="K介子">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A1%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Ρ介子">ρ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A9%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Ω介子">ω</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/%CF%88%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="J/ψ介子">J/ψ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%A5%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="Υ介子">ϒ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="D介子">D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="B介子">B</a></li> <li>未发现介子 <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%98%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Θ介子（页面不存在）">θ</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=T%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T介子（页面不存在）">T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="夸克偶素">夸克偶素</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其它</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8" title="原子核">原子核</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子">原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="超原子">超原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="奇異原子">奇異原子</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="电子偶素">电子偶素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B7%B2%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="緲子偶素">緲子偶素</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%B7%B2%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0" title="真緲子偶素">真緲子偶素</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%81%B6%E7%B4%A0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="介子偶素（页面不存在）">介子偶素</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium" class="extiw" title="en:Onium">Onium</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="K介子原子">介子原子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E5%AD%90%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超子原子（页面不存在）">超子原子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%8D%E6%B0%AB" title="反氫">反氫</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="介子核（页面不存在）">介子核</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%A0%B8" title="超核">超核</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8D%E5%91%B3%E8%B6%85%E6%A0%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="重味超核（页面不存在）">重味超核</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90" title="分子">分子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A6%BB%E5%AD%90" title="离子">离子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E6%83%B3%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="假想粒子">假想的基本粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E5%B0%8D%E7%A8%B1%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="超對稱粒子">超對稱粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="超規範子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E5%AD%90" title="超規範子">超規範子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%86%A0%E5%AD%90" title="超膠子">超膠子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%8A%9B%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="重力微子">超引力子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E5%85%89%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超光子（页面不存在）">超光子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E8%8D%B7%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超荷子（页面不存在）">超荷子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%80%A7%E5%AD%90" title="超中性子">超中性子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E5%B8%8C%E6%A0%BC%E6%96%AF%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超希格斯粒子（页面不存在）">超希格斯粒子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%B2%BB%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="超費米子">超費米子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%BB%B8%E5%AD%90" title="超軸子">超軸子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%B6%85%E8%83%80%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="超胀子（页面不存在）">超胀子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其它</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%BB%E6%84%8F%E5%AD%90" title="任意子">任意子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%80%E5%AD%90" title="胀子">胀子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%AD%90" title="加速子">加速子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BF%AB%E5%AD%90" title="快子">快子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BB%B8%E5%AD%90" title="軸子">A0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%90" title="引力子">G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%8D%95%E6%9E%81%E5%AD%90" title="磁单极子">m</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%E5%8F%8AY%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="X及Y玻色子">X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X%E5%8F%8AY%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="X及Y玻色子">Y</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=W%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W'（页面不存在）">W'</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" class="extiw" title="en:W′ and Z′ bosons">W′_and_Z′_bosons</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Z%27&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Z'（页面不存在）">Z'</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" class="extiw" title="en:W′ and Z′ bosons">W′_and_Z′_bosons</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E6%9C%97%E5%85%8B%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="普朗克粒子">普朗克粒子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E7%BA%A6%E6%8B%89%E7%BA%B3%E8%B4%B9%E7%B1%B3%E5%AD%90" title="马约拉纳费米子">马约拉纳粒子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%8D%B7%E8%80%B6%E5%A4%AB-%E6%B3%A2%E6%B3%A2%E5%A4%AB%E9%AC%BC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="法捷耶夫-波波夫鬼粒子">鬼</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E6%A0%BC%E6%98%8E%E5%AD%90" title="斯格明子">斯格明子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%83%B0%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%AD%E5%BE%AE%E5%AD%90" title="惰性中微子">惰性中微子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%B4%A8%E9%87%8F%E5%BC%B1%E7%9B%B8%E4%BA%92%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="大质量弱相互作用粒子">大质量弱相互作用粒子（WIMP）</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E6%83%B3%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="假想粒子">假想的复合粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%BC%B7%E5%AD%90" title="奇異強子">奇異強子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="奇異重子" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="奇異重子">奇異重子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%85%8B" title="五夸克態">五夸克態</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%83%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%80%81" title="七夸克态">七夸克态</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90" title="R-重子">R-重子</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90" title="奇異介子">奇異介子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%9B%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%80%81" title="四夸克态">四夸克态</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AD%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B%E6%80%81" title="六夸克态">六夸克态</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90%E6%85%8B" title="雙重子態">雙重子態</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%86%A0%E7%90%83" title="膠球">膠球</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B7%B7%E6%9D%82%E6%80%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="混杂态（页面不存在）">混杂态</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其它</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%88%86%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="介子分子（页面不存在）">介子分子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" class="extiw" title="en:Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9D%A1%E5%AF%86%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="坡密子（页面不存在）">坡密子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A5%87%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="奇数子（页面不存在）">奇数子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/odderon" class="extiw" title="en:odderon">odderon</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8C%E5%A4%B8%E5%85%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="双夸克（页面不存在）">双夸克</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diquark" class="extiw" title="en:Diquark">Diquark</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%96%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="準粒子">準粒子</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%81%94%E7%B6%AD%E5%A4%9A%E5%A4%AB%E5%AD%A4%E5%AD%90&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="達維多夫孤子（页面不存在）">達維多夫孤子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davydov_soliton" class="extiw" title="en:Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a>）</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E6%BB%B4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="量子滴（页面不存在）">量子滴</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropleton" class="extiw" title="en:Dropleton">Dropleton</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BF%80%E5%AD%90" title="激子">激子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%BA%E7%A9%B4" title="空穴">空穴</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E6%8C%AF%E5%AD%90" title="磁振子">磁振子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A3%B0%E5%AD%90" title="声子">聲子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%8D%95%E6%9E%81%E5%AD%90" title="磁单极子">磁单极子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%BC%BF%E5%AD%90" title="電漿子">電漿子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E6%A5%B5%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%90" title="電磁極化子">電磁極化子</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%B5%E5%AD%90" title="極子">極子</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%97%8B%E5%AD%90_(%E5%87%86%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="旋子 (准粒子)（页面不存在）">旋子</a>（英语：<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roton" class="extiw" title="en:Roton">Roton</a>）</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">列表</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="粒子列表">粒子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%87%E7%95%B0%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="奇異原子">奇异原子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%87%86%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="准粒子列表">准粒子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%8B%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="介子列表">介子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8D%E5%AD%90%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="重子列表">重子列表</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90%E5%8F%91%E7%8E%B0%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8" title="粒子发现年表">粒子发现年表</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:物理学">物理学主题</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84261037"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r79005747">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r79005747"><link 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style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/Help:%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6" title="Help:规范控制">规范控制数据库</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3198#identifiers" title="編輯維基數據鏈接"><img alt="編輯維基數據鏈接" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各地</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11979547h">法国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11979547h">BnF data</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4045922-6">德国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543630305171">以色列</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85101398">美国</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566716">日本</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph137951&CON_LNG=ENG">捷克</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">其他</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027840611">IdRef</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">检索自“<a dir="ltr" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=光子&oldid=84506642">https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=光子&oldid=84506642</a>”</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB" title="Special:页面分类">分类</a>：<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E7%8E%BB%E8%89%B2%E5%AD%90" title="Category:规范玻色子">规范玻色子</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E7%B2%92%E5%AD%90" title="Category:基本粒子">基本粒子</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" title="Category:光學">光學</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E7%94%B5%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:电磁学">电磁学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:量子力学">量子力学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E7%94%B5%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%A6" title="Category:量子电动力学">量子电动力学</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%9C%BA%E8%AE%BA" title="Category:量子场论">量子场论</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">隐藏分类：<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%9A%AB%E6%9C%AA%E5%88%86%E9%85%8DCAS%E8%99%9F%E7%9A%84%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="Category:暫未分配CAS號的化學物質">暫未分配CAS號的化學物質</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E6%A2%9D%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:含有英語的條目">含有英語的條目</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF%EF%BC%9A%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%9F" title="Category:引文格式1错误：日期">引文格式1错误：日期</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1%E5%BE%B7%E8%AF%AD%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90_(de)" title="Category:CS1德语来源 (de)">CS1德语来源 (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1%E8%8B%B1%E8%AF%AD%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90_(en)" title="Category:CS1英语来源 (en)">CS1英语来源 (en)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%90%AB%E6%9C%89%E8%BF%87%E6%97%B6%E5%8F%82%E6%95%B0%E7%9A%84%E5%BC%95%E7%94%A8%E7%9A%84%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="Category:含有过时参数的引用的页面">含有过时参数的引用的页面</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E7%BB%B4%E6%8A%A4%EF%BC%9A%E5%86%97%E4%BD%99%E6%96%87%E6%9C%AC" title="Category:引文格式1维护：冗余文本">引文格式1维护：冗余文本</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:%E8%87%AA2017%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E5%B8%A6%E6%9C%89%E5%A4%B1%E6%95%88%E9%93%BE%E6%8E%A5%E7%9A%84%E6%9D%A1%E7%9B%AE" title="Category:自2017年6月带有失效链接的条目">自2017年6月带有失效链接的条目</a></li><li><a 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