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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> The history of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> spans the period from the early <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">prehistoric</a> settlements of the northern <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> valley to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a> in 30 BC. The pharaonic period, the period in which Egypt was ruled by a <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>, is dated from the <a href="/wiki/32nd_century_BC" title="32nd century BC">32nd century BC</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">Upper and Lower Egypt</a> were unified, until the country fell under <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian rule</a> in 332 BC. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Chronology">1 Chronology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Neolithic_Egypt">2 Neolithic Egypt</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Neolithic_period">2.1 Neolithic period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Prehistoric_Egypt">2.2 Prehistoric Egypt</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Naqada_II">2.2.1 Naqada II</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Dynastic_Egypt">3 Dynastic Egypt</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Early_dynastic_period">3.1 Early dynastic period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Old_Kingdom">3.2 Old Kingdom</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#First_Intermediate_Period">3.3 First Intermediate Period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Middle_Kingdom">3.4 Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Second_Intermediate_Period_and_the_Hyksos">3.5 Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#New_Kingdom">3.6 New Kingdom</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Eighteenth_Dynasty">3.6.1 Eighteenth Dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#Nineteenth_Dynasty">3.6.2 Nineteenth Dynasty</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Twentieth_Dynasty">3.6.3 Twentieth Dynasty</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Third_Intermediate_Period">3.7 Third Intermediate Period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Late_Period">3.8 Late Period</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Persian_domination">3.9 Persian domination</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Ptolemaic_dynasty">3.10 Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#See_also">4 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References">5 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Further_reading">6 Further reading</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Pharaonic_Egypt">6.1 Pharaonic Egypt</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Ptolemaic_Egypt">6.2 Ptolemaic Egypt</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#External_links">7 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Chronology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <dl><dt>Note</dt> <dd>For alternative 'revisions' to the chronology of Egypt, see <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian chronology</a>.</dd></dl> Egypt's history is split into several different periods according to the ruling <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a> of each <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>. The dating of events is still a subject of research. The conservative dates are not supported by any reliable absolute date for a span of about three millennia. The following is the list according to conventional Egyptian chronology. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a> (prior to 3100 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> ("the protodynastic period", approximately 3100–3000 BC; sometimes referred to as "Dynasty 0")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First</a>–<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third</a>–<a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh</a> or <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth</a>–<a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth</a>–<a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth</a>–<a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth</a>–<a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">Third Intermediate Period</a> (also known as the Libyan Period; <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first</a>–<a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth</a>–<a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first</a> Dynasties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> (305–30 BC)</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Neolithic_Egypt">Neolithic Egypt</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Neolithic Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neolithic_period">Neolithic period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Neolithic period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along it during the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>. Traces of these early people appear in the form of artefacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. Along the Nile in the 12th millennium BC, an <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> using <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a>. Despite evidence indicating human habitation and <a href="/wiki/Cattle#domestication_and_husbandry" title="Cattle">cattle herding</a> in the southwestern corner of Egypt near the <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> border before the <a href="/wiki/8th_millennium_BC" title="8th millennium BC">8th millennium BC</a>, the idea of an independent bovine domestication event in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> must be abandoned because subsequent evidence gathered over a period of thirty years has failed to corroborate this.<a href="#cite_note-Barich1998-1">[1]</a> Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The oldest-known domesticated cattle remains in Africa are from the <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a> c. <a href="/wiki/5th_millennium_BC" title="5th millennium BC">4400 BC</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies suggest that <a href="/wiki/African_humid_period" title="African humid period">natural climate changes</a> around the 8th millennium BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, eventually forming the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> by the 25th century BC. Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and forced them to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. However, the period from <a href="/wiki/9th_millennium_BC" title="9th millennium BC">9th</a> to the <a href="/wiki/6th_millennium_BC" title="6th millennium BC">6th millennium BC</a> has left very little in the way of archaeological evidence. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistoric_Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prehistoric Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqada</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/220px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="716"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 263px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/220px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="263" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/330px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg/440px-Vase_with_gazelles-E_28023-_Egypte_louvre_316.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Gerzeh culture</a> vase decorated with <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelles</a>, on display at the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Nile valley of Egypt was basically uninhabitable until the work of clearing and irrigating the land along the banks was started.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> However, it appears that this clearance and irrigation was largely under way by the <a href="/wiki/6th_millennium_BC" title="6th millennium BC">6th millennium</a>. By that time, Nile society was already engaged in organized agriculture and the construction of large buildings.<a href="#cite_note-Redford_6-5">[5]</a> At this time, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">Mortar</a> was in use by the <a href="/wiki/4th_millennium_BC" title="4th millennium BC">4th millennium</a>. The people of the valley and the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> were self-sufficient and were raising <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emmer" title="Emmer">emmer</a>, an early variety of wheat, and stored it in pits lined with reed mats.<a href="#cite_note-Carl_Roebuck_p._52-6">[6]</a> They raised cattle, <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a> and they wove <a href="/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> and baskets.<a href="#cite_note-Carl_Roebuck_p._52-6">[6]</a> Prehistory continues through this time, variously held to begin with the <a href="/wiki/Amratian_culture" title="Amratian culture">Amratian culture</a>. Between 5500 BC and the <a href="/wiki/31st_century_BC" title="31st century BC">31st century BC</a>, small settlements flourished along the Nile, whose delta empties into the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tasian_culture" title="Tasian culture">Tasian culture</a> was the next to appear; it existed in Upper Egypt starting about 4500 BC. This group is named for the burials found at Deir Tasa, a site on the east bank of the Nile between <a href="/wiki/Asyut" title="Asyut">Asyut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akhmim" title="Akhmim">Akhmim</a>. The Tasian culture is notable for producing the earliest blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery painted black on its top and interior.<a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_388-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Badari_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Badari culture">Badari culture</a>, named for the Badari site near Deir Tasa, followed the Tasian; however, similarities cause many to avoid differentiating between them at all. The Badari culture continued to produce the kind of pottery called blacktop-ware (although its quality was much improved over previous specimens), and was assigned the <a href="/wiki/Sequence_dating" title="Sequence dating">sequence dating</a> numbers between 21 and 29.<a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_389-8">[8]</a> The significant difference, however, between the Tasian and Badari, which prevents scholars from completely merging the two, is that Badari sites are <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> while the Tasian sites remained <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> and are thus considered technically part of the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_389-8">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE,_Abydos,_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg/220px-Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1144" data-file-height="762"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg/220px-Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg/330px-Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg/440px-Mesopotamian_king_as_Master_of_the_Animals_on_the_Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_dated_circa_3300-3200_BCE%2C_Abydos%2C_Egypt._Louvre_Museum_reference_E_11517.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mesopotamian king as <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Animals" title="Master of Animals">Master of Animals</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife">Gebel el-Arak Knife</a>, dated to the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> period circa 3300-3200 BC, <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>, reference E 11517. This work of art both shows the <a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">influence of Mesopotamia on Egypt</a> at an early date, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> The Amratian culture is named after the site of <a href="/wiki/El-Amrah,_Egypt" title="El-Amrah, Egypt">El-Amrah</a>, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) south of Badari. El-Amreh was the first site where this culture was found unmingled with the later Gerzeh culture. However, this period is better attested at <a href="/wiki/Nagada" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagada">Nagada</a>, and so is also referred to as the "Naqada I" culture.<a href="#cite_note-Grimal_24-11">[11]</a> Black-topped ware continued to be produced, but white cross-line ware, a type of pottery decorated with close parallel white lines crossed by another set of close parallel white lines, began to be produced during this time. The Amratian period falls between S.D. 30 and 39.<a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_390-12">[12]</a> Newly excavated objects indicate that trade between Upper and Lower Egypt existed at this time. A stone vase from the north was found at el-Amreh, and copper, which is not present in Egypt, was apparently imported from the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> or perhaps <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a><a href="#cite_note-Grimal_28-13">[13]</a> and an extremely small amount of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a><a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_390-12">[12]</a> were both definitively imported from Nubia during this time. Trade with the oases was also likely.<a href="#cite_note-Grimal_28-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Naqada_II">Naqada II</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Naqada II" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Gerzeh culture</a> ("Naqada II"), named after the site of el-Gerzeh, was the next stage in cultural development, and it was during this time that the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> was laid. The Gerzeh culture was largely an unbroken development out of the Amratian, starting in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> and moving south through <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>; however, it failed to dislodge the Amratian in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-14">[14]</a> The Gerzeh culture coincided with a significant drop in rainfall<a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-14">[14]</a> and farming produced the vast majority of food.<a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-14">[14]</a> With increased food supplies, the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle, and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5000 residents.<a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-14">[14]</a> It was in this time that the city dwellers started using <a href="/wiki/Adobe" title="Adobe">adobe</a> to build their cities.<a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-14">[14]</a> Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools<a href="#cite_note-Redford_16-14">[14]</a> and weaponry.<a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_391-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> (imported from <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a> in what is now Afghanistan), and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_faience" title="Egyptian faience">Egyptian faience</a> were used ornamentally,<a href="#cite_note-Redford_17-16">[16]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_palette" title="Cosmetic palette">cosmetic palettes</a> used for eye paint since the Badari culture began to be adorned with <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gardiner_391-15">[15]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/33rd_century_BC" title="33rd century BC">33rd century BC</a>, just before the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a>, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms known from later times as <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> to the south and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> to the north.<a href="#cite_note-Adkinsp155-17">[17]</a> The dividing line was drawn roughly in the area of modern <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Dynastic_Egypt">Dynastic Egypt</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dynastic Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_dynastic_period">Early dynastic period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early dynastic period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png/150px-Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="334" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="1648"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 334px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png/150px-Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png" data-width="150" data-height="334" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png/225px-Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png/300px-Raneb-Stela_MetropolitanMuseum.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Stela of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty</a> Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(pharaoh)" title="Nebra (pharaoh)">Nebra</a>, displaying the hieroglyph for his <a href="/wiki/Horus_name" title="Horus name">Horus name</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Serekh" title="Serekh">serekh</a> surmounted by <a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a>. On display at the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>.</figcaption></figure> The historical records of ancient Egypt begin with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around <a href="/wiki/32nd_century_BC" title="32nd century BC">3150 BC</a>. According to Egyptian tradition, <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a>, thought to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king. This Egyptian culture, customs, art expression, architecture, and social structure were closely tied to religion, remarkably stable, and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian chronology</a>, which involves <a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">regnal years</a>, began around this time. The conventional chronology was accepted during the twentieth century, but it does not include any of the major revision proposals that also have been made in that time. Even within a single work, archaeologists often offer several possible dates, or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers or topics related to ancient Egypt. There also are several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by <a href="/wiki/Manetho" title="Manetho">Manetho</a>'s Aegyptiaca, which was written during the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> in the third century BC. Prior to the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypt's history thereafter, the country came to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">Two Lands</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> established a national administration and appointed royal governors. According to Manetho, the first pharaoh was <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a>, but archeological findings support the view that the first ruler to claim to have united the two lands was <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a>, the final king of the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a> period. His name is known primarily from the famous <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>, whose scenes have been interpreted as the act of uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. Menes is now thought to be one of the titles of <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a>, the second pharaoh of the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty</a>. Funeral practices for the elite resulted in the construction of <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastabas</a>, which later became models for subsequent <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> constructions such as the <a href="/wiki/Step_pyramid" title="Step pyramid">step pyramid</a>, thought to have originated during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Kingdom">Old Kingdom</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Old Kingdom" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/170px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="354" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="1966"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 354px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/170px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png" data-width="170" data-height="354" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/255px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png/340px-MenkauraAndQueen_MuseumOfFineArtsBoston.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">Greywacke</a> statue of the pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">queen consort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khamerernebty_II" title="Khamerernebty II">Khamerernebty II</a>. Originally from his Giza temple, now on display at the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts, Boston</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty</a> through to the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty</a> (2686–2181 BCE). The royal capital of Egypt during this period was located at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> (2630–2611 BCE) established his court. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however, for the large number of <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramids</a>, which were constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason, this epoch is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids". The first notable pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of the first pyramid, the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Djoser" title="Pyramid of Djoser">Pyramid of Djoser</a>, in Memphis' necropolis of <a href="/wiki/Saqqara" title="Saqqara">Saqqara</a>. It was in this era that formerly independent states became <a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nomes</a> (districts) ruled solely by the pharaoh. Former local rulers were forced to assume the role of <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarch</a> (governor) or work as <a href="/wiki/Tax_collector" title="Tax collector">tax collectors</a>. Egyptians in this era worshiped the pharaoh as a god, believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops. The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached their zenith under the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Sneferu</a>, the dynasty's founder, is believed to have commissioned at least three pyramids; while his son and successor <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> Cheops) erected the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>, Sneferu had more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh. Khufu, his son <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> (Greek Chephren), and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> (Greek Mycerinus) all achieved lasting fame in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Giza pyramid complex</a>. To organize and feed the manpower needed to create these pyramids required a centralized government with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old Kingdom at this time demonstrated this level of sophistication. Recent excavations near the pyramids led by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lehner" title="Mark Lehner">Mark Lehner</a> have uncovered a large city that seems to have housed, fed and supplied the pyramid workers. Although it was once believed that slaves built these monuments, a theory based on <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">The Exodus</a> narrative of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, study of the tombs of the workmen, who oversaw construction on the pyramids, has shown they were built by a <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> drawn from across Egypt. They apparently worked while the annual flood covered their fields, as well as a very large crew of specialists, including stonecutters, painters, mathematicians and priests. The <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty</a> began with <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> c. 2495 BC and was marked by the growing importance of the cult of the sun god <a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Ra</a>. Consequently, less effort was devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in <a href="/wiki/Abusir" title="Abusir">Abusir</a>. The decoration of pyramid complexes grew more elaborate during the dynasty and its last king, <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a>, was the first to have the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as <a href="/wiki/Ebony" title="Ebony">ebony</a>, incense such as <a href="/wiki/Myrrh" title="Myrrh">myrrh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, gold, copper and other useful metals compelled the ancient Egyptians to navigate the open seas. Evidence from the <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_of_Sahure" title="Pyramid of Sahure">pyramid of Sahure</a>, second king of the dynasty, shows that a regular trade existed with the Syrian coast to procure <a href="/wiki/Lebanon_cedar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanon cedar">cedar wood</a>. Pharaohs also launched expeditions to the famed <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a>, possibly the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, for ebony, ivory and aromatic resins. During the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty</a> (2345–2181 BCE), the power of pharaohs gradually weakened in favor of powerful <a href="/wiki/Nomarch" title="Nomarch">nomarchs</a>. These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from the central authority of the pharaoh. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II Neferkare</a> (2278–2184 BCE) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles and the country slipped into civil wars mere decades after the close of <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pepi II">Pepi II</a>'s reign. The final blow came when the <a href="/wiki/4.2_kiloyear_event" class="mw-redirect" title="4.2 kiloyear event">4.2 kiloyear event</a> struck the region in the 22nd century BC, producing consistently low Nile flood levels.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The result was the collapse of the Old Kingdom followed by decades of famine and strife. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Intermediate_Period">First Intermediate Period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: First Intermediate Period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png/220px-AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="1182"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png/220px-AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png/330px-AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png/440px-AncientEgyptianModelOfAHouse-ROM.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Pottery model of a house used in a burial from the First Intermediate Period, on display at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Ontario_Museum" title="Royal Ontario Museum">Royal Ontario Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> After the fall of the Old Kingdom came a roughly 200-year stretch of time known as the First Intermediate Period, which is generally thought to include a relatively obscure set of pharaohs running from the end of the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth</a> and most of the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh</a> Dynasties. Most of these were likely local monarchs who did not hold much power outside of their nome. There are a number of texts known as "Lamentations" from the early period of the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> that may shed some light on what happened during this period. Some of these texts reflect on the breakdown of rule, others allude to invasion by "Asiatic bowmen". In general, the stories focus on a society where the natural order of things in both society and nature was overthrown. It is also highly likely that it was during this period that all of the pyramid and tomb complexes were looted. Further lamentation texts allude to this fact, and by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a> are found decorated with magical spells that were once exclusive to the pyramid of the kings of the Sixth Dynasty. By 2160 BC, a new line of pharaohs, the <a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth</a> Dynasties, consolidated <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> from their capital in <a href="/wiki/Heracleopolis_Magna" title="Heracleopolis Magna">Heracleopolis Magna</a>. A rival line, the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty</a> based at <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, reunited <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, and a clash between the rival dynasties was inevitable. Around <a href="/wiki/2055_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="2055 BC">2055 BC</a>, the Theban forces defeated the Heracleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands. The reign of its first pharaoh, <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a>, marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Kingdom">Middle Kingdom</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Middle Kingdom" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg/220px-Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg/220px-Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg/330px-Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg/440px-Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a> statue of Mentuhotep II, the founder of the Middle Kingdom</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/220px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="895" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 295px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/220px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="295" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/330px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg/440px-GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A guardian statue which reflects the facial features of the reigning king, probably Amenemhat II or Senwosret II, and which functioned as a divine guardian for the <a href="/wiki/Imiut_fetish" title="Imiut fetish">imiut</a>. Made of cedar wood and plaster <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1919–1885 BC<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></figcaption></figure> The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> stretching from the 39th regnal year of Mentuhotep II of the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty</a> to the end of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty</a>, roughly between 2030 and 1650 BC. The period comprises two phases, the Eleventh Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes, and then the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a>, whose capital was <a href="/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a>. These two dynasties were originally considered the full extent of this unified kingdom, but some historians now<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> consider the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty</a> to belong to the Middle Kingdom. The earliest pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom traced their origin to two nomarchs of Thebes, <a href="/wiki/Intef_the_Elder" title="Intef the Elder">Intef the Elder</a>, who served a Heracleopolitan pharaoh of the Tenth Dynasty, and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a>. The successor of the latter, <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a>, was the first Theban nomarch to claim a <a href="/wiki/Horus_name" title="Horus name">Horus name</a> and thus the throne of Egypt. He is considered the first pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty. His claims brought the Thebans into conflict with the rulers of the Tenth Dynasty. Intef I and his brother <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> undertook several campaigns northwards and finally captured the important nome of <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos</a>. Warfare continued intermittently between the Thebean and Heracleapolitan dynasties until the 39th <a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">regnal year</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a>, second successor of Intef II. At this point, the Herakleopolitans were defeated and the Theban dynasty consolidated their rule over Egypt. Mentuhotep II is known to have commanded military campaigns south into Nubia, which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate Period. There is also evidence for military actions against the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a>. The king reorganized the country and placed a <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Ancient_Egypt)" title="Vizier (Ancient Egypt)">vizier</a> at the head of civil administration for the country. Mentuhotep II was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a>, who organized an expedition to <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Punt</a>. His reign saw the realization of some of the finest Egyptian carvings. Mentuhotep III was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a>, the final pharaoh of this dynasty. Despite being absent from various lists of pharaohs, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hammamat" title="Wadi Hammamat">Wadi Hammamat</a> that record expeditions to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments. The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a>, the first pharaoh of the <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty</a>. Amenemhat is therefore assumed by some Egyptologists to have either usurped the throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless. Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Itjtawy" title="Itjtawy">Itjtawy</a>, thought to be located near the present-day Lisht, although Manetho claims the capital remained at <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>. Amenemhat forcibly pacified internal unrest, curtailed the rights of the nomarchs, and is known to have launched at least one campaign into Nubia. His son <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> continued the policy of his father to recapture Nubia and other territories lost during the First Intermediate Period. The <a href="/wiki/Libu" title="Libu">Libu</a> were subdued under his forty-five year reign and Egypt's prosperity and security were secured. <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> (1878–1839 BC) was a warrior king, leading his troops deep into Nubia, and built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish Egypt's formal boundaries with the unconquered areas of its territory. <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> (1860–1815 BC) is considered the last great pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom. Egypt's population began to exceed food production levels during the reign of Amenemhat III, who then ordered the exploitation of the <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a> and increased mining operations in the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. He also invited settlers from <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a> to Egypt to labor on Egypt's monuments. Late in his reign, the annual <a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">flooding of the Nile</a> began to fail, further straining the resources of the government. The <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty</a> witnessed the slow decline of Egypt into the <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period</a>, in which some of the settlers invited by Amenemhat III would seize power as the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Intermediate_Period_and_the_Hyksos">Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">Second Intermediate Period of Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mentuhotep_VI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mentuhotep_VI.jpg/185px-Mentuhotep_VI.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="400" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="1323"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 185px;height: 400px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mentuhotep_VI.jpg/185px-Mentuhotep_VI.jpg" data-width="185" data-height="400" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mentuhotep_VI.jpg/277px-Mentuhotep_VI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Mentuhotep_VI.jpg/370px-Mentuhotep_VI.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Statuette of <a href="/wiki/Merankhre_Mentuhotep" title="Merankhre Mentuhotep">Merankhre Mentuhotep</a>, a minor pharaoh of the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth Dynasty</a>, reigning over the Theban region c. <a href="/wiki/1585_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="1585 BC">1585 BC</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>. This period is best known as the time the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> made their appearance in Egypt, the reigns of its kings comprising the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty</a>. The Thirteenth Dynasty proved unable to hold onto the long land of Egypt, and a provincial family of Levantine descent located in the marshes of the eastern Delta at <a href="/wiki/Avaris" title="Avaris">Avaris</a> broke away from the central authority to form the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty</a>. The splintering of the land most likely happened shortly after the reigns of the powerful <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty</a> Pharaohs <a href="/wiki/Neferhotep_I" title="Neferhotep I">Neferhotep I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sobekhotep_IV" title="Sobekhotep IV">Sobekhotep IV</a> c. 1720 BC.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> While the Fourteenth Dynasty was Levantine, the Hyksos first appeared in Egypt c. 1650 BC when they took control of Avaris and rapidly moved south to <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, thereby ending the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. The outlines of the traditional account of the "invasion" of the land by the Hyksos is preserved in the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, who records that during this time the Hyksos overran Egypt, led by <a href="/wiki/Salitis" title="Salitis">Salitis</a>, the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty. More recently, however, the idea of a simple migration, with little or no violence involved, has gained some support.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Under this theory, the Egyptian rulers of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties were unable to stop these new migrants from traveling to Egypt from the Levant because their kingdoms were struggling to cope with various domestic problems, including possibly famine and plague.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Be it military or peaceful, the weakened state of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasty kingdoms could explain why they rapidly fell to the emerging Hyksos power. The Hyksos princes and chieftains ruled in the eastern Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. The Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capital and seat of government at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris. The Hyksos kingdom was centered in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> and central Egypt but relentlessly pushed south for the control of central and Upper Egypt. Around the time Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence and set itself up as the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth Dynasty</a>. Another short lived dynasty might have done the same in central Egypt, profiting from the power vacuum created by the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteenth Dynasty">Thirteenth Dynasty</a> and forming the <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos Dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ryholt-25">[25]</a> By 1600 BC, the Hyksos had successfully moved south in central Egypt, eliminating the Abydos Dynasty and directly threatening the Sixteenth Dynasty. The latter was to prove unable to resist and Thebes fell to the Hyksos for a very short period c. 1580 BC.<a href="#cite_note-ryholt-25">[25]</a> The Hyksos rapidly withdrew to the north and Thebes regained some independence under the <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth Dynasty</a>. From then on, Hyksos relations with the south seem to have been mainly of a commercial nature, although Theban princes appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may possibly have provided them with <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> for a period. The Seventeenth Dynasty was to prove the salvation of Egypt and would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The two last kings of this dynasty were <a href="/wiki/Seqenenre_Tao" title="Seqenenre Tao">Seqenenre Tao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamose" title="Kamose">Kamose</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> completed the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, restored Theban rule over the whole of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and the Southern Levant.<a href="#cite_note-Grimal_194-26">[26]</a> His reign marks the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Kingdom">New Kingdom</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: New Kingdom" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></div> Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the <a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a> during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It expanded far south into <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and held wide territories in the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>. Egyptian armies fought <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a> armies for control of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eighteenth_Dynasty">Eighteenth Dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Eighteenth Dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg/200px-Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="289" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1339" data-file-height="1934"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 289px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg/200px-Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="289" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg/300px-Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg/400px-Mask_of_Tutankhamun_2003-12-07.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Golden mask from the mummy of <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a></figcaption></figure> This was a time of great wealth and power for Egypt. Some of the most important and best-known pharaohs ruled at this time, such as <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>. Hatshepsut is unusual as she was a female pharaoh, a rare occurrence in Egyptian history. She was an ambitious and competent leader, extending Egyptian trade south into present-day <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> and north into the Mediterranean. She ruled for twenty years through a combination of widespread propaganda and deft political skill. Her co-regent and successor <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> ("the <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> of Egypt") expanded Egypt's army and wielded it with great success. However, late in his reign, he ordered her name hacked out from her monuments. He fought against Asiatic people and was the most successful of Egyptian pharaohs. <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> built extensively at the temple of <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Luxor_Temple" title="Luxor Temple">Luxor Temple</a>, which consisted of two <a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">pylons</a>, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance, and a new temple to the goddess <a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a>. During the reign of Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BC), <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>, originally referring to the king's palace, became a form of address for the person who was king.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> One of the best-known 18th Dynasty pharaohs is Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> in honor of the god <a href="/wiki/Aten" title="Aten">Aten</a>. His exclusive worship of the Aten, sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a>, is often seen as history's first instance of <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>. Atenism and several changes that accompanied it seriously disrupted Egyptian society. Akhenaten built a new capital at the site of <a href="/wiki/Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a>, which gives his reign and the few that followed their modern name, the <a href="/wiki/Amarna_Period" title="Amarna Period">Amarna Period</a>. <a href="/wiki/Amarna_art" title="Amarna art">Amarna art</a> diverged significantly from the previous conventions of <a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Egyptian art</a>. Under a series of successors, of whom the longest reigning were <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a>. Under them, worship of the old gods was revived and much of the art and monuments that were created during Akhenaten's reign was defaced or destroyed. When Horemheb died without an heir, he named as his successor <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nineteenth_Dynasty">Nineteenth Dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nineteenth Dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NE_1300bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/NE_1300bc.jpg/300px-NE_1300bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1285" data-file-height="1008"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 235px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/NE_1300bc.jpg/300px-NE_1300bc.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="235" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/NE_1300bc.jpg/450px-NE_1300bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/NE_1300bc.jpg/600px-NE_1300bc.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Egypt and its world in 1300 BC.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/220px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1664" data-file-height="2496"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 330px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/220px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="330" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/330px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG/440px-SFEC_EGYPT_ABUSIMBEL_2006-003.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Colossal depictions of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> at one of the <a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Simbel temples">Abu Simbel temples</a>.</figcaption></figure> Ramesses I reigned for two years and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a>. Seti I carried on the work of <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> in restoring power, control, and respect to Egypt. He also was responsible for creating the temple complex at Abydos. Arguably Ancient Egypt's power as a nation-state peaked during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> ("the Great") of the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty</a>. He reigned for 67 years from the age of 18 and carried on his father Seti I's work and created many more splendid temples, such as that of <a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Simbel temples">Abu Simbel temples</a> on the Nubian border. He sought to recover territories in the Levant that had been held by the Eighteenth Dynasty. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a> in <a href="/wiki/1274_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="1274 BC">1274 BC</a>, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king <a href="/wiki/Muwatalli_II" title="Muwatalli II">Muwatalli II</a> and was caught in history's first recorded military ambush. Ramesses II was famed for the huge number of children he sired by his various wives and <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">concubines</a>; the <a href="/wiki/KV5" title="KV5">tomb</a> he built for his sons (many of whom he outlived) in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Kings" title="Valley of the Kings">Valley of the Kings</a> has proven to be the largest funerary complex in Egypt. His immediate successors continued the military campaigns, though an increasingly troubled court complicated matters. Ramesses II was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> and then by Merenptah's son <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a>. Seti II's throne seems to have been disputed by his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesse</a>, who may have temporarily ruled from Thebes. Upon his death, Seti II's son <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a>, who may have been afflicted with <a href="/wiki/Poliomyelitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poliomyelitis">poliomyelitis</a> during his life, was appointed to the throne by <a href="/wiki/Bay_(chancellor)" title="Bay (chancellor)">Chancellor Bay</a>, a West Asian commoner who served as vizier behind the scenes. At Siptah's early death, the throne was assumed by <a href="/wiki/Twosret" class="mw-redirect" title="Twosret">Twosret</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Queen_dowager" title="Queen dowager">queen dowager</a> of Seti II and possibly Amenmesse's sister. A period of anarchy at the end of Twosret's short reign saw a native reaction to foreign control leading to the execution of Bay and the enthronement of <a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a>, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Twentieth_Dynasty">Twentieth Dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Twentieth Dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The last "great" pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely considered <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a>, the son of Setnakhte who reigned three decades after the time of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> (c.1279–1213 BC). In Year 8 of his reign, the <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea People</a> invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles. He claimed that he incorporated them as subject people and settled them in Southern Canaan, although there is evidence that they forced their way into <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 6 and Year 11 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia. The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact that the first known <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">strike action</a> in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the food rations for the Egypt's favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Medina" title="Deir el-Medina">Deir el-Medina</a> could not be provisioned.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost two full decades until 1140 BC.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> One proposed cause is the <a href="/wiki/Hekla_3_eruption" title="Hekla 3 eruption">Hekla 3 eruption</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, but the dating of that event remains in dispute. Following Ramesses III's death, there was endless bickering between his heirs. Three of his sons would go on to assume power as <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a>, respectively. However, at this time Egypt was also increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and official corruption. The power of the last pharaoh, <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a>, grew so weak that in the south the <a href="/wiki/Theban_High_Priests_of_Amun" class="mw-redirect" title="Theban High Priests of Amun">Theban High Priests of Amun</a> became the effective de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, while <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> controlled Lower Egypt even before Ramesses XI's death. Smendes would eventually found the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tanis" title="Tanis">Tanis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Intermediate_Period">Third Intermediate Period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Third Intermediate Period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Intermediate Period">Third Intermediate Period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/220px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 293px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/220px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="293" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/330px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/440px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Portrait of "<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaoh" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaoh">Black Pharaoh</a>" <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a> reconstruction</figcaption></figure> After the death of <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a>, his successor <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> ruled from the city of <a href="/wiki/Tanis,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanis, Egypt">Tanis</a> in the north, while the <a href="/wiki/High_Priests_of_Amun_at_Thebes" class="mw-redirect" title="High Priests of Amun at Thebes">High Priests of Amun at Thebes</a> had effective rule of the south of the country, whilst still nominally recognizing Smendes as king.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In fact, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family. <a href="/wiki/Piankh" title="Piankh">Piankh</a>, assumed control of Upper Egypt, ruling from <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, with the northern limit of his control ending at <a href="/wiki/Al-Hibah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hibah">Al-Hibah</a>. (The High Priest <a href="/wiki/Herihor" title="Herihor">Herihor</a> had died before Ramesses XI, but also was an all-but-independent ruler in the latter days of the king's reign.) The country was once again split into two parts with the priests in Thebes and the pharaohs at Tanis. Their reign seems without other distinction, and they were replaced without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Second Dynasty</a>. Egypt has long had ties with <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, and the first king of the new dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Meshwesh" title="Meshwesh">Meshwesh</a> Libyan, who served as the commander of the armies under the last ruler of the Twenty-First Dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a>. He unified the country, putting control of the Amun <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a> under his own son as the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was unsettled. There appear to have been many subversive groups, which eventually led to the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Third Dynasty</a>, which ran concurrent with the latter part of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. The country was reunited by the Twenty-Second Dynasty founded by <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who descended from <a href="/wiki/Meshwesh" title="Meshwesh">Meshwesh</a> immigrants, originally from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Libya" title="Ancient Libya">Ancient Libya</a>. This brought stability to the country for well over a century. After the reign of <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> the country had again splintered into two states with <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> of the Twenty-Second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> and his son (the future <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a>) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rulers_of_Kush,_Kerma_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/220px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4295" data-file-height="3506"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 180px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/220px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="180" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/330px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg/440px-Rulers_of_Kush%2C_Kerma_Museum.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>25th Dynasty</figcaption></figure> After the withdrawal of Egypt from <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> at the end of the New Kingdom, a native dynasty took control of Nubia. Under king <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a>, the Nubian founder of <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Fifth Dynasty</a>, the Nubians pushed north in an effort to crush his Libyan opponents ruling in the Delta. Piye managed to attain power as far as <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>. His opponent <a href="/wiki/Tefnakhte" class="mw-redirect" title="Tefnakhte">Tefnakhte</a> ultimately submitted to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Fourth Dynasty</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Sais</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kushite kingdom</a> to the south took full advantage of this division and political instability and defeated the combined might of several native-Egyptian rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Peftjauawybast" title="Peftjauawybast">Peftjauawybast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a> of Tanis, and <a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> of Sais. Piye was succeeded first by his brother, <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a>, and then by his two sons <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a>. Taharqa reunited the <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">Two Lands</a> of Northern and Southern Egypt and created an empire that was as large as it had been since the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a>. Pharaohs such as Taharqa built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> It was during the 25th Dynasty that the Nile valley saw the first widespread construction of <a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">pyramids (many in modern Sudan)</a> since the Middle Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The international prestige of Egypt declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen under the sphere of influence of <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states. Taharqa's reign and that of his successor, <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tantamani</a>, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians against whom there were numerous victories, but ultimately Thebes was occupied and <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a> sacked. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Period">Late Period</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Late Period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period of ancient Egypt</a></div> From 671 BC on, Memphis and the Delta region became the target of many attacks from the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a>, who expelled the Nubians and handed over power to client kings of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_dynasty_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-Sixth Dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> was the first recognized as the king of the whole of Egypt, and he brought increased stability to the country during a 54-year reign from the new capital of <a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Sais</a>. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt successfully and peacefully from 610 to 526 BC, keeping the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> in certain measures away with the help of <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greek</a> mercenaries. However, during this period Babylonian emperor <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II_of_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> (605–562 BC) campaigned against the Egyptians and drove them back over the Sinai. In 567 BC he went to war with Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Amasis</a>, and briefly invaded <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> itself.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> By the end of this period a new power was growing in the Near East: <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. The Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> had to face the might of Persia at <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a>; he was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, but ultimately was captured and then executed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_domination">Persian domination</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Persian domination" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Achaemenid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Achaemenid Egypt">History of Achaemenid Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/150px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="297" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="989"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 297px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/150px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="297" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/225px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg/300px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Egyptian_soldier_circa_470_BCE.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Egyptian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 470 BCE. <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> tomb relief.</figcaption></figure> Achaemenid Egypt can be divided into three eras: the first period of <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian</a> occupation, 525–404 BC (when Egypt became a <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapy</a>), followed by an interval of independence, and the second and final period of occupation, 343–332 BC. The Persian king <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> assumed the formal title of Pharaoh, called himself Mesuti-Re ("Re has given birth"), and sacrificed to the Egyptian gods. He founded the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> was then joined with <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> in the sixth satrapy of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Dynasty">Achaemenid Empire</a>. Cambyses' successors <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I the Great">Darius I the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I of Persia">Xerxes</a> pursued a similar policy, visited the country, and warded off an <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athenian</a> attack. It is likely that <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darius_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius II of Persia">Darius II</a> visited the country as well, although it is not attested, and did not prevent the Egyptians from feeling unhappy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] During the war of succession after the reign of Darius II, which broke out in 404 BC, the Egyptians revolted under <a href="/wiki/Amyrtaeus" title="Amyrtaeus">Amyrtaeus</a> and regained their independence. This sole ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty</a> died in 399, and power went to the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty</a> was established in 380 BC and lasted until 343 BC. <a href="/wiki/Nectanebo_II" title="Nectanebo II">Nectanebo II</a> was the last native king to rule Egypt. <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes III of Persia">Artaxerxes III</a> (358–338 BC) reconquered the Nile valley for a brief period (343–332 BC). In 332 BC, Mazaces handed over the country to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> without a fight. The Achaemenid empire had ended, and for a while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexander's empire. Later the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemies</a> and then the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> successively ruled the Nile valley. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemaic_dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ptolemaic dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></div> In 332 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander III of Macedon">Alexander III of Macedon</a> conquered Egypt with little resistance from the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persians</a>. He visited <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, and went on a pilgrimage to the oracle of <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a>. The oracle declared him the son of <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>. He conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed for their religion, but he appointed Greeks to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a>. Early in 331 BC, he led his forces away to Phoenicia, never returning to Egypt. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_(3rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE)_-_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/220px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1499"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 286px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/220px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="286" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/330px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg/440px-Ring_with_engraved_portrait_of_Ptolemy_VI_Philometor_%283rd%E2%80%932nd_century_BCE%29_-_2009.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ring with engraved portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy VI">Ptolemy VI</a> Philometor as Pharao (3rd–2nd century BCE). <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> Following Alexander's death in <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> in 323 BC, a <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">succession crisis</a> erupted among his generals. <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother <a href="/wiki/Arrhidaeus" title="Arrhidaeus">Arrhidaeus</a>, who became <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a>, and Alexander's infant son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a>. Perdiccas appointed <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy</a>, one of Alexander's closest companions, to rule Egypt in the name of the joint kings. However, as Alexander's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi#Wars_of_the_Diadochi_(322%E2%80%93301_BC)" title="Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a> (322–301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of Pharaoh. As <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> ("Saviour"), he founded the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a> that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Hellenistic culture thrived in Egypt well after the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest</a>. The Egyptians soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. Ptolemy's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name, Ptolemy. Ptolemaic queens regnant, some of whom were the sisters of their husbands, were usually called Cleopatra, Arsinoe or Berenice. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a>, known for her role in the Roman political battles between <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a>, and later between <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>. Her apparent suicide at the <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">conquest by Rome</a> marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population history of Egypt</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Barich1998-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Barich1998_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarich1998" class="citation book cs1">Barich, Barbara E. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ufwn_AJ6TMkC">People, Water, and Grain: The Beginnings of Domestication in the Sahara and the Nile Valley</a>. l'Erma di Bretschneider. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8265-017-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8265-017-9"><bdi>978-88-8265-017-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People%2C+Water%2C+and+Grain%3A+The+Beginnings+of+Domestication+in+the+Sahara+and+the+Nile+Valley&rft.pub=l%27Erma+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-88-8265-017-9&rft.aulast=Barich&rft.aufirst=Barbara+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUfwn_AJ6TMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatto" class="citation web cs1">Gatto, Maria C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/545582">"The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological Record"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pastoral+Culture+as+Link+between+Egypt+and+Africa%3A+A+View+from+the+Archaeological+Record&rft.aulast=Gatto&rft.aufirst=Maria+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F545582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Barbara E. Barich et al. (1984) "Ecological and Cultural Relevance of the Recent New Radiocabon dates from Libyan Sahara", in Lech Krzyżaniak and Michał Kobusiewicz [eds.], Origin and Early Development of Food-Producing Cultures in Northeastern Africa, <a href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84" title="Poznań">Poznań</a>, Poznań Archaeological Museum, pp. 411–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times (Charles Schribner's Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_6-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Redford_6_5-0">^</a> Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Carl_Roebuck_p._52-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carl_Roebuck_p._52_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carl_Roebuck_p._52_6-1">b</a> Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardiner_388-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_388_7-0">^</a> Gardiner (1964), p.388 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardiner_389-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_389_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_389_8-1">b</a> Gardiner (1964), p.389 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=668">"Site officiel du musée du Louvre"</a>. cartelfr.louvre.fr.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cartelfr.louvre.fr&rft.atitle=Site+officiel+du+mus%C3%A9e+du+Louvre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcartelfr.louvre.fr%2Fcartelfr%2Fvisite%3Fsrv%3Dcar_not_frame%26idNotice%3D668&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1996" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Jerrol S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA10">The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference</a>. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+The+William+Foxwell+Albright+Centennial+Conference&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Jerrol+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC%26pg%3DPA10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grimal_24-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Grimal_24_11-0">^</a> Grimal (1988) p.24 </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardiner_390-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_390_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_390_12-1">b</a> Gardiner (1964), 390. </li> <li id="cite_note-Grimal_28-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grimal_28_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grimal_28_13-1">b</a> Grimal (1988) p.28 </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_16-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_14-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_14-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Redford_16_14-5">f</a> Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardiner_391-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_391_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardiner_391_15-1">b</a> Gardiner (1694), p.391 </li> <li id="cite_note-Redford_17-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Redford_17_16-0">^</a> Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adkinsp155-17"><a href="#cite_ref-Adkinsp155_17-0">^</a> Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. (2001) The Little Book of Egyptian Hieroglyphics, p155. London: Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN . </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_04.shtml">The Fall of the Old Kingdom</a> by Fekri Hassan </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864">"Guardian Figure"</a>. www.metmuseum.org. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. Retrieved 9 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Guardian+Figure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F543864&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Callender, Gae. The Middle Kingdom Renasissance from <a href="#Shaw">The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</a>, Oxford, 2000 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Janine Bourriau, The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC) in "The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt," ed: Ian Shaw, (Oxford University Press: 2002), paperback, pp.178–179 & 181 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 315, 1999, pp.47–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Booth, Charlotte. <a href="#Booth">The Hyksos Period in Egypt</a>. p.10. Shire Egyptology. 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7478-0638-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7478-0638-1">0-7478-0638-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Manfred Bietak: Egypt and Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age, BASOR 281 (1991), pp. 21–72 see in particular p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-ryholt-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ryholt_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ryholt_25-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Kim_Ryholt" title="Kim Ryholt">Kim Ryholt</a>: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, Museum Tusculanum Press, (1997) </li> <li id="cite_note-Grimal_194-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Grimal_194_26-0">^</a> Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt p. 194. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Redmount, Carol A. "Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt." p. 89-90. The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Michael D. Coogan, ed. Oxford University Press. 1998. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.271 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton1951" class="citation journal cs1">Edgerton, William F. (1951). "The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 10 (3): 137–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371037">10.1086/371037</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542285">542285</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161088513">161088513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Strikes+in+Ramses+III%27s+Twenty-Ninth+Year&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=137-145&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161088513%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542285%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371037&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Frank J. Yurco, "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause" in Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson, (SAOC 58) 1999, pp.456–458 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Cerny, p.645 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonnet2006" class="citation book cs1">Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142–154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-416-010-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-416-010-3"><bdi>978-977-416-010-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=142-154&rft.pub=The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-977-416-010-3&rft.aulast=Bonnet&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokhtar1990" class="citation book cs1">Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06697-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06697-7"><bdi>978-0-520-06697-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa&rft.place=California%2C+USA&rft.pages=161-163&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06697-7&rft.aulast=Mokhtar&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmberling2011" class="citation book cs1">Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-615-48102-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-615-48102-9"><bdi>978-0-615-48102-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+Ancient+Kingdoms+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9-11&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-615-48102-9&rft.aulast=Emberling&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverman1997" class="citation book cs1">Silverman, David (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36">Ancient Egypt</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegypt00davi_0/page/36">36–37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521270-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521270-9"><bdi>978-0-19-521270-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521270-9&rft.aulast=Silverman&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientegypt00davi_0%2Fpage%2F36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120918143341/http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/ancient/HistoryofPhoenicia/chap22.html">"World Wide Sechool"</a>. History of Phoenicia — Part IV. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/ancient/HistoryofPhoenicia/chap22.html">the original</a> on 2012-09-18. Retrieved 2007-01-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+of+Phoenicia+%E2%80%94+Part+IV&rft.atitle=World+Wide+Sechool&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwideschool.org%2Flibrary%2Fbooks%2Fhst%2Fancient%2FHistoryofPhoenicia%2Fchap22.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Bowman (1996) pp25-26 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Stanwick (2003) </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharaonic_Egypt">Pharaonic Egypt</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pharaonic Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdkins,_L.Adkins,_R2001" class="citation book cs1">Adkins, L.; Adkins, R (2001). The Little Book of Egyptian Hieroglyphics. London: Hodder and Stoughton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Little+Book+of+Egyptian+Hieroglyphics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hodder+and+Stoughton&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Adkins%2C+L.&rft.au=Adkins%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaines,_John_and_Jaromir_Malek2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Baines_(Egyptologist)" title="John Baines (Egyptologist)">Baines, John</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jaromir_Malek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jaromir Malek (page does not exist)">Jaromir Malek</a> (2000). The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt (revised ed.). Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4036-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4036-0"><bdi>978-0-8160-4036-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cultural+Atlas+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4036-0&rft.au=Baines%2C+John+and+Jaromir+Malek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard1999" class="citation book cs1">Bard, KA (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. NY, NY: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18589-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18589-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18589-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=NY%2C+NY&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18589-9&rft.aulast=Bard&rft.aufirst=KA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBierbrier1984" class="citation book cs1">Bierbrier, Morris (1984). The Tomb Builders of the Pharaohs. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-18229-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-18229-2"><bdi>978-0-684-18229-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tomb+Builders+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-684-18229-2&rft.aulast=Bierbrier&rft.aufirst=Morris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite class="citation wikicite" id="Booth">Booth, Charlotte (2005). The Hyksos Period in Egypt. Shire Egyptology. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0638-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0638-7">978-0-7478-0638-7</a>.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCerny1975" class="citation book cs1">Cerny, J (1975). Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380–1000 BC. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08691-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08691-2"><bdi>978-0-521-08691-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+from+the+Death+of+Ramesses+III+to+the+End+of+the+Twenty-First+Dynasty%27+in+The+Middle+East+and+the+Aegean+Region+c.1380%E2%80%931000+BC&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-521-08691-2&rft.aulast=Cerny&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarkeR._Engelbach1990" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Somers; R. Engelbach (1990). Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture. Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-26485-1"><bdi>978-0-486-26485-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Construction+and+Architecture&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-486-26485-1&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Somers&rft.au=R.+Engelbach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1994" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Peter A. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronicleofphara00clay">Chronicle of the Pharaohs</a>. Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05074-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05074-3"><bdi>978-0-500-05074-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronicle+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05074-3&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofphara00clay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodson,_AidanHilton,_Dyan2004" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05128-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05128-3"><bdi>978-0-500-05128-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Royal+Families+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05128-3&rft.au=Dodson%2C+Aidan&rft.au=Hilton%2C+Dyan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgerton1951" class="citation journal cs1">Edgerton, William F. (1951). "The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 10 (3): 137–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371037">10.1086/371037</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542285">542285</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161088513">161088513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Strikes+in+Ramses+III%27s+Twenty-Ninth+Year&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=137-145&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161088513%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542285%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371037&rft.aulast=Edgerton&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillings1972" class="citation book cs1">Gillings, Richard J. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicsintim0000gill_o9t9">Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs</a>. New York: Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-07045-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-07045-4"><bdi>978-0-262-07045-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+in+the+Time+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-262-07045-4&rft.aulast=Gillings&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicsintim0000gill_o9t9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreavesO.H._Little1929" class="citation book cs1">Greaves, R.H.; O.H. Little (1929). Gold Resources of Egypt, Report of the XV International Geol. Congress, South Africa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gold+Resources+of+Egypt%2C+Report+of+the+XV+International+Geol.+Congress%2C+South+Africa&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Greaves&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft.au=O.H.+Little&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimal1992" class="citation book cs1">Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-17472-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-17472-1"><bdi>978-0-631-17472-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Blackwell+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-631-17472-1&rft.aulast=Grimal&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Herodotus ii. 55 and vii. 134</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKemp,_Barry1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Kemp_(Egyptologist)" title="Barry Kemp (Egyptologist)">Kemp, Barry</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415063463">Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01281-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-01281-2"><bdi>978-0-415-01281-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egypt%3A+Anatomy+of+a+Civilization&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-415-01281-2&rft.au=Kemp%2C+Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780415063463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchen1996" class="citation book cs1">Kitchen, Kenneth Anderson (1996). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) (3rd ed.). Warminster: Aris & Phillips Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Third+Intermediate+Period+in+Egypt+%281100%E2%80%93650+BC%29&rft.place=Warminster&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Aris+%26+Phillips+Limited&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Kitchen&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Anderson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehner,_Mark1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Lehner" title="Mark Lehner">Lehner, Mark</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completepyramids00lehn">The Complete Pyramids</a>. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05084-2"><bdi>978-0-500-05084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Pyramids&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05084-2&rft.au=Lehner%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletepyramids00lehn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas1962" class="citation book cs1">Lucas, Alfred (1962). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Ed. London: Edward Arnold Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Industries%2C+4th+Ed&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Edward+Arnold+Publishers&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Der_Manuelian1998" class="citation book cs1">Peter Der Manuelian (1998). Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs. Bonner Straße, Cologne Germany: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89508-913-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89508-913-8"><bdi>978-3-89508-913-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt%3A+The+World+of+the+Pharaohs&rft.place=Bonner+Stra%C3%9Fe%2C+Cologne+Germany&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nemann+Verlagsgesellschaft+mbH&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3-89508-913-8&rft.au=Peter+Der+Manuelian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyśliwiec2000" class="citation book cs1">Myśliwiec, Karol (2000). The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.(trans. by David Lorton). Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Twilight+of+Ancient+Egypt%3A+First+Millennium+B.C.E.%28trans.+by+David+Lorton%29&rft.place=Ithaca+and+London&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=My%C5%9Bliwiec&rft.aufirst=Karol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2000" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Paul T.; et al. (2000). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45257-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45257-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Technology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45257-1&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomer2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Romer_(Egyptologist)" title="John Romer (Egyptologist)">Romer, John</a> (2012). A History of Ancient Egypt: From the First Farmers to the Great Pyramid. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84614-377-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84614-377-9"><bdi>978-1-84614-377-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt%3A+From+the+First+Farmers+to+the+Great+Pyramid&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84614-377-9&rft.aulast=Romer&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins2000" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Gay (2000). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00376-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00376-7"><bdi>978-0-674-00376-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00376-7&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Gay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheel1989" class="citation book cs1">Scheel, Bernd (1989). Egyptian Metalworking and Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publications Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0001-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0001-9"><bdi>978-0-7478-0001-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Metalworking+and+Tools&rft.place=Haverfordwest%2C+Great+Britain&rft.pub=Shire+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0001-9&rft.aulast=Scheel&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><cite class="citation wikicite" id="Shaw"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Shaw_(Egyptologist)" title="Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)">Shaw, Ian</a> (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05074-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05074-3">978-0-500-05074-3</a>.</cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2000" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, R. H. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completetempleso00wilk">The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt</a>. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05100-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05100-9"><bdi>978-0-500-05100-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Temples+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05100-9&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=R.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletetempleso00wilk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2003" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, R.H. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/completegodsgodd00wilk_0">The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt</a>. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05120-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05120-7"><bdi>978-0-500-05120-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Gods+and+Goddesses+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05120-7&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=R.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcompletegodsgodd00wilk_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2010" class="citation book cs1">Wilkinson, T. (2010). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt: The History of a Civilisation from 3000BC to Cleopatra. London: Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7475-9949-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7475-9949-4"><bdi>978-0-7475-9949-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Ancient+Egypt%3A+The+History+of+a+Civilisation+from+3000BC+to+Cleopatra&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7475-9949-4&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYurco1999" class="citation journal cs1">Yurco, Frank J. (1999). "End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause". Saoc 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saoc+58&rft.atitle=End+of+the+Late+Bronze+Age+and+Other+Crisis+Periods%3A+A+Volcanic+Cause&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Yurco&rft.aufirst=Frank+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemaic_Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ptolemaic Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman1996" class="citation book cs1">Bowman, Alan K (1996). Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 25–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20531-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20531-4"><bdi>978-0-520-20531-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+after+the+Pharaohs+332+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+642&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=25-26&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20531-4&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd2000" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Alan Brian (2000). The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC) In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ptolemaic+Period+%28332%E2%80%9330+BC%29+In+The+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt%2C+edited+by+Ian+Shaw&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Alan+Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanwick2003" class="citation book cs1">Stanwick, Paul Edmond (2003). Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs. Austin: University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77772-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77772-9"><bdi>978-0-292-77772-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Portraits+of+the+Ptolemies%3A+Greek+kings+as+Egyptian+pharaohs&rft.place=Austin&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77772-9&rft.aulast=Stanwick&rft.aufirst=Paul+Edmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ancient+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ancient-egypt.org/">The Ancient Egypt Site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/woe/index.htm">Brian Brown (ed.) (1923) The Wisdom of the Egyptians. New York: Brentano's</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qeApebusL_0C&q=PtahHotep">Texts from the Pyramid Age Door Nigel C. Strudwick, Ronald J. Leprohon, 2005, Brill Academic Publishers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8c10QYoGa4UC">Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vlib.iue.it/history/chronological/ancient_egypt.html">History: Ancient Egypt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120504023452/http://vlib.iue.it/history/chronological/ancient_egypt.html">Archived</a> 2012-05-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/19px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/19px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/29px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Pyramidi_aavikolla.png/38px-Pyramidi_aavikolla.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Egypt" title="Portal:Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li></ul></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&oldid=1245886409">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&oldid=1245886409</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ancient_Egypt&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 15 September 2024, at 18:11 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="تاريخ مصر القديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ مصر القديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="প্রাচীন মিশরের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন মিশরের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Гісторыя Старажытнага Егіпта – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Старажытнага Егіпта" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="История на Древен Египет – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Древен Египет" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_starog_Egipta" title="Historija starog Egipta – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija starog Egipta" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27antic_Egipte" title="Història de l'antic Egipte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'antic Egipte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Alten_%C3%84gypten" title="Geschichte des Alten Ägypten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte des Alten Ägypten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Egiptuse_ajalugu" title="Vana-Egiptuse ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Egiptuse ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_antiguo_Egipto" title="Historia del antiguo Egipto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del antiguo Egipto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27%C3%89gypte_antique" title="Histoire de l'Égypte antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Égypte antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%9E%A4%86%F0%9E%A4%AB%F0%9E%A4%B0%F0%9E%A5%86%F0%9E%A4%AE%F0%9E%A4%A4_%F0%9E%A4%83%F0%9E%A4%AD%F0%9E%A4%A7%F0%9E%A4%AA%F0%9E%A4%A2_%F0%9E%A4%A9%F0%9E%A4%AE%F0%9E%A5%85%F0%9E%A4%B4%F0%9E%A4%AF%F0%9E%A4%AE" title="𞤆𞤫𞤰𞥆𞤮𞤤 𞤃𞤭𞤧𞤪𞤢 𞤩𞤮𞥅𞤴𞤯𞤮 – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="𞤆𞤫𞤰𞥆𞤮𞤤 𞤃𞤭𞤧𞤪𞤢 𞤩𞤮𞥅𞤴𞤯𞤮" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_antiga_de_Exipto" title="Historia antiga de Exipto – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia antiga de Exipto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հին Եգիպտոսի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Եգիպտոսի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_drevnog_Egipta" title="Povijest drevnog Egipta – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest drevnog Egipta" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Mesir_Kuno" title="Sejarah Mesir Kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Mesir Kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27antico_Egitto" title="Storia dell'antico Egitto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'antico Egitto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של מצרים העתיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של מצרים העתיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Egipto_istorija" title="Senovės Egipto istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Egipto istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantaran%27_i_Ejipta_Taloha" title="Tantaran' i Ejipta Taloha – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantaran' i Ejipta Taloha" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%87" title="تاريخ مصر القديمه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تاريخ مصر القديمه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_het_Oude_Egypte" title="Geschiedenis van het Oude Egypte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van het Oude Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27Egipte_antica" title="Istòria de l'Egipte antica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de l'Egipte antica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_Antigo_Egito" title="História do Antigo Egito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do Antigo Egito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Egiptului_Antic" title="Istoria Egiptului Antic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Egiptului Antic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0" title="История Древнего Египта – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Древнего Египта" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Историја старог Египта – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја старог Египта" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_drevnog_Egipta" title="Historija drevnog Egipta – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija drevnog Egipta" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadymy_M%C3%BCs%C3%BCr_taryhy" title="Gadymy Müsür taryhy – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Gadymy Müsür taryhy" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%84%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D1%83" title="Історія Стародавнього Єгипту – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Стародавнього Єгипту" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Ai_C%E1%BA%ADp_c%E1%BB%95_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Lịch sử Ai Cập cổ đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Ai Cập cổ đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isipt_gu_y%C3%A0gg_ga" title="Isipt gu yàgg ga – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Isipt gu yàgg ga" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%9F%83%E5%8F%8A%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="古埃及历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="古埃及历史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist 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