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</li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Napoleon Bonaparte" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Napoleon (disambiguation)">Napoleon (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Napoleon Bonaparte (disambiguation)">Napoleon Bonaparte (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Napoleon Bonaparte<a href="#cite_note-2">[b]</a> (born Napoleone Buonaparte;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2008axv-3">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[c]</a> 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his <a href="/wiki/Regnal_name" title="Regnal name">regnal name</a> Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and led <a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte">a series of military campaigns</a> across Europe during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_and_Napoleonic_Wars" title="French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars</a> from 1796 to 1815. He led the <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French Republic</a> as <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">First Consul</a> from 1799 to 1804, then ruled the <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French Empire</a> as <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">Emperor of the French</a> from 1804 to 1814, and briefly again in 1815. He was <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">King</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Italy</a> from 1805 to 1814 and <a href="/wiki/Protector_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine">Protector</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a> from 1806 to 1813. <table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Napoleon</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of Napoleon in his late thirties, in high-ranking white and dark blue military dress uniform. In the original image he stands amid rich 18th-century furniture laden with papers, and gazes at the viewer. His hair is Brutus style, cropped close but with a short fringe in front, and his right hand is tucked in his waistcoat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3079" data-file-height="5135"></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor_Napoleon_in_His_Study_at_the_Tuileries" title="The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries">The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries</a>, 1812</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">Emperor of the French</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1st reign</th><td class="infobox-data">18 May 1804 – 6 April 1814</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a><a href="#cite_note-louis_reign-1">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">2nd reign</a></th><td class="infobox-data">20 March – 22 June 1815</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data">Louis XVIII<a href="#cite_note-louis_reign-1">[a]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/First_Consul_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="First Consul of France">First Consul of the French Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 13 December 1799 – 18 May 1804</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">Napoleone Buonaparte (1769-08-15)15 August 1769 <a href="/wiki/Ajaccio" title="Ajaccio">Ajaccio</a>, Corsica, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">5 May 1821(1821-05-05) (aged 51) <a href="/wiki/Longwood,_Saint_Helena" title="Longwood, Saint Helena">Longwood, Saint Helena</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data">15 December 1840 <div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/wiki/Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">Les Invalides</a>, Paris</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1796; <abbr title="annulled">ann.</abbr> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">1810)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie Louise of Austria">Marie Louise of Austria</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">1810; <abbr title="separated">sep.</abbr> 1814)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a> <a href="#Children">more…</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_II" title="Napoleon II">Napoleon II</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Napoleon's signature"><img alt="Napoleon's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg/125px-Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg/188px-Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg/250px-Firma_Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="142"></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; width: 306px;"><div class="center" style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Napoleon" title="Military career of Napoleon">Battles of Napoleon</a></div><div class="thumbinner noresize" style="position: relative; top: 0px; right: 0px; outline:0px; border:0px; padding:0px; height: 330px; width: 306px;"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container floatright" style="width: 306px; height: 330px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="306" data-height="330" data-zoom="3" data-lat="45.3" data-lon="13" href="/wiki/Special:Map/3/45.3/13/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,3,45.3,13,306x330.png?lang=en" width="306" height="330" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,3,45.3,13,306x330@2x.png?lang=en 2x" alt="Map"></a><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 0px; left: -12px; width: 330px; height: 330px; transform: rotate(0deg); border-radius: 0px; background-color: #FFFFFF00; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 158px; left: -14px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> </div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 312px; left: 293px; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: transparent;color:inherit;"><a href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright" title="About OpenStreetMaps" rel="nofollow"><img alt="About OpenStreetMaps" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 312px; left: 196px; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: transparent;color:inherit;"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Maps_Terms_of_Use" title="Maps: terms of use"><img alt="Maps: terms of use" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/12px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/24px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: blue; top: 286px; left: 244.5px; background-color:transparent; color:inherit; transform: rotate(0deg);"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/52px-Mapscaleline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/78px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Mapscaleline.svg/104px-Mapscaleline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="138" data-file-height="18"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 285.875px; left: 290px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> 1000km 620miles</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 151.77376634284px; left: 65.770038846493px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 149.77376634284px; left: 69.270038846493px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Rochefort</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 151.77376634284px; left: 73.270038846493px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">18</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 151.77376634284px; left: 65.770038846493px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lewis_Maitland#Helenaincampaignwaterloo" title="Frederick Lewis Maitland"><img alt="Surrender of Napoleon on 15 July 1815" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 110.6690271726px; left: 96.38268868767px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 108.6690271726px; left: 99.88268868767px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Waterloo</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 110.6690271726px; left: 103.88268868767px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">17</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 110.6690271726px; left: 96.38268868767px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo"><img alt="Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 177.02608658057px; left: 130.02233562135px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 188.02608658057px; left: 144.52233562135px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Elba</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 177.02608658057px; left: 137.52233562135px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">16</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 177.02608658057px; left: 130.02233562135px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba"><img alt="Exile to Elba from 30 May 1814 to 26 February 1815" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 129.03220011807px; left: 99.52391208555px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 127.03220011807px; left: 113.02391208555px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Dizier</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 129.03220011807px; left: 107.02391208555px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">15</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 129.03220011807px; left: 99.52391208555px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Saint-Dizier" title="Battle of Saint-Dizier"><img alt="Battle of Saint-Dizier is the primary link --- Battle of Brienne on 29 January 1814 Battle of La Rothière on 1 February 1814 Battle of Champaubert on 10 February 1814 Battle of Montmirail on 11 February 1814 Battle of Château-Thierry (1814) on 12 February 1814 Battle of Vauchamps on 14 February 1814 Battle of Mormant on 17 February 1814 Battle of Montereau on 18 February 1814 Battle of Craonne on 7 March 1814 Battle of Laon from 9 to 10 March 1814 Battle of Reims (1814) from 12 to 13 March 1814 Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube from 20 to 21 March 1814 Battle of Saint-Dizier on 26 March 1814" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 105.12996044521px; left: 141.9589845333px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 106.12996044521px; left: 156.4589845333px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Leipzig</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 105.12996044521px; left: 149.4589845333px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">14</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 105.12996044521px; left: 141.9589845333px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig"><img alt="Battle of Leipzig is the primary link --- Battle of Lützen (1813) on 2 May 1813 Battle of Bautzen (1813) from 20 to 21 May 1813 Battle of Dresden from 26 to 27 August 1813 Battle of Leipzig from 16 to 19 October 1813 Battle of Hanau from 30 to 31 October 1813" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 77.734780203891px; left: 234.02538666758px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 91.734780203891px; left: 241.52538666758px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Berezina</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 77.734780203891px; left: 241.52538666758px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">13</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 77.734780203891px; left: 234.02538666758px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berezina" title="Battle of Berezina"><img alt="Battle of Berezina from 26 to 29 November 1812" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 64.827372148225px; left: 275.83221443575px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 75.827372148225px; left: 273.33221443575px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Borodino</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 64.827372148225px; left: 283.33221443575px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">12</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 64.827372148225px; left: 275.83221443575px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino"><img alt="Battle of Borodino is the primary link --- Battle of Vitebsk on 26 July 1812 Battle of Smolensk on 16 August 1812 Battle of Borodino on 7 September 1812" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 132.99008964029px; left: 165.60382974644px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 142.99008964029px; left: 163.10382974644px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Wagram</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 132.99008964029px; left: 173.10382974644px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">11</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 132.99008964029px; left: 165.60382974644px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram" title="Battle of Wagram"><img alt="Battle of Wagram is the primary link --- Battle of Teugen-Hausen on 19 April 1809 Battle of Abensberg on 20 April 1809 Battle of Landshut (1809) on 21 April 1809 Battle of Eckmühl from 21 to 22 April 1809 Battle of Ratisbon on 23 April 1809 Battle of Aspern-Essling from 21 to 22 May 1809 Battle of Wagram from 5 to 6 July 1809 Battle of Znaim from 10 to 11 July 1809" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 189.5474001873px; left: 50.806392842039px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 189.5474001873px; left: 43.306392842039px; width: fit-content; height: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) translateY(-100%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Somosierra</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 189.5474001873px; left: 58.306392842039px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">10</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 189.5474001873px; left: 50.806392842039px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra"><img alt="Battle of Somosierra on 30 November 1808" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 75.775880034839px; left: 191.36186160907px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 86.775880034839px; left: 198.86186160907px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Friedland</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 75.775880034839px; left: 198.86186160907px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">9</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 75.775880034839px; left: 191.36186160907px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Friedland" title="Battle of Friedland"><img alt="Battle of Friedland is the primary link --- Battle of Czarnowo on 23 December 1806 Battle of Eylau from 7 to 8 February 1807 Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 108.77034776666px; left: 137.44704547089px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 113.77034776666px; left: 141.94704547089px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Jena</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 108.77034776666px; left: 144.94704547089px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">8</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 108.77034776666px; left: 137.44704547089px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena%E2%80%93Auerstedt" title="Battle of Jena–Auerstedt"><img alt="Battle of Jena–Auerstedt on 14 October 1806" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 124.25226610874px; left: 166.97454541097px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 117.25226610874px; left: 180.47454541097px; text-align: left; transform: rotate(0deg) background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Austerlitz</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 124.25226610874px; left: 174.47454541097px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">7</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 124.25226610874px; left: 166.97454541097px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz"><img alt="Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 160.39771238064px; left: 120.82711803846px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 156.39771238064px; left: 122.32711803846px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Marengo</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 160.39771238064px; left: 128.32711803846px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">6</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 160.39771238064px; left: 120.82711803846px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo"><img alt="Battle of Marengo on 14 June 1800" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 267.82947935584px; left: 249.73150365698px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 263.82947935584px; left: 255.23150365698px; transform: translateX(-100%) rotate(0deg); text-align: right; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Cairo</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 267.82947935584px; left: 257.23150365698px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">5</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 267.82947935584px; left: 249.73150365698px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Cairo" title="Revolt of Cairo"><img alt="Revolt of Cairo is the primary link --- Battle of Shubra Khit on 13 July 1798 Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 Battle of the Nile from 1 to 3 August 1798 Revolt of Cairo from 21 to 22 October 1798 Siege of El Arish from 8 to 20 February 1799 Siege of Jaffa from 3 to 7 March 1799 Siege of Acre (1799) from 20 March to 21 May 1799 Battle of Mount Tabor (1799) on 16 April 1799 Battle of Abukir (1799) on 25 July 1799" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 228.04558515947px; left: 153.78140713987px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 239.04558515947px; left: 168.28140713987px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Malta</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 228.04558515947px; left: 161.28140713987px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">4</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 228.04558515947px; left: 153.78140713987px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Malta" title="French invasion of Malta"><img alt="French invasion of Malta from 10 to 12 June 1798" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 156.51256325843px; left: 135.67653773753px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 164.51256325843px; left: 158.17653773753px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Arcole</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 156.51256325843px; left: 143.17653773753px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">3</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 156.51256325843px; left: 135.67653773753px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole"><img alt="Battle of Arcole is the primary link --- Battle of Montenotte from 11 to 12 April 1796 Battle of Millesimo from 13 to 14 April 1796 Second Battle of Dego from 14 to 15 April 1796 Battle of Ceva on 16 April 1796 Battle of Mondovì from 20 to 22 April 1796 Battle of Fombio from 7 to 9 May 1796 Battle of Lodi on 10 May 1796 Battle of Borghetto on 30 May 1796 Battle of Lonato from 3 to 4 August 1796 Battle of Castiglione on 5 August 1796 Siege of Mantua (1796–1797) from 27 August 1796 to 2 February 1797 Battle of Rovereto on 4 September 1796 Battle of Bassano on 8 September 1796 Second Battle of Bassano on 6 November 1796 Battle of Caldiero (1796) on 12 November 1796 Battle of Arcole from 15 to 17 November 1796 Battle of Rivoli from 14 to 15 January 1797 Battle of Valvasone (1797) on 16 March 1797 Battle of Tagliamento on 16 March 1797 Battle of Tarvis (1797) from 21 to 23 March 1797" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 127.12653527647px; left: 84.674492386472px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 138.12653527647px; left: 92.174492386472px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Paris</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 127.12653527647px; left: 92.174492386472px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">2</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 127.12653527647px; left: 84.674492386472px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire"><img alt="13 Vendémiaire on 5 October 1795" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div> <div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 1px; outline-style: solid; outline-color: #FFFFFFFF; top: 174.29484110066px; left: 105.06388789636px; width: 16px; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%; background-color: #000080; color:inherit;"></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; line-height: 0.98; white-space: nowrap; top: 185.29484110066px; left: 112.56388789636px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%) rotate(0deg); background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"> Toulon</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; top: 174.29484110066px; left: 112.56388789636px; width: fit-content; text-align: center; transform: translateX(-50%); background-color:transparent; color:inherit; line-height: 1.2;">1</div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute; outline-width: 0px; top: 174.29484110066px; left: 105.06388789636px; width: 16px; height: 16px; background-color: transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon_(1793)" title="Siege of Toulon (1793)"><img alt="Siege of Toulon (1793) from 29 August to 19 December 1793" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/18px-Invisible_Square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/27px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Invisible_Square.svg/36px-Invisible_Square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></a></div><div style="display:inline-block; position: absolute;top: 9px;left: 270px"><div style="color: white; opacity:100; font-size: 19px; font-weight:normal; text-align: left;"><a class="mw-kartographer-maplink no-icon" data-mw-kartographer="maplink" data-style="osm-intl" href="/wiki/Special:Map/4/45.3/13/en" data-zoom="4" data-lat="45.3" data-lon="13" data-overlays='["_03db794c79b3db845e6a4b9868483155c154f882"]'><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"> </a></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Rescale the fullscreen map to see Saint Helena.</div></div></div> Born on the island of <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a> to a family of Italian origin, Napoleon moved to mainland France in 1779 and was commissioned as an officer in the <a href="/wiki/French_Royal_Army" title="French Royal Army">French Royal Army</a> in 1785. He supported the French Revolution in 1789, and promoted its cause in Corsica. He rose rapidly through the ranks after winning the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon_(1793)" title="Siege of Toulon (1793)">siege of Toulon</a> in 1793 and defeating royalist insurgents in Paris on <a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a> in 1795. In 1796, Napoleon commanded <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796%E2%80%931797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796–1797">a military campaign</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austrians</a> and their Italian allies in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a>, scoring decisive victories and becoming a national hero. He led an <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Egypt_and_Syria" title="French invasion of Egypt and Syria">invasion of Egypt and Syria</a> in 1798 which served as a springboard to political power. In November 1799, Napoleon engineered the <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> against the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a>, and became First Consul of the Republic. He won the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> in 1800, which secured France's victory in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a>, and in 1803 <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">sold the territory of Louisiana</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. In December 1804, Napoleon <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Napoleon" title="Coronation of Napoleon">crowned himself</a> Emperor of the French, further expanding his power. The breakdown of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a> by 1805. Napoleon shattered the coalition with a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a>, Napoleon defeated <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena%E2%80%93Auerstedt" title="Battle of Jena–Auerstedt">Battle of Jena–Auerstedt</a> in 1806, marched his <a href="/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Grande Armée">Grande Armée</a> into Eastern Europe, and defeated the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russians</a> in 1807 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Friedland" title="Battle of Friedland">Battle of Friedland</a>. Seeking to extend his <a href="/wiki/Continental_System" title="Continental System">trade embargo against Britain</a>, Napoleon invaded the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> and installed his brother <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph</a> as <a href="/wiki/King_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Spain">King of Spain</a> in 1808, provoking the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a>. In 1809, the Austrians again challenged France in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a>, in which Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after winning the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram" title="Battle of Wagram">Battle of Wagram</a>. In summer 1812, he launched <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">an invasion of Russia</a>, briefly <a href="/wiki/French_occupation_of_Moscow" title="French occupation of Moscow">occupying Moscow</a> before conducting a catastrophic retreat of his army that winter. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russia in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a>, in which Napoleon was decisively defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</a>. The coalition <a href="/wiki/1814_campaign_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="1814 campaign in France">invaded France</a> and captured Paris, <a href="/wiki/Abdication_of_Napoleon,_1814" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdication of Napoleon, 1814">forcing Napoleon to abdicate</a> in April 1814. They exiled him to the Mediterranean island of <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a> and restored the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbons to power</a>. Ten months later, Napoleon escaped from Elba on a brig, landed in France with a thousand men, and marched on Paris, again taking control of the country. His opponents responded by forming a <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Seventh Coalition">Seventh Coalition</a>, which defeated him at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> in June 1815. Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> in the South Atlantic, where he died of stomach cancer in 1821, aged 51. Napoleon is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_tactics" title="Napoleonic tactics">Napoleonic tactics</a> are still studied at military schools worldwide. His <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">legacy</a> endures through the modernizing legal and administrative reforms he enacted in France and Western Europe, embodied in the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a>. He established a system of public education,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrab200356-5">[2]</a> abolished the vestiges of <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Broers-6">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">emancipated Jews</a> and other religious minorities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200438%E2%80%9340-7">[4]</a> abolished the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[5]</a> enacted the principle of <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a> for an emerging middle class,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004336-9">[6]</a> and centralized state power at the expense of religious authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrab2017204%E2%80%93211-10">[7]</a> His conquests acted as a catalyst for political change and the development of <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a>. However, he is controversial due to his role in wars which devastated Europe, his <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_looting_of_art" title="Napoleonic looting of art">looting</a> of conquered territories, and his mixed record on civil rights. He abolished the free press, ended directly elected representative government, exiled and jailed critics of his regime, reinstated slavery in France's colonies except for <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haiti</a>, banned the entry of blacks and <a href="/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulattos</a> into France, reduced the civil rights of women and children in France, reintroduced a hereditary monarchy and nobility,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a574%E2%80%9376,_582%E2%80%9384-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200432%E2%80%9334,_50%E2%80%9351-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201552-13">[10]</a> and violently repressed popular uprisings against his rule.<a href="#cite_note-Repa222-14">[11]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life">1 Early life</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Early_career">2 Early career</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Return_to_Corsica">2.1 Return to Corsica</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Siege_of_Toulon">2.2 Siege of Toulon</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#13_Vend%C3%A9miaire">2.3 13 Vendémiaire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#First_Italian_campaign">2.4 First Italian campaign</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Egyptian_expedition">2.5 Egyptian expedition</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Ruler_of_France">3 Ruler of France</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#18_Brumaire">3.1 18 Brumaire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#French_Consulate">3.2 French Consulate</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#Temporary_peace_in_Europe">3.2.1 Temporary peace in Europe</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#French_Empire">3.3 French Empire</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Bonaparte_becomes_Napoleon_I">3.3.1 Bonaparte becomes Napoleon I</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#War_of_the_Third_Coalition">3.3.2 War of the Third Coalition</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Middle-Eastern_alliances">3.3.3 Middle-Eastern alliances</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition_and_Tilsit">3.3.4 War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#Peninsular_War_and_Erfurt">3.3.5 Peninsular War and Erfurt</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition">3.3.6 War of the Fifth Coalition</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Consolidation_of_the_Empire">3.3.7 Consolidation of the Empire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Invasion_of_Russia">3.3.8 Invasion of Russia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition">3.3.9 War of the Sixth Coalition</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Exile_to_Elba">3.4 Exile to Elba</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Hundred_Days">3.5 Hundred Days</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Exile_on_Saint_Helena">4 Exile on Saint Helena</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Death">4.1 Death</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Religion">5 Religion</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Religious_beliefs">5.1 Religious beliefs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Concordat">5.2 Concordat</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Arrest_of_Pope_Pius_VII">5.3 Arrest of Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Religious_emancipation">5.4 Religious emancipation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Personality">6 Personality</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Appearance_and_image">7 Appearance and image</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Reforms">8 Reforms</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Administration">8.1 Administration</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Napoleonic_Code">8.2 Napoleonic Code</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Warfare">8.3 Warfare</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Education">8.4 Education</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><a href="#Nobility_and_honours">8.5 Nobility and honours</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#Memory_and_evaluation">9 Memory and evaluation</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Criticism">9.1 Criticism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Propaganda_and_memory">9.2 Propaganda and memory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Long-term_influence_outside_France">9.3 Long-term influence outside France</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Children">10 Children</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#Titles">11 Titles</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Arms">12 Arms</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><a href="#Notes">13 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><a href="#References">14 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-48"><a href="#Works_cited">14.1 Works cited</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-49"><a href="#Biographical_studies">14.1.1 Biographical studies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-50"><a href="#Historiography_and_memory">14.1.2 Historiography and memory</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-51"><a href="#Specialty_studies">14.1.3 Specialty studies</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-52"><a href="#Further_reading">15 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-53"><a href="#External_links">16 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Napoleon's family was of Italian origin. His paternal ancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a minor <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscan</a> noble family who emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century and his maternal ancestors, the Ramolinos, descended from a noble family from <a href="/wiki/Lombardy_(historical_region)" title="Lombardy (historical region)">Lombardy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a> Napoleon's parents, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Maria_Buonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Maria Buonaparte">Carlo Maria Buonaparte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maria_Letizia_Ramolino" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Letizia Ramolino">Maria Letizia Ramolino</a>, lived in the <a href="/wiki/Maison_Bonaparte" title="Maison Bonaparte">Maison Bonaparte</a> home in <a href="/wiki/Ajaccio" title="Ajaccio">Ajaccio</a>, where Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769. He had an elder brother, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph</a>, and, later, six younger siblings: <a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elisa_Bonaparte" title="Elisa Bonaparte">Elisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Bonaparte" title="Louis Bonaparte">Louis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Bonaparte" title="Pauline Bonaparte">Pauline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Bonaparte" title="Caroline Bonaparte">Caroline</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bonaparte" title="Jérôme Bonaparte">Jérôme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a> Five more siblings were stillborn or did not survive infancy.<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a> Napoleon was baptized as a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a>, under the name Napoleone di Buonaparte. In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio, Napolionne, and Napulione.<a href="#cite_note-dwyerxv2-18">[15]</a> Napoleon was born one year after the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a> ceded Corsica to France.<a href="#cite_note-McLynn-1997b-19">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[d]</a> His father supported <a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Paoli" title="Pasquale Paoli">Pasquale Paoli</a> during the Corsican war of independence against France. After the Corsican defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponte_Novu" title="Battle of Ponte Novu">Battle of Ponte Novu</a> in 1769 and Paoli's exile in Britain, Carlo became friends with the French governor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_de_Marbeuf" title="Charles Louis de Marbeuf">Charles Louis de Marbeuf</a>, who became his patron and godfather to Napoleon.<a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellis22-25">[21]</a> With Mabeuf's support, Carlo was named Corsican representative to the court of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a> and Napoleon obtained a royal bursary to a military academy in France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECronin199420%E2%80%9321-26">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Half-length portrait of a wigged middle-aged man with a well-to-do jacket. His left hand is tucked inside his waistcoat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg/170px-Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1378" data-file-height="1786"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 220px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg/170px-Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg" data-alt="Half-length portrait of a wigged middle-aged man with a well-to-do jacket. His left hand is tucked inside his waistcoat." data-width="170" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg/255px-Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg/340px-Carlo_Buonaparte.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon's father, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Buonaparte" title="Carlo Buonaparte">Carlo Buonaparte</a>, fought for <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsican</a> independence under <a href="/wiki/Pasquale_Paoli" title="Pasquale Paoli">Pasquale Paoli</a>. After their defeat, he eventually became the island's representative to <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a>'s court.</figcaption></figure>The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECronin199420%E2%80%9321-26">[22]</a> Later in life, Napoleon said, "The future destiny of the child is always the work of the mother."<a href="#cite_note-28">[24]</a> Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECronin199427-29">[25]</a> In January 1779, at age 9, Napoleon moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in <a href="/wiki/Autun" title="Autun">Autun</a> to improve his French (his mother tongue was the Corsican dialect of Italian).<a href="#cite_note-Parker-1971-30">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts201411-31">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a> Although he eventually became fluent in French, he spoke with a Corsican accent and his French spelling was poor.<a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a> In May, he transferred to the military academy at <a href="/wiki/Brienne-le-Ch%C3%A2teau" title="Brienne-le-Château">Brienne-le-Château</a> where he was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms, and poor French.<a href="#cite_note-Parker-1971-30">[26]</a> He became reserved and melancholic, applying himself to reading. An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor".<a href="#cite_note-35">[e]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[31]</a> One story of Napoleon at the school is that he led junior students to victory against senior students in a snowball fight, which allegedly showed his leadership abilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler197312%E2%80%9314-37">[32]</a> But the story was only told after Napoleon had become famous.<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> In his later years at Brienne, Napoleon became an outspoken Corsican nationalist and admirer of Paoli.<a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a> In September 1784, Napoleon was admitted to the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_militaire" title="École militaire">École militaire</a> in Paris where he trained to become an artillery officer. He excelled at mathematics, and read widely in geography, history and literature. However, he was poor at French and German.<a href="#cite_note-40">[35]</a> His father's death in February 1785 cut the family income and forced him to complete the two-year course in one year. In September he was examined by the famed scientist <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Simon_Laplace" title="Pierre-Simon Laplace">Pierre-Simon Laplace</a> and became the first Corsican to graduate from the École militaire.<a href="#cite_note-dwyer422-41">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[37]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Return_to_Corsica">Return to Corsica</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_-_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Napoleon_-_2.jpg/170px-Napoleon_-_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 243px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Napoleon_-_2.jpg/170px-Napoleon_-_2.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="243" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Napoleon_-_2.jpg/255px-Napoleon_-_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Napoleon_-_2.jpg/340px-Napoleon_-_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bonaparte, aged 23, as lieutenant-colonel of a battalion of Corsican <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(France)" title="National Guard (France)">Republican volunteers</a>. Portrait made in 1835 by <a href="/wiki/Henri_F%C3%A9lix_Emmanuel_Philippoteaux" title="Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux">Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux</a></figcaption></figure> Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant" title="Second lieutenant">second lieutenant</a> in <a href="/wiki/1st_Artillery_Regiment_(France)" title="1st Artillery Regiment (France)">La Fère artillery regiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rxviii2-43">[38]</a> He served in <a href="/wiki/Valence_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valence (city)">Valence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auxonne" title="Auxonne">Auxonne</a> until after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, but spent long periods of leave in Corsica which fed his Corsican nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014Chapter_1,_pp._3%E2%80%9328-44">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[40]</a> In September 1789, he returned to Corsica and promoted the French revolutionary cause. Paoli returned to the island in July 1790, but he had no sympathy for Bonaparte, as he deemed his father a traitor for having deserted the cause of Corsican independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014Chapter_2,_pp._29%E2%80%9353-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[42]</a> Bonaparte plunged into a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He became a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> and joined the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations to secede.<a href="#cite_note-48">[43]</a> He was given command over a battalion of Corsican volunteers and promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and a dispute between his volunteers and the French garrison in Ajaccio.<a href="#cite_note-49">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[45]</a> In February 1793, Bonaparte took part in the failed <a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Sardinia" title="French expedition to Sardinia">French expedition to Sardinia</a>. Following allegations that Paoli had sabotaged the expedition and that his regime was corrupt and incompetent, the French <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> outlawed him. In early June, Bonaparte and 400 French troops failed to capture Ajaccio from Corsican volunteers and the island was now controlled by Paoli's supporters. When Bonaparte learned that the Corsican assembly had condemned him and his family, the Buonapartes fled to Toulon on the French mainland.<a href="#cite_note-51">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Siege_of_Toulon">Siege of Toulon</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon_(1793)" title="Siege of Toulon (1793)">Siege of Toulon (1793)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg/170px-Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 219px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg/170px-Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="219" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg/255px-Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg/340px-Napoleon_%C3%A0_Toulon_par_Edouard_Detaille.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bonaparte at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Toulon">Siege of Toulon</a>, 1793, by <a href="/wiki/Edouard_Detaille" class="mw-redirect" title="Edouard Detaille">Edouard Detaille</a></figcaption></figure> Bonaparte returned to his regiment in Nice and was made captain of a coastal battery.<a href="#cite_note-53">[48]</a> In July 1793, he published a pamphlet, <a href="/wiki/Le_souper_de_Beaucaire" title="Le souper de Beaucaire">Le souper de Beaucaire</a> (Supper at <a href="/wiki/Beaucaire,_Gard" title="Beaucaire, Gard">Beaucaire</a>), demonstrating his support for the <a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> which was now heavily influenced by the Jacobins.<a href="#cite_note-54">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[50]</a> In September, with the help of his fellow Corsican <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Saliceti" title="Antoine Christophe Saliceti">Antoine Christophe Saliceti</a>, Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces sent to recapture the port of Toulon which was occupied by Allied forces.<a href="#cite_note-56">[51]</a> He quickly increased the available artillery and proposed a plan to capture a hill fort where republican guns could dominate the city's harbour and force the Allies to evacuate. The successful assault on the position on 16–17 December led to the capture of the city.<a href="#cite_note-57">[52]</a> Toulon brought Bonaparte to the attention of powerful men including <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Robespierre" title="Augustin Robespierre">Augustin Robespierre</a>, the younger brother of <a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a>, a leading Jacobin. He was promoted to brigadier general and put in charge of defences on the Mediterranean coast. In February 1794, he was made artillery commander of the Army of Italy and devised plans to attack the Kingdom of Sardinia.<a href="#cite_note-58">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[54]</a> The French army carried out Bonaparte's plan in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Saorgio" title="Second Battle of Saorgio">Second Battle of Saorgio</a> in April 1794, and then advanced to seize <a href="/wiki/Ormea" title="Ormea">Ormea</a> in the mountains. From Ormea, it headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around <a href="/wiki/Saorge" title="Saorge">Saorge</a>. After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine the country's intentions towards France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGueniffey2015137%E2%80%93159-60">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="13_Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Etching of a street, there are many pockets of smoke due to a group of republican artillery firing on royalists across the street at the entrance to a building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg/220px-13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1418" data-file-height="875"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 136px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg/220px-13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg" data-alt="Etching of a street, there are many pockets of smoke due to a group of republican artillery firing on royalists across the street at the entrance to a building" data-width="220" data-height="136" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg/330px-13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg/440px-13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Journée du <a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a>, artillery fire in front of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Roch,_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Saint-Roch, Paris">Church of Saint-Roch, Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rue_Saint-Honor%C3%A9" title="Rue Saint-Honoré">Rue Saint-Honoré</a></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Fall of Maximilien Robespierre">Fall of Maximilien Robespierre</a> in July 1794, Bonaparte's association with leading Jacobins made him politically suspect to the new regime. He was arrested on 9 August but released two weeks later.<a href="#cite_note-62">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[59]</a> He was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions as part of France's war with Austria and, in March 1795, he took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by the Royal Navy.<a href="#cite_note-65">[60]</a> From 1794, Bonaparte was in a romantic relationship with <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9e_Clary" title="Désirée Clary">Désirée Clary</a> whose sister <a href="/wiki/Julie_Clary" title="Julie Clary">Julie Clary</a> had married Bonaparte's elder brother Joseph.<a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2008a159%E2%80%9363-67">[62]</a> In April 1795, Bonaparte was assigned to the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_West_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of the West (1793)">Army of the West</a>, which was engaged in the <a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a>—a civil war and royalist counter-revolution in the <a href="/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e" title="Vendée">Vendée</a> region. As an infantry command, it was a demotion from artillery general and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting.<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a> During this period, he wrote the romantic novella <a href="/wiki/Clisson_et_Eug%C3%A9nie" title="Clisson et Eugénie">Clisson et Eugénie</a>, about a soldier and his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte's own relationship with Clary.<a href="#cite_note-Dwyer_2008a-69">[64]</a> In August, he obtained a position with the Bureau of <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">Topography</a> where he worked on military planning.<a href="#cite_note-Dwyer_2008a-69">[64]</a> On 15 September, Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for refusing to serve in the Vendée campaign.<a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a> He sought a transfer to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> to offer his services to Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a>. The request was eventually granted, but he never took up the post.<a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[67]</a> On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention.<a href="#cite_note-m962-73">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a>, a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a>, knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and made him second in command of the forces defending the convention in the <a href="/wiki/Tuileries_Palace" title="Tuileries Palace">Tuileries Palace</a>. Bonaparte had seen the massacre of the King's Swiss Guard during the <a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">Insurrection of 10 August 1792</a> there three years earlier and realized that artillery would be the key to its defence. He ordered a young cavalry officer, <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a>, to seize cannons and Bonaparte deployed them in key positions. On 5 October 1795—13 Vendémiaire An IV in the <a href="/wiki/French_Republican_calendar" title="French Republican calendar">French Republican calendar</a>—he fired on the rebels with canister rounds (later called: "a whiff of <a href="/wiki/Grapeshot" title="Grapeshot">grapeshot</a>"). About 300 to 1,400 rebels died in the uprising.<a href="#cite_note-m962-73">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a> Bonaparte's role in defeating the rebellion earned him and his family the patronage of the new government, the <a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a> On 26 October, he was promoted to commander of the Army of the Interior, and in January 1796 he was appointed head of the Army of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a> Within weeks of the Vendémiaire uprising, Bonaparte was romantically involved with <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a>, the former mistress of Barras. Josephine had been born in the French colonies in the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a>, and her family owned slaves on <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugar plantations</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-78">[73]</a> The couple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglund201092%E2%80%9394-79">[74]</a> Bonaparte now habitually styled himself "Napoleon Bonaparte" rather than using the Italian form "Napoleone di Buonaparte."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler19663-80">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Italian_campaign">First Italian campaign</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian Campaign of 1796-1797</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="A three-quarter-length depiction of Bonaparte, with black tunic and leather gloves, holding a standard and sword, turning backwards to look at his troops" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg/170px-1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="1926"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 241px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg/170px-1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg" data-alt="A three-quarter-length depiction of Bonaparte, with black tunic and leather gloves, holding a standard and sword, turning backwards to look at his troops" data-width="170" data-height="241" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg/255px-1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg/340px-1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bonaparte_at_the_Pont_d%27Arcole" title="Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole">Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole</a>, by Baron <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Jean_Gros" title="Antoine-Jean Gros">Antoine-Jean Gros</a>, (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1801), <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée du Louvre">Musée du Louvre</a>, Paris</figcaption></figure> Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy. He went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the Kingdom of Sardinia in <a href="/wiki/Piedmont" title="Piedmont">Piedmont</a> before their Austrian allies could intervene. In a series of victories during the <a href="/wiki/Montenotte_campaign" title="Montenotte campaign">Montenotte campaign</a>, he knocked the Piedmontese out of the war in two weeks.<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a> The French then focused on the Austrians, laying siege to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mantua_(1796%E2%80%931797)" title="Siege of Mantua (1796–1797)">Mantua</a>. The Austrians launched offensives against the French to break the siege, but Bonaparte defeated every relief effort, winning the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">Battle of Bassano</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a>. The French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli, Austria lost 43% of its soldiers dead, wounded or taken prisoner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201529-84">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a> The French then invaded the heartlands of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a>. French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by <a href="/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen</a> in 1796, but Charles withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning of Bonaparte's assault. In their first encounter, Bonaparte pushed Charles back and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarvis_(1797)" title="Battle of Tarvis (1797)">Battle of Tarvis</a> in March 1797. Alarmed by the French thrust that reached <a href="/wiki/Leoben" title="Leoben">Leoben</a>, about 100 km from Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace.<a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a> The preliminary <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Leoben" title="Peace of Leoben">peace of Leoben</a>, signed on 18 April, gave France control of most of northern Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, and promised to partition the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> with Austria.<a href="#cite_note-88">[83]</a> Bonaparte marched on Venice and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Republic_of_Venice#12_May_1797:_the_Fall_of_the_Venetian_Republic" title="Fall of the Republic of Venice">forced its surrender</a>, ending 1,100 years of Venetian independence. He authorized the French to loot treasures such as the <a href="/wiki/Horses_of_Saint_Mark" title="Horses of Saint Mark">Horses of Saint Mark</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[85]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg/220px-Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1698"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 187px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg/220px-Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="187" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg/330px-Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg/440px-Napoleon_at_the_Battle_of_Rivoli.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Henri_F%C3%A9lix_Emmanuel_Philippoteaux" title="Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux">Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux</a></figcaption></figure> In this Italian campaign, Bonaparte's army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons, and 170 <a href="/wiki/Flag" title="Flag">standards</a>. The French army fought 67 actions and won 18 <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">pitched battles</a> through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte's tactics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997135-91">[86]</a> Bonaparte extracted an estimated 45 million French pounds from Italy during the campaign, another 12 million pounds in precious metals and jewels, and more than 300 paintings and sculptures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201530-92">[87]</a> During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He founded two newspapers: one for the troops in his army and one for circulation in France.<a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a> The royalists attacked him for looting Italy and warned that he might become a dictator.<a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a> Bonaparte sent General <a href="/wiki/Charles-Pierre_Augereau" title="Charles-Pierre Augereau">Charles-Pierre Augereau</a> to Paris to support a coup d'état that purged royalists from the legislative councils on 4 September—the <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">Coup of 18 Fructidor</a>. This left Barras and his republican allies in control again but more dependent upon Bonaparte who finalized peace terms with Austria by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[90]</a> Bonaparte returned to Paris on 5 December 1797 as a hero.<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a> He met <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand</a>, France's Foreign Minister, and took command of the Army of England for the planned invasion of Britain.<a href="#cite_note-97">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egyptian_expedition">Egyptian expedition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French campaign in Egypt and Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge,_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Person on a horse looks towards a giant statue of a head in the desert, with a blue sky" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg/220px-Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3071" data-file-height="1838"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 132px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg/220px-Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg" data-alt="Person on a horse looks towards a giant statue of a head in the desert, with a blue sky" data-width="220" data-height="132" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg/330px-Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg/440px-Bonaparte_ante_la_Esfinge%2C_por_Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bonaparte_Before_the_Sphinx" title="Bonaparte Before the Sphinx">Bonaparte Before the Sphinx</a> (c. 1886) by <a href="/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me" title="Jean-Léon Gérôme">Jean-Léon Gérôme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hearst_Castle" title="Hearst Castle">Hearst Castle</a></figcaption></figure> After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that France's naval strength was not yet sufficient to confront the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">British Royal Navy.</a> He decided on a military expedition to seize <a href="/wiki/Egypt_Eyalet" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt Eyalet">Egypt</a> and thereby undermine Britain's access to its <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India#Trade" title="Company rule in India">trade interests in India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-rxviii2-43">[38]</a> Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East and join forces with <a href="/wiki/Tipu_Sultan" title="Tipu Sultan">Tipu Sultan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Sultan of Mysore</a>, an enemy of the British.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-98">[93]</a> Bonaparte assured the Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmini200012-99">[94]</a> The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a>. His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, naturalists, chemists, and <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesists</a> among them. Their discoveries included the <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a>, and their work was published in the <a href="/wiki/Description_de_l%27%C3%89gypte" title="Description de l'Égypte">Description de l'Égypte</a> in 1809.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglund2010127%E2%80%9328-101">[96]</a> En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached <a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_Malta" title="Hospitaller Malta">Hospitaller Malta</a> on 9 June 1798, then controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller" title="Knights Hospitaller">Knights Hospitaller</a>. Grand Master <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Hompesch_zu_Bolheim" title="Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim">Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim</a> surrendered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with the loss of only three men.<a href="#cite_note-102">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Cavalry battlescene with pyramids in background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg/260px-Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="112" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1298"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 112px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg/260px-Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg" data-alt="Cavalry battlescene with pyramids in background" data-width="260" data-height="112" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg/390px-Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg/520px-Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Pyramids" title="Battle of the Pyramids">Battle of the Pyramids</a> on 21 July 1798 by <a href="/wiki/Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois,_Baron_Lejeune" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-François, Baron Lejeune">Louis-François, Baron Lejeune</a>, 1808</figcaption></figure> Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and landed at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> on 1 July.<a href="#cite_note-rxviii2-43">[38]</a> He fought the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shubra_Khit" title="Battle of Shubra Khit">Battle of Shubra Khit</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a>, Egypt's ruling military caste. This helped the French practise their defensive tactic for the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Pyramids" title="Battle of the Pyramids">Battle of the Pyramids</a> on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">pyramids</a>. Bonaparte's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks' Egyptian cavalry. Twenty-nine French<a href="#cite_note-103">[98]</a> and approximately 2,000 Egyptians were killed. The victory boosted the French army's morale.<a href="#cite_note-104">[99]</a> On 1 August 1798, the British fleet under <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Nelson,_1st_Viscount_Nelson" title="Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson">Sir Horatio Nelson</a> captured or destroyed all but two vessels of the French fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Battle of the Nile</a>, preventing Bonaparte from strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2018188-105">[100]</a> His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings.<a href="#cite_note-106">[101]</a> In early 1799, he moved an army into the <a href="/wiki/Wilayah" title="Wilayah">Ottoman province</a> of Damascus (Syria and <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>). Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns of <a href="/wiki/Arish" title="Arish">Arish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jaffa" title="Siege of Jaffa">attack on Jaffa</a> was particularly brutal. Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, so he ordered the garrison and some 1,500–5,000 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2018198-108">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201539%E2%80%9340-109">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280-110">[105]</a> Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men. 1,500 were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thousands perished from disease—mostly <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a>. He failed to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">reduce the fortress</a> of <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, so he marched his army back to Egypt in May. Bonaparte was alleged to have ordered plague-stricken men to be poisoned with opium to speed the retreat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGueniffey2015500%E2%80%93502-112">[107]</a> Back in Egypt on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abukir_(1799)" title="Battle of Abukir (1799)">Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[108]</a> Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs. He learned that France had suffered a <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1799_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars">series of defeats</a> in the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnelly200657-114">[109]</a> On 24 August 1799, fearing that the Republic's future was in doubt, he took advantage of the temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for France, despite the fact that he had received no explicit orders from Paris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2018205%E2%80%93206-115">[110]</a> The army was left in the charge of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Kl%C3%A9ber" title="Jean-Baptiste Kléber">Jean-Baptiste Kléber</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[111]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Ruler_of_France">Ruler of France</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Bonaparte in a simple general uniform in the middle of a scrum of red-robbed members of the Council of Five Hundred" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/220px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="234" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1833" data-file-height="1953"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 234px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/220px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg" data-alt="Bonaparte in a simple general uniform in the middle of a scrum of red-robbed members of the Council of Five Hundred" data-width="220" data-height="234" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/330px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg/440px-Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>General Bonaparte surrounded by members of the Council of Five Hundred during the Coup of <a href="/wiki/18_Brumaire" class="mw-redirect" title="18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bouchot" title="François Bouchot">François Bouchot</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18_Brumaire">18 Brumaire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">18 Brumaire</a></div> Unknown to Bonaparte, the Directory had sent him orders to return from Egypt with his army to ward off a possible invasion of France, but these messages never arrived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnelly200657-114">[109]</a> By the time that he reached Paris in October, France's situation had been improved by a series of victories. The Republic, however, was bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular.<a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a> Despite the failures in Egypt, Bonaparte returned to a hero's welcome. The Directory discussed Bonaparte's desertion but was too weak to punish him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnelly200657-114">[109]</a> Bonaparte formed an alliance with Talleyrand and leading members of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a> and Directory: Lucien Bonaparte, <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fouch%C3%A9" title="Joseph Fouché">Joseph Fouché</a> to overthrow the government. On 9 November 1799 (18 Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar), the conspirators launched a coup, and the following day, backed by grenadiers with fixed bayonets, forced the Council of Five Hundred to dissolve the Directory and appoint Bonaparte, Sieyès and Ducos provisional consuls.<a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Consulate">French Consulate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a> and <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres,_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg/170px-Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2665" data-file-height="4202"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 268px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg/170px-Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="268" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg/255px-Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg/340px-Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres%2C_Portrait_de_Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte_en_premier_consul.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bonaparte,_First_Consul" title="Bonaparte, First Consul">Bonaparte, First Consul</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres">Ingres</a>. Posing <a href="/wiki/Hand-in-waistcoat" title="Hand-in-waistcoat">the hand inside the waistcoat</a> was often used in portraits of rulers to indicate calm and stable leadership.</figcaption></figure> On 15 December, Bonaparte introduced the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">Constitution of the Year VIII</a>, under which three consuls were appointed for 10 years. Real power lay with Bonaparte as First Consul, and his preferred candidates <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques-R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" title="Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès">Cambacérès</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a> were appointed as second and third consuls who only had an advisory role. The constitution also established a <a href="/wiki/Corps_l%C3%A9gislatif" title="Corps législatif">Legislative Body</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tribunat" title="Tribunat">Tribunate</a> which were selected from indirectly elected candidates, and a <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9nat_conservateur" title="Sénat conservateur">Senate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conseil_d%27%C3%89tat" title="Conseil d'État">Council of State</a> which were effectively nominated by the executive.<a href="#cite_note-120">[115]</a> The new constitution was approved by plebiscite on 7 February 1800. The official count was over three million in favour and 1,562 against. Lucien, however, had doubled the count of the "yes" vote to give the false impression that a majority of those eligible to vote had approved the constitution.<a href="#cite_note-121">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lyons,_Martyn_1994,_p._1112-122">[117]</a> Historians have variously described Bonaparte's new regime as "dictatorship by plebiscite",<a href="#cite_note-Lyons,_Martyn_1994,_p._1112-122">[117]</a> "absolutist rule decked out in the spirit of the age",<a href="#cite_note-123">[118]</a> and "soft despotism".<a href="#cite_note-124">[119]</a> Local and regional administration was reformed to concentrate power in the central government,<a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a> censorship was introduced, and most opposition newspapers were closed down to stifle dissent.<a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a> Royalist and regional revolts were dealt with by a combination of amnesties for those who lay down their arms and brutal repression of those who continued to resist.<a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a256-128">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a> Bonaparte also improved state finances by securing loans under a promise to defend private property, raising taxes on tobacco, alcohol and salt, and extracting levies from France's satellite republics.<a href="#cite_note-130">[125]</a> Bonaparte believed that the best way to secure his regime was by a victorious peace.<a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a> In May 1800, he led an army across the Swiss Alps into Italy, aiming to surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Bonaparte was still in Egypt. After a difficult crossing over the Alps,<a href="#cite_note-133">[f]</a> the French captured Milan on 2 June.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler-1966a-134">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zamoyski-2018-135">[129]</a> The French confronted an Austrian army under <a href="/wiki/Michael_von_Melas" title="Michael von Melas">Michael von Melas</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Marengo</a> on 14 June.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler-1966a-134">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zamoyski-2018-135">[129]</a> The Austrians fielded about 30,000 soldiers while Bonaparte commanded 24,000 troops.<a href="#cite_note-136">[130]</a> The Austrians' initial attack surprised the French who were gradually driven back.<a href="#cite_note-137">[131]</a> Late in the afternoon, however, a full division under <a href="/wiki/Louis_Desaix" title="Louis Desaix">Desaix</a> arrived on the field and reversed the tide of the battle. The Austrian army fled leaving behind 14,000 casualties.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler,_David_1966,_p._2962-138">[132]</a> The following day, the Austrians signed an armistice and agreed to abandon Northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler,_David_1966,_p._2962-138">[132]</a> When peace negotiations with Austria stalled, Bonaparte reopened hostilities in November. A French army under <a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_Moreau" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Victor Moreau">General Moreau</a> swept through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory over the Austrians at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden" title="Battle of Hohenlinden">Hohenlinden</a> in December. The Austrians capitulated and signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Treaty of Lunéville</a> in February 1801. The treaty reaffirmed and expanded earlier French gains at Campo Formio.<a href="#cite_note-Schom_1997,_p.3022-139">[133]</a> Bonaparte's triumph at Marengo increased his popularity and political authority. However, he still faced royalist plots and feared Jacobin influence, especially in the army. Several assassination plots, including the <a href="/wiki/Conspiration_des_poignards" title="Conspiration des poignards">Conspiration des poignards</a> (Dagger plot) in October 1800 and the <a href="/wiki/Plot_of_the_rue_Saint-Nicaise" title="Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise">Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise</a> two months later, gave him a pretext to arrest about 100 suspected Jacobins and royalists, some of whom were shot and many others deported to penal colonies.<a href="#cite_note-140">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temporary_peace_in_Europe">Temporary peace in Europe</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louisiana_Purchase.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louisiana_Purchase.png/222px-Louisiana_Purchase.png" decoding="async" width="222" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3433" data-file-height="2414"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 222px;height: 156px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louisiana_Purchase.png/222px-Louisiana_Purchase.png" data-width="222" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louisiana_Purchase.png/333px-Louisiana_Purchase.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Louisiana_Purchase.png/444px-Louisiana_Purchase.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The 1803 <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> totalled 2,144,480 square kilometres (827,987 square miles), doubling the size of the United States.</figcaption></figure> After a decade of war, France and Britain signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> in March 1802, bringing the Revolutionary Wars to an end. Under the treaty, Britain agreed to withdraw from most of the colonies it had recently captured from France and her allies, and France agreed to evacuate Naples. In April, Bonaparte publicly celebrated the peace and his controversial <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a> with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a> under which the Pope recognized Bonaparte's regime and the regime recognized Catholicism as the majority religion of France. In a further step towards national reconciliation (known as "fusion"), Bonaparte offered an amnesty to most émigrés who wished to return to France.<a href="#cite_note-142">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[137]</a> With Europe at peace and the economy recovering, Bonaparte became increasingly popular, both domestically and abroad.<a href="#cite_note-144">[138]</a> In May 1802, the Council of State recommended a <a href="/wiki/1802_French_constitutional_referendum" title="1802 French constitutional referendum">new plebiscite</a> asking the French people to make "Napoleon Bonaparte" Consul for life. (It was the first time his first name was officially used by the regime.)<a href="#cite_note-145">[139]</a> About 3.6 million voted "yes" and 8,374 "no." 40%-60% of eligible Frenchmen voted, the highest turnout for a plebiscite since the Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-146">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[141]</a> France had regained her overseas colonies under Amiens but did not control them all. The French National Convention had voted to abolish slavery in February 1794, but, in May 1802, Bonaparte reintroduced it in all the recovered colonies except <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> which were under the control of rebel generals. A French military expedition under <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Richepance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Richepance">Antoine Richepanse</a> regained control of Guadeloupe and slavery was reintroduced there on 16 July.<a href="#cite_note-148">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png/220px-5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2244" data-file-height="1134"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 111px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png/220px-5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png" data-width="220" data-height="111" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png/330px-5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png/440px-5f_Bonabarte_Premier_consul_-_AN_XI_1802.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Silver 5 <a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">francs</a> coin depicting Napoleon as <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">First Consul</a> from AN XI, 1802 </figcaption></figure> Saint-Domingue was the most profitable of the colonies – a major source of sugar, coffee and indigo – but was under the control of the former slave <a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Louverture" title="Toussaint Louverture">Toussaint Louverture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[143]</a> Bonaparte sent the <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue_expedition" title="Saint-Domingue expedition">Saint-Domingue expedition</a> under his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">General Leclerc</a> to retake the colony and they landed there in February 1802 with 29,000 men. Although Toussaint was captured and sent to France in July, the expedition ultimately failed due to high rates of disease and a string of defeats against rebel commander <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a>. In May 1803, Bonaparte acknowledged defeat, and the last 8,000 French troops left the island. The former slaves proclaimed the independent republic of <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> in 1804.<a href="#cite_note-150">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014303-151">[145]</a> As war with Britain again loomed in 1803, Bonaparte realized that his American colony of Louisiana would be difficult to defend.<a href="#cite_note-152">[146]</a> In need of funds, he agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a> with the United States, doubling the latter's size. The price was $15 million.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts,_Andrew_201422-153">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConnelly200670-154">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroers2015389%E2%80%93390-155">[149]</a> The peace with Britain was uneasy. Britain did not evacuate <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> as promised and protested against Bonaparte's annexation of Piedmont and his <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Mediation" title="Act of Mediation">Act of Mediation</a>, which established a new <a href="/wiki/Switzerland_in_the_Napoleonic_era" title="Switzerland in the Napoleonic era">Swiss Confederation</a>. Neither of these territories were covered by Amiens, but they inflamed tensions significantly, as did Bonaparte's occupation of Holland and apparent ambitions in India.<a href="#cite_note-156">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[151]</a> The dispute culminated in a declaration of war by Britain in May 1803. Bonaparte responded by reassembling the invasion camp at Boulogne and ordering the arrest of every British male between eighteen and sixty years old in France and its dependencies as a <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoner of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2018338%E2%80%93339-158">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Empire">French Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronation of Napoleon I">Coronation of Napoleon I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_(1805-1807).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Colored painting depicting Napoleon crowning his wife inside of a cathedral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg/220px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="3773"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 138px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg/220px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg" data-alt="Colored painting depicting Napoleon crowning his wife inside of a cathedral" data-width="220" data-height="138" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg/330px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg/440px-Jacques-Louis_David_-_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_%281805-1807%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Coronation_of_Napoleon" title="The Coronation of Napoleon">The Coronation of Napoleon</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a> (1804)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bonaparte_becomes_Napoleon_I">Bonaparte becomes Napoleon I</h4></div> In February 1804, Bonaparte's police made a series of arrests in relation to a royalist plot to kidnap or assassinate him that involved the British government, Moreau and an unnamed <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbon</a> prince. On the advice of his foreign minister, Talleyrand, Napoleon ordered the kidnapping of the <a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Enghien" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien">Duke of Enghien</a>, violating the sovereignty of <a href="/wiki/Baden" title="Baden">Baden</a>. The Duke was quickly executed after a secret military trial, even though there was no proof he had been involved in the plot. Enghien's kidnapping and execution infuriated royalists and monarchs throughout Europe, and drew a formal protest from Russia.<a href="#cite_note-159">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[155]</a> Following the royalist plot, Bonaparte's supporters convinced him that creating a hereditary regime would help secure it in case of his death, make it more acceptable to constitutional monarchists, and put it on the same footing as other European monarchies.<a href="#cite_note-162">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-m2973-164">[158]</a> On 18 May, the senate proclaimed Napoleon Emperor of the French and approved a new constitution. The following day, Napoleon appointed 18 of his leading generals Marshals of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-165">[159]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_(Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg/220px-La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg/220px-La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg/330px-La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg/440px-La_salle_du_Tr%C3%B4ne_%28Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Fontainebleau%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon's throne room at Fontainebleau</figcaption></figure>The hereditary empire was confirmed by a plebiscite in June. The official result showed 3.5 million voted "yes" and 2,569 voted "no". The yes count, however, was falsely inflated by 300,000 to 500,000 votes. The turnout, at 35%, was below the figure for the previous plebiscite.<a href="#cite_note-166">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[161]</a> Britain, Russia, Sweden and the Ottoman Empire refused to recognize Napoleon's new title. Austria, however, recognized Napoleon as Emperor of the French in return for his recognition of <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I as Emperor of Austria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[162]</a> Napoleon's coronation, with the participation of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a>, took place at <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris">Notre Dame de Paris</a>, on 2 December 1804. After having been anointed by the pope, Napoleon crowned himself with a replica of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne's</a> crown. He then crowned Joséphine, who became only the second woman in French history, after <a href="/wiki/Marie_de%27_Medici" title="Marie de' Medici">Marie de' Medici</a>, to be crowned and anointed. He then swore an oath to defend the territory of the Republic; to respect the Concordat, freedom of worship, political and civil liberty and the sale of nationalized lands; to raise no taxes except by law; to maintain the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a>; and to govern in the interests, wellbeing and the glory of the French people.<a href="#cite_note-169">[163]</a> On 26 May, Napoleon crowned himself <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">King of Italy</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Crown_of_Lombardy" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Crown of Lombardy">Iron Crown of Lombardy</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Milan_Cathedral" title="Milan Cathedral">Cathedral of Milan</a>. Austria saw this as a provocation because of its own territorial interests in Italy. When Napoleon incorporated <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Republic" title="Ligurian Republic">Liguria</a> into his empire, Austria formally protested against this violation of the Treaty of Lunéville.<a href="#cite_note-170">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_of_the_Third_Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg/170px-Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="2792"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 262px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg/170px-Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="262" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg/255px-Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg/340px-Napoleon_in_Coronation_Robes_by_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon in his coronation robes by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard" title="François Gérard">François Gérard</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1805</figcaption></figure> By September 1805, Sweden, Russia, Austria, Naples and the Ottoman Empire had joined Britain in a coalition against France.<a href="#cite_note-171">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013190-172">[166]</a> In 1803 and 1804, Napoleon had assembled a force around <a href="/wiki/Boulogne-sur-Mer" title="Boulogne-sur-Mer">Boulogne</a> for an invasion of Britain. They never invaded, but the force formed the core of Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Grande Armée">Grande Armée</a>, created in August 1805.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200496-173">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984138-174">[168]</a> At the start, this French army had about 200,000 men organized into seven <a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">corps</a>, artillery and cavalry reserves, and the élite Imperial Guard.<a href="#cite_note-175">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984138-174">[168]</a> By August 1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000 men,<a href="#cite_note-176">[170]</a> who were well equipped, well trained, and led by competent officers.<a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a> To facilitate the invasion, Napoleon planned to lure the Royal Navy from the English Channel by a diversionary attack on the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[172]</a> However, the plan unravelled after the British victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Finisterre_(1805)" title="Battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)">Battle of Cape Finisterre</a> in July 1805. French <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Charles_Villeneuve" title="Pierre-Charles Villeneuve">Admiral Villeneuve</a> then retreated to <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> instead of linking up with French naval forces at Brest for an attack on the English Channel.<a href="#cite_note-179">[173]</a> Facing a potential invasion from his continental enemies, Napoleon abandoned his invasion of England and sought to destroy the isolated Austrian armies in Southern Germany before their Russian ally could arrive in force. On 25 September, 200,000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km (160 mi).<a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[175]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ulm_capitulation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Colored painting depicting Napoleon receiving the surrender of the Austrian generals, with the opposing armies and the city of Ulm in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ulm_capitulation.jpg/240px-Ulm_capitulation.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="152" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1973" data-file-height="1246"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 240px;height: 152px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ulm_capitulation.jpg/240px-Ulm_capitulation.jpg" data-alt="Colored painting depicting Napoleon receiving the surrender of the Austrian generals, with the opposing armies and the city of Ulm in the background" data-width="240" data-height="152" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ulm_capitulation.jpg/360px-Ulm_capitulation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ulm_capitulation.jpg/480px-Ulm_capitulation.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon and the <a href="/wiki/Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Grande Armée">Grande Armée</a> receive the surrender of <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">General Mack</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ulm" title="Battle of Ulm">Battle of Ulm</a> in October 1805.</figcaption></figure> Austrian commander <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">Karl Mack</a> had gathered most of the Austrian army at the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Ulm" title="Ulm">Ulm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Swabia" title="Swabia">Swabia</a>. Napoleon's army, however, moved quickly and outflanked the Austrian positions. After some minor engagements that culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ulm" title="Battle of Ulm">Battle of Ulm</a>, Mack surrendered. For just 2,000 French casualties, Napoleon had captured 60,000 Austrian soldiers through his army's rapid marching.<a href="#cite_note-182">[176]</a> For the French, this spectacular victory on land was soured by the decisive victory that the Royal Navy attained at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Battle of Trafalgar</a> on 21 October. After Trafalgar, the Royal Navy was never again seriously challenged by Napoleon's fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlover1967233%E2%80%93252-183">[177]</a> French forces occupied <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> in November, capturing 100,000 muskets, 500 cannons, and the intact bridges across the Danube.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1973407-184">[178]</a> Napoleon then sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies. Tsar <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> and Francis I decided to engage Napoleon in battle, despite reservations from some of their subordinates.<a href="#cite_note-Warfare-185">[179]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_(Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/300px-La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="149" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1983"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 149px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/300px-La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="149" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/450px-La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg/600px-La_bataille_d%27Austerlitz._2_decembre_1805_%28Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard" title="François Gérard">François Gérard</a>, 1805.</figcaption></figure> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a>, on 2 December, Napoleon deployed his army below the Pratzen Heights. He ordered his right wing to feign retreat, enticing the Allies to descend from the heights in pursuit. The French centre and left wing then captured the heights and caught the allies in a pincer movement. Thousands of Russian troops fled across a frozen lake to escape the trap and 100 to 2,000 of them drowned.<a href="#cite_note-Warfare-185">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013204%E2%80%9305-186">[180]</a> About a third of the allied forces were killed, captured or wounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer198418-187">[181]</a> The disaster at Austerlitz led Austria to seek an armistice. By the subsequent Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December, Austria left the coalition, lost substantial territory to the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Kingdom of Italy</a> and Bavaria, and was forced to pay an indemnity of 40 million francs. Alexander's army was granted safe passage back to Russia.<a href="#cite_note-Schom2-188">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013209-189">[183]</a> Napoleon went on to say, "The battle of Austerlitz is the finest of all I have fought".<a href="#cite_note-Schom2-188">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_McLynn" title="Frank McLynn">Frank McLynn</a> suggests that Napoleon was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with reality, and what used to be French foreign policy became a "personal Napoleonic one".<a href="#cite_note-190">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Cronin" title="Vincent Cronin">Vincent Cronin</a> disagrees, stating that Napoleon was not overly ambitious for himself, "he embodied the ambitions of thirty million Frenchmen".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECronin1994344-191">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle-Eastern_alliances">Middle-Eastern alliances</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Ottoman_alliance" title="Franco-Ottoman alliance">Franco-Ottoman alliance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franco-Persian_alliance" title="Franco-Persian alliance">Franco-Persian alliance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg/220px-The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1127" data-file-height="898"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg/220px-The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg/330px-The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg/440px-The_Persian_Envoy_Mirza_Mohammed_Reza_Qazvini_Finkenstein_Castle_27_Avril_1807_by_Francois_Mulard.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The Iranian envoy Mirza Mohammad-Reza Qazvini meeting with Napoleon at the <a href="/wiki/Finckenstein_Palace" title="Finckenstein Palace">Finckenstein Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/West_Prussia" title="West Prussia">West Prussia</a>, 27 April 1807, to sign the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Finckenstein" title="Treaty of Finckenstein">Treaty of Finckenstein</a></figcaption></figure> Napoleon continued to entertain a grand scheme to establish a French presence in the Middle East in order to put pressure on Britain and Russia, possibly by forming an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-98">[93]</a> In February 1806, Ottoman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> recognized Napoleon as Emperor. He also opted for an alliance with France, calling France "our sincere and natural ally".<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a> That decision brought the Ottoman Empire into a losing war against Russia and Britain. A Franco-Persian alliance was formed between Napoleon and the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Persian Empire</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fath-Ali_Shah_Qajar" title="Fath-Ali Shah Qajar">Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar</a>. It collapsed in 1807 when France and Russia formed an unexpected alliance.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-98">[93]</a> In the end, Napoleon made no effective alliances in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESicker200199-193">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition_and_Tilsit">War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iena.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Iena.jpg/220px-Iena.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1955" data-file-height="1655"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 186px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Iena.jpg/220px-Iena.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="186" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Iena.jpg/330px-Iena.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Iena.jpg/440px-Iena.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon reviewing the <a href="/wiki/French_Imperial_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="French Imperial Guard">Imperial Guard</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena">Battle of Jena</a>, 14 October 1806</figcaption></figure> After Austerlitz, Napoleon increased his political power in Europe. In 1806, he deposed the <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies">Bourbon king of Naples</a> and installed his elder brother, Joseph, on the throne. He then made his younger brother, Louis, King of Holland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013216%E2%80%9320-194">[188]</a> He also established the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>, a collection of German states intended to serve as a buffer zone between France and Central Europe. The creation of the confederation spelled the end of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[189]</a> Napoleon's growing influence in Germany threatened the status of Prussia as a great power and in response <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick William III</a> decided on war with France. Prussia and Russia signed a new military alliance creating the fourth coalition against France. Prussia, however, committed a strategic blunder by declaring war when French troops were still in southern Germany and months before sufficient Russian troops could reach the front.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013224%E2%80%9325-196">[190]</a> Napoleon invaded Prussia with 180,000 troops, rapidly marching on the right bank of the <a href="/wiki/Saale" title="Saale">River Saale</a>. Upon learning the whereabouts of the Prussian army, the French swung westwards thus cutting the Prussians off from Berlin and the slowly approaching Russians. At the twin <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena%E2%80%93Auerstedt" title="Battle of Jena–Auerstedt">battles of Jena and Auerstedt</a>, fought on 14 October, the French convincingly defeated the Prussians and inflicted heavy casualties. With several major commanders dead or incapacitated, the Prussian king proved incapable of effectively commanding the army, which quickly disintegrated.<a href="#cite_note-Brooks-2000-197">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013225%E2%80%93228-198">[192]</a> In the following month, the French captured 140,000 soldiers and over 2,000 cannon. Despite their overwhelming defeat, the Prussians refused to negotiate with the French until the Russians had an opportunity to enter the fight.<a href="#cite_note-Brooks-2000-197">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1966467%E2%80%93468-199">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013233%E2%80%9334-200">[194]</a> Following his triumph, Napoleon imposed the first elements of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_System" title="Continental System">Continental System</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Decree" title="Berlin Decree">Berlin Decree</a> issued in November 1806. The Continental System, which prohibited European nations from trading with Britain, was widely violated throughout his reign.<a href="#cite_note-201">[195]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tilsitz_1807.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tilsitz_1807.JPG/220px-Tilsitz_1807.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1933" data-file-height="1504"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tilsitz_1807.JPG/220px-Tilsitz_1807.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tilsitz_1807.JPG/330px-Tilsitz_1807.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tilsitz_1807.JPG/440px-Tilsitz_1807.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit" title="Treaties of Tilsit">Treaties of Tilsit</a>: Napoleon meeting with <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> on a raft in the middle of the <a href="/wiki/Neman_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Neman River">Neman River</a>, 7 July 1807</figcaption></figure> In the next few months, Napoleon marched against the advancing Russian armies through Poland and fought a bloody stalemate at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eylau" title="Battle of Eylau">Battle of Eylau</a> in February 1807.<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a> After a period of rest and consolidation on both sides, the war restarted in June with an initial struggle at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heilsberg" title="Battle of Heilsberg">Heilsberg</a> that proved indecisive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013243-203">[197]</a> On 14 June Napoleon obtained an overwhelming victory over the Russians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Friedland" title="Battle of Friedland">Battle of Friedland</a>, inflicting casualties of up to 30% of the Russian army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013244-204">[198]</a> The scale of their defeat convinced the Russians to make peace with the French. The two emperors began peace negotiations on 25 June at the town of <a href="/wiki/Sovetsk,_Kaliningrad_Oblast" title="Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast">Tilsit</a> during a meeting on a raft floating in the middle of the <a href="/wiki/Neman" title="Neman">River Niemen</a> which separated the French and Russian troops and their respective spheres of influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013245%E2%80%9347-205">[199]</a> Napoleon offered Alexander relatively lenient terms—demanding that Russia join the Continental System, withdraw its forces from <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>, and hand over the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Islands" title="Ionian Islands">Ionian Islands</a> to France. In contrast, Prussia was treated harshly. It lost half its territory and population and underwent a two-year occupation costing it about 1.4 billion francs. From former Prussian territory, Napoleon created the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Westphalia" title="Kingdom of Westphalia">Kingdom of Westphalia</a>, ruled by his young brother Jérôme, and the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014458%E2%80%93461-206">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013247%E2%80%9350-207">[201]</a> Prussia's humiliating treatment at Tilsit caused lasting resentment against France in that country. The treaty was also unpopular in Russia, putting pressure on Alexander to end the alliance with France. Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit" title="Treaties of Tilsit">Treaties of Tilsit</a> gave Napoleon a respite from war and allowed him to return to France, which he had not seen in over 300 days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014458%E2%80%93461-206">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013251%E2%80%9353-208">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peninsular_War_and_Erfurt">Peninsular War and Erfurt</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg/220px-Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2114" data-file-height="3251"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 338px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg/220px-Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="338" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg/330px-Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg/440px-Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Portrait of Joseph Bonaparte">Portrait of Joseph Bonaparte</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard" title="François Gérard">François Gérard</a>, 1808. Napoleon's elder brother, as King of Spain</figcaption></figure> After Tilsit, Napoleon turned his attention to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Portugal</a>, which was reluctant to strictly enforce the blockade against its traditional ally Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013261%E2%80%9362-209">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a> On 17 October 1807, 24,000 French troops under General Junot crossed the Pyrenees with Spanish consent and headed towards Portugal to enforce the blockade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004197-211">[205]</a> Junot occupied Lisbon in November, but the Portuguese royal family had already fled to Brazil with the Portuguese fleet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013262%E2%80%9363-212">[206]</a> In March 1808, a <a href="/wiki/Tumult_of_Aranjuez" title="Tumult of Aranjuez">palace coup</a> led to the abdication of the Spanish king <a href="/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain" title="Charles IV of Spain">Carlos IV</a> in favour of his son <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Fernando VII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004198%E2%80%93199-213">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013264-214">[208]</a> The following month, Napoleon summoned Carlos and Fernando to Bayonne where, in May, he forced them both to <a href="/wiki/Abdications_of_Bayonne" title="Abdications of Bayonne">relinquish</a> their claims to the Spanish throne. Napoleon then made his brother Joseph King of Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013269%E2%80%9370-215">[209]</a> By then, there were 120,000 French troops garrisoned in the peninsula<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004199-216">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013267-217">[211]</a> and widespread Spanish opposition to the occupation and the overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons. On 2 May, an <a href="/wiki/Dos_de_Mayo_Uprising" title="Dos de Mayo Uprising">uprising</a> against the French broke out in Madrid and spread throughout Spain in the following weeks. In the face of brutal French repression, the uprising developed into a sustained conflict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013271-72,_275-218">[212]</a> In July, Joseph travelled to Madrid where he was proclaimed King of Spain on the 24th. However, following news of a French defeat by regular Spanish forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Battle of Bailén</a>, Joseph fled Madrid several days later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013276%E2%80%9378-219">[213]</a> The following month, a British force landed in Portugal and, on the 21st, they defeated the French at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vimeiro" title="Battle of Vimeiro">Vimiero</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Cintra" title="Convention of Cintra">Convention of Cintra</a>, the French evacuated Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013296-220">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984218-221">[215]</a> The defeats at Bailén and Vimiero convinced Napoleon that he had to take command of the Iberian campaign. Before leaving for Spain, he attempted to strengthen the alliance with Russia and obtain a commitment from Alexander that Russia would declare war on Austria if she attacked France. At the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Erfurt" title="Congress of Erfurt">Congress of Erfurt</a> in October 1808, Napoleon and Alexander reached an agreement that recognized the Russian conquest of <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Finland</a> and called upon Britain to cease its war against France.<a href="#cite_note-222">[216]</a> However, Alexander failed to provide a firm commitment to make war with Austria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013286-223">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984118-224">[218]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid,_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg/220px-Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="3058"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg/220px-Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg/330px-Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg/440px-Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Capitulation_de_Madrid%2C_le_4_d%C3%A9cembre_1808.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Accepting_the_Surrender_of_Madrid" title="Napoleon Accepting the Surrender of Madrid">Napoleon Accepting the Surrender of Madrid</a>, 4 December 1808</figcaption></figure> On 6 November, Napoleon was in <a href="/wiki/Vitoria-Gasteiz" title="Vitoria-Gasteiz">Vitoria</a> and took command of 240,000 French troops. After a series of victories over Anglo-Spanish forces, they retook Madrid on 4 December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004205-225">[219]</a> Napoleon then pursued the retreating British forces who were eventually evacuated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corunna" title="Battle of Corunna">Corunna</a> in January 1809. Napoleon left for France on 17 January, leaving Joseph in command.<a href="#cite_note-226">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013296%E2%80%93300-227">[221]</a> Napoleon never returned to Spain after the 1808 campaign. In April, the British sent another army to the peninsula under Arthur Wellesley, the future <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Duke of Wellington</a>. British, Portuguese and Spanish regular forces engaged the French in a protracted series of conflicts. Meanwhile, a brutal guerrilla war engulfed much of the Spanish countryside, a conflict in which atrocities were committed by both sides.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler-1966b-228">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984218-221">[215]</a> Napoleon later called the Peninsular campaign, "the unlucky war [that] ruined me."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner2004128-229">[223]</a> It tied up some 300,000 French troops from 1808 to 1812. By 1814, the French had been driven from the peninsula, with over 150,000 casualties in the campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler-1966b-228">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201578%E2%80%9380-230">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_Wagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Napoleon_Wagram.jpg/220px-Napoleon_Wagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3154" data-file-height="2326"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 162px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Napoleon_Wagram.jpg/220px-Napoleon_Wagram.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Napoleon_Wagram.jpg/330px-Napoleon_Wagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Napoleon_Wagram.jpg/440px-Napoleon_Wagram.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_of_Wagram" title="The Battle of Wagram">The Battle of Wagram</a> by <a href="/wiki/Horace_Vernet" title="Horace Vernet">Horace Vernet</a>, 1836</figcaption></figure> The overthrow of the Spanish Bourbons caused alarm in Austria over Napoleon's ambitions while France's military difficulties in the Peninsular encouraged Austria to go to war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013304%E2%80%9305-231">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[226]</a> In the early morning of 10 April 1809, the Austrian army crossed the <a href="/wiki/Inn_(river)" title="Inn (river)">Inn River</a> and invaded Bavaria. The Austrian advance, however, was disorganized and they were unable to defeat the Bavarian army before the French could concentrate their forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013306-233">[227]</a> Napoleon arrived from Paris on the 17th to lead the French campaign. In the following <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eckm%C3%BChl" title="Battle of Eckmühl">Battle of Eckmühl</a> he was slightly wounded in the heel but the Austrians were forced to retreat across the Danube. The French occupied Vienna on 13 May but most of the population had fled and the retreating army had destroyed all four bridges across the river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013306%E2%80%9308-234">[228]</a> On 21 May, the French attempted to cross the Danube, precipitating the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aspern-Essling" title="Battle of Aspern-Essling">Battle of Aspern-Essling</a>. Both sides inflicted about 23,000 casualties on each other and the French were forced back.<a href="#cite_note-235">[229]</a> The battle was reported in European capitals as a defeat for Napoleon and damaged his aura of invincibility.<a href="#cite_note-236">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013308%E2%80%9312-237">[231]</a> After six weeks of preparations, Napoleon made another attempt at crossing the Danube.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1973708-238">[232]</a> In the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wagram" title="Battle of Wagram">Battle of Wagram</a> (5–6 July) the Austrians were forced to retreat but the French and Austrians each suffered losses of 37,000 to 39,000 killed, wounded or captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013312%E2%80%9314-239">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1973729-240">[234]</a> The French caught up with the retreating Austrians at <a href="/wiki/Znojmo" title="Znojmo">Znaim</a> on 10 July, and the latter signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Znaim" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice of Znaim">armistice</a> on the 12th.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013314-241">[235]</a> In August, a British force <a href="/wiki/Walcheren_Campaign" title="Walcheren Campaign">landed in Holland</a> but lost 4,000 men, mainly to illness, before withdrawing in December.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984285%E2%80%9386-242">[236]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Sch%C3%B6nbrunn" title="Treaty of Schönbrunn">Treaty of Schönbrunn</a> in October 1809 was harsh for Austria which lost substantial territory and over three million subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1973732-243">[237]</a> France received <a href="/wiki/Carinthia_(Slovenia)" title="Carinthia (Slovenia)">Carinthia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carniola" title="Carniola">Carniola</a>, and the Adriatic ports of Trieste and Fiume(Rijeka); the part of Poland annexed by Austria in the <a href="/wiki/Third_partition_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Third partition of Poland">third partition</a> in 1795, known at the time as West Galicia, was given to the Polish-ruled <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a>; and the territory of the former Archbishopric of Salzburg went to Bavaria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004144-244">[238]</a> Austria was required to pay an indemnity of 200 million francs and its army was reduced to 150,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013316-245">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consolidation_of_the_Empire">Consolidation of the Empire</h4></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1812_map_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Map of Europe. French Empire shown as bigger than present day France as it included parts of present-day Netherlands and Italy." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Europe_1812_map_en.png/260px-Europe_1812_map_en.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2284" data-file-height="1503"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 171px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Europe_1812_map_en.png/260px-Europe_1812_map_en.png" data-alt="Map of Europe. French Empire shown as bigger than present day France as it included parts of present-day Netherlands and Italy." data-width="260" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Europe_1812_map_en.png/390px-Europe_1812_map_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Europe_1812_map_en.png/520px-Europe_1812_map_en.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">French Empire</a> at its greatest extent in 1812:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> French Empire</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> French <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a></div></figcaption></figure> Napoleon's union with Joséphine had not produced a child, and he decided to secure the dynasty and strengthen its position in Europe by a strategic marriage into one of Europe's major royal houses. In November 1809, he announced his decision to divorce Joséphine and the marriage was annulled in January 1810.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013321%E2%80%9325-246">[240]</a> Napoleon had already commenced negotiations for the marriage of Tsar Alexander's sister Anna, but the Tsar responded that she was too young. Napoleon then turned to Austria, and a marriage to the Austrian Emperor's daughter, Marie Louise, was quickly agreed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013326%E2%80%93330-247">[241]</a> The marriage was formalized in a civil ceremony on 1 April and a religious service at the Louvre on the following day. The marriage to Marie Louise was widely seen as a shift in French policy towards stronger ties with Austria and away from the already strained relationship with Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013328-30-248">[242]</a> On 20 March 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to the heir apparent, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_II" title="Napoleon II">François Charles Joseph Napoleon</a>, King of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013334%E2%80%9341-249">[243]</a> With the annexation of the Papal states (May 1809, February 1810), Holland (July 1810) and the northern coastal regions of Westphalia (August 1810), mainland France further increased its territory. Napoleon now ruled about 40% of the European population either directly or indirectly through his satellite kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013350%E2%80%9353-250">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Invasion_of_Russia">Invasion of Russia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></div> Tsar Alexander saw the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Napoleon's marriage alliance with Austria and the election of the French Marshal <a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Bernadotte</a> as Crown Prince of Sweden as attempts to contain Russia. In December 1810, Napoleon annexed the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Oldenburg" title="Duchy of Oldenburg">Duchy of Oldenburg</a> which Alexander considered an insult as his uncle was the duke. The Tsar responded by allowing neutral shipping into Russian ports and banning most French imports. Russia feared that Napoleon intended to restore the Kingdom of Poland while Napoleon suspected Russia of seeking an alliance with Britain against France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013353%E2%80%9355-251">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLynn-1997-252">[246]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_(1841).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg/220px-Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2612" data-file-height="1968"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 166px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg/220px-Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg/330px-Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg/440px-Napoleon_in_burning_Moscow_-_Adam_Albrecht_%281841%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon watching the <a href="/wiki/Fire_of_Moscow_(1812)" title="Fire of Moscow (1812)">fire of Moscow</a> in September 1812, by <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Adam" title="Albrecht Adam">Adam Albrecht</a> (1841)</figcaption></figure> In late 1811, Napoleon began planning an invasion of Russia. A Franco-Prussian alliance signed in February 1812 forced Prussia to provide 20,000 troops for the invasion and, in March, Austria agreed to provide 30,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013358%E2%80%9361-253">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997501-254">[248]</a> Napoleon's multinational grande armée comprised around 450,000 frontline troops of which about a third were native French speakers. Napoleon called the invasion the "Second Polish War," but he refused to guarantee an independent Poland for fear of alienating his Austrian and Prussian allies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013361,_370%E2%80%9371-255">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997508-256">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsdaile2007563%E2%80%9364-257">[251]</a> On 24 June, Napoleon's troops began crossing the <a href="/wiki/Neman" title="Neman">Nieman river</a> into <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Russian Lithuania</a> with the aim of luring the Russians into one or two decisive battles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013370-258">[252]</a> The Russians retreated 320 kilometres east to the <a href="/wiki/Daugava" title="Daugava">Dvina</a> river and implemented a <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth policy</a>, making it increasingly difficult for the French to forage food for themselves and their horses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2007773-259">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013371-72-260">[254]</a> On 18 August, Napoleon captured <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Smolensk_(1812)" title="Battle of Smolensk (1812)">Smolensk</a> with the loss of 9,000 of his men, but the Russians were able to withdraw in good order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013379%E2%80%9382-261">[255]</a> The Russians, now commanded by Kutuzov, made a stand at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Borodino</a>, outside Moscow, on 7 September. The battle resulted in 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French dead, wounded or captured, in one of the bloodiest days of battle in Europe up to that time.<a href="#cite_note-262">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013385-263">[257]</a> The Russians withdrew overnight and Napoleon later stated, "The most terrible of all my battles was the one before Moscow. The French showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians worthy of being invincible".<a href="#cite_note-264">[258]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/220px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="762"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 168px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/220px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="168" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/330px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg/440px-Napoleons_retreat_from_moscow.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, painting by <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Northen" title="Adolph Northen">Adolph Northen</a></figcaption></figure> The Russians retreated to <a href="/wiki/Tarutino,_Russia" title="Tarutino, Russia">Tarutino</a>, and Napoleon entered Moscow on 14 September. The following evening, the city was set on fire on the orders of its governor <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Rostopchin" title="Fyodor Rostopchin">Feodor Rostopchin</a>. Alexander, in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">St Petersburg</a>, refused to negotiate a peace, and after six weeks Napoleon's army evacuated Moscow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013388%E2%80%9398-265">[259]</a> After capturing <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maloyaroslavets" title="Battle of Maloyaroslavets">Maloyaroslavets</a> with the loss of 4,000 to 10,000 men, Napoleon retreated towards Smolensk. The French were attacked by <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> and peasants and suffered from the intense cold, disease and lack of food and water. Around 40,000 to 50,000 troops reached Smolensk on 9 November, a loss of about 60,000 in three weeks. Napoleon also heard that an <a href="/wiki/Malet_coup_of_1812" title="Malet coup of 1812">attempted coup</a> by General Malet in Paris had only narrowly failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013400%E2%80%93407-266">[260]</a> From Smolensk, Napoleon's army headed for Vilnius, where there was a French garrison of 20,000. In late November, under attack from all sides by Russian forces, the grande armée managed to cross the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berezina" title="Battle of Berezina">Berezina</a> river on pontoon bridges in temperatures reaching −40 °C (−40 °F). On 5 December, shortly before arriving in Vilnius, Napoleon left his disintegrating army for Paris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013410%E2%80%9319-267">[261]</a> In the following weeks, the remnants of the grande armée, about 75,000 troops, crossed the Nieman into allied territory. Russian military losses in the campaign were up to 300,000 and total military deaths from both sides were up to one million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013425-268">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg/220px-Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="828"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 182px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg/220px-Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="182" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg/330px-Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg/440px-Napoleon_i_Poniatowski_Lipsk.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon and Prince <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski" title="Józef Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, painting by <a href="/wiki/January_Suchodolski" title="January Suchodolski">January Suchodolski</a></figcaption></figure> The French, pursued by the Russians, withdrew from most of Poland and Prussia over the winter of 1812–13 while both sides rebuilt their forces.<a href="#cite_note-269">[263]</a> Sweden and Prussia declared war on France in March 1813. In April, Napoleon assumed command of an army of 200,000 troops,<a href="#cite_note-270">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[265]</a> and defeated the coalition at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1813)" title="Battle of Lützen (1813)">Lützen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bautzen_(1813)" title="Battle of Bautzen (1813)">Bautzen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-272">[266]</a> Britain formally joined the coalition in June followed by Austria in August,<a href="#cite_note-273">[267]</a> but the allies were again defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dresden" title="Battle of Dresden">Battle of Dresden</a> (August 1813).<a href="#cite_note-274">[268]</a> The coalition, however, had a growing advantage in infantry, cavalry, reserves and armaments. In the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, the coalition was victorious at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Leipzig</a> in October. Although coalition casualties were 54,000 men, the French lost 38,000 killed or wounded and 15,000 taken prisoner. Up to 50,000 more were lost to death, illness and desertion during the French retreat to the Rhine.<a href="#cite_note-275">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler19951020-276">[270]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DelarocheNapoleon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/DelarocheNapoleon.jpg/220px-DelarocheNapoleon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 292px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/DelarocheNapoleon.jpg/220px-DelarocheNapoleon.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="292" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/DelarocheNapoleon.jpg/330px-DelarocheNapoleon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/DelarocheNapoleon.jpg/440px-DelarocheNapoleon.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_at_Fontainebleau_on_March_31,_1814" title="Napoleon I at Fontainebleau on March 31, 1814">Napoleon after his abdication in Fontainebleau, 4 April 1814</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Delaroche" title="Paul Delaroche">Paul Delaroche</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_proposals" title="Frankfurt proposals">Frankfurt proposals</a> were peace terms offered by the coalition in November 1813 under which Napoleon would remain emperor, but France would be reduced to its "natural frontiers." That meant that France would retain control of Belgium, Savoy and the west bank of the Rhine, while withdrawing from Spain, Holland, Italy and Germany. Napoleon did not accept the terms and the allies crossed the Rhine into French territory on 1 January 1814.<a href="#cite_note-277">[271]</a> Wellington's British forces had already crossed the Pyrenees into south-western France.<a href="#cite_note-278">[272]</a> In north-eastern France, Napoleon led about 70,000 troops against a coalition army of 200,000. After a defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_La_Rothi%C3%A8re" title="Battle of La Rothière">La Rothière</a>, the French won a series of victories in <a href="/wiki/Six_Days%27_Campaign" title="Six Days' Campaign">February</a> which induced the coalition to offer peace on the basis of France's 1791 frontiers. Napoleon, however, decided to fight on.<a href="#cite_note-279">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[274]</a> After a series of battles in March, the allies forced Napoleon to retreat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcis-sur-Aube" title="Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube">Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube</a> (20–21 March). The coalition then moved towards Paris, whose defence was under the command of Joseph Bonaparte.<a href="#cite_note-281">[275]</a> On 29 March, a coalition army of 200,000 began their attack on the Belleville and Montmartre heights. Empress Marie Louise fled Paris that evening with her son, the King of Rome. With an army of only 38,000 to defend the capital, Joseph authorized the French marshal <a href="/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont" title="Auguste de Marmont">Auguste de Marmont</a> to capitulate on 31 March. The following day, the allies accepted <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a> as head of a provisional government. On 2 April, the Senate deposed Napoleon.<a href="#cite_note-282">[276]</a> Meanwhile, Napoleon was in Fontainebleau with an army of 40,000 to 60,000. He contemplated a march on Paris but, on 4 April, his senior commanders persuaded him to abdicate in favour of his son, with Marie Louise as regent.<a href="#cite_note-284">[g]</a> Tsar Alexander, however, demanded an unconditional abdication and Napoleon reluctantly complied on 6 April.<a href="#cite_note-285">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGates2003259-287">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[281]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg/220px-Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1967" data-file-height="1464"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg/220px-Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg/330px-Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg/440px-Montfort_-_Adieux_de_Napoleon_a_la_Garde_imperiale.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon's farewell to his Imperial Guard, 20 April 1814, by <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Alphonse_Montfort" title="Antoine-Alphonse Montfort">Antoine-Alphonse Montfort</a></figcaption></figure> In his farewell address to the soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Guard_(France)" title="Old Guard (France)">Old Guard</a> on 20 April, Napoleon said:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"Soldiers of my Old Guard, I have come to bid you farewell. For twenty years you have accompanied me faithfully on the paths of honor and glory. ...With men like you, our cause was [not] lost, but the war would have dragged on interminably, and it would have been a civil war. ... So I am sacrificing our interests to those of our country. ...Do not lament my fate; if I have agreed to live on, it is to serve our glory. I wish to write the history of the great deeds we have done together. Farewell, my children!"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201597-289">[282]</a></blockquote> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exile_to_Elba">Exile to Elba</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Principality of Elba</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg/220px-Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1947" data-file-height="1152"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 130px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg/220px-Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="130" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg/330px-Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg/440px-Beaume_-_Napol%C3%A9on_Ier_quittant_l%27%C3%AEle_d%27Elbe_-_1836.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon leaving Elba on 26 February 1815, by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Beaume" title="Joseph Beaume">Joseph Beaume</a> (1836)</figcaption></figure> With the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1814)" title="Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)">Treaty of Fontainebleau</a> of 11 April 1814, the allies exiled Napoleon to <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a>, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean, 10 km (6 mi) off the Tuscan coast, where they made him <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">sovereign</a>. The following night, Napoleon attempted suicide with poison he had carried after nearly being captured by the Russians during the retreat from Moscow. Its potency had weakened with age, however, and he survived to be exiled, while his wife and son took refuge in Austria.<a href="#cite_note-290">[283]</a> He was conveyed to the island on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Undaunted_(1807)" title="HMS Undaunted (1807)">HMS Undaunted</a> and disembarked at <a href="/wiki/Portoferraio" title="Portoferraio">Portoferraio</a> on 4 May 1814. In the first few months on Elba, he drew up plans for administrative reforms, road and building works, and improvements to the island's mines and agriculture, but results were limited by lack of funds.<a href="#cite_note-291">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[286]</a> When Napoleon learned that Joséphine had died in France on 29 May, he was distraught and locked himself in his room for two days.<a href="#cite_note-294">[287]</a> Napoleon understood that the French king <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a> was unpopular. Realizing that his wife and son would not be joining him in exile, cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon escaped from Elba in the brig <a href="/wiki/French_brig_Inconstant_(1811)" title="French brig Inconstant (1811)">Inconstant</a> on 26 February 1815 with about 1,000 men and a flotilla of seven vessels.<a href="#cite_note-Mclynn6042-295">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hundred_Days">Hundred Days</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe,_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg/220px-Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1574" data-file-height="1177"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg/220px-Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg/330px-Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg/440px-Retour_de_Napoleon_d%27_Isle_d%27Elbe%2C_by_Charles_de_Steuben.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_Return_from_Elba_(painting)" title="Napoleon's Return from Elba (painting)">Napoleon's Return from Elba</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Steuben" title="Charles de Steuben">Charles de Steuben</a>, 1818</figcaption></figure>On 1 March 1815, Napoleon and his followers landed on the French mainland at <a href="/wiki/Golfe-Juan" title="Golfe-Juan">Golfe-Juan</a> and headed for <a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a> through the foothills of the Alps, taking the route now known as <a href="/wiki/Route_Napol%C3%A9on" title="Route Napoléon">Route Napoléon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mclynn6042-295">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[290]</a> The 5th Regiment intercepted him just south of <a href="/wiki/Grenoble" title="Grenoble">Grenoble</a> on 7 March. Napoleon approached the battalion alone and called to them, "Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if you wish!" The soldiers responded with, "Vive l'empereur!" and joined Napoleon's men.<a href="#cite_note-298">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[292]</a> Six days later, 5,000 troops under <a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a>, who had boasted that he would bring Napoleon to Paris in an iron cage, also joined Napoleon.<a href="#cite_note-300">[293]</a> On 13 March, the powers at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> declared Napoleon an <a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">outlaw</a>.<a href="#cite_note-301">[294]</a> Four days later, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia each pledged to put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule.<a href="#cite_note-302">[295]</a> Louis XVIII, however, fled Paris for Belgium in the early hours of 20 March after realizing that he did not have enough reliable troops to oppose Napoleon. Napoleon entered Paris that evening.<a href="#cite_note-303">[296]</a> Napoleon appointed a government and introduced constitutional changes which were approved by plebiscite in May. A Chamber of Representatives was also indirectly elected that month on a highly restrictive property franchise.<a href="#cite_note-304">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[298]</a> Napoleon's priority was to raise an army to face the coalition, but the law did not allow conscription and he was only able to raise about 300,000 men, mostly raw recruits and national guards.<a href="#cite_note-306">[299]</a> On 12 June, Napoleon led about 124,000 men, known as the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_North_(France)" title="Army of the North (France)">Army of the North</a>, into Belgium, aiming to drive a wedge between Wellington's army of 112,000 British, German and Dutch troops and <a href="/wiki/Gebhard_Leberecht_von_Bl%C3%BCcher" title="Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher">Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher</a>'s force of 130,000 Prussians and Saxons.<a href="#cite_note-307">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[301]</a> After engagements at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ligny" title="Battle of Ligny">Battle of Ligny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Quatre_Bras" title="Battle of Quatre Bras">Battle of Quatre Bras</a>, Napoleon confronted Wellington at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a> on 18 June. Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks by the French until, late in the afternoon, Blücher's Prussians arrived in force on Napoleon's right flank. The coalition forces broke through Napoleon's lines, inflicting a devastating defeat.<a href="#cite_note-309">[302]</a> Napoleon returned to Paris and found that the legislature had turned against him. Realizing that his position was untenable, <a href="/wiki/Abdication_of_Napoleon,_1815" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdication of Napoleon, 1815">he abdicated on 22 June in favour of his son</a>. He left Paris three days later and settled at Joséphine's former palace in <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison" title="Château de Malmaison">Château de Malmaison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-310">[303]</a> By 28 June, the Prussian army was at <a href="/wiki/Senlis" title="Senlis">Senlis</a>, just north of Paris.<a href="#cite_note-311">[304]</a> When Napoleon heard that Prussian troops had orders to capture him dead or alive, he fled to <a href="/wiki/Rochefort,_Charente-Maritime" title="Rochefort, Charente-Maritime">Rochefort, Charente-Maritime</a>, considering an escape to the United States. However, when he found that British ships were blockading the port, he surrendered to <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lewis_Maitland" title="Frederick Lewis Maitland">Frederick Lewis Maitland</a> on <a href="/wiki/HMS_Bellerophon_(1786)" title="HMS Bellerophon (1786)">HMS Bellerophon</a> on 15 July 1815.<a href="#cite_note-312">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECordingly2004254-313">[306]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Exile_on_Saint_Helena">Exile on Saint Helena</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I%27s_exile_to_St._Helena" title="Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena">Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg/220px-Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="563"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 163px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg/220px-Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg/330px-Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg/440px-Napoleon_sainthelene.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon on <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>, watercolour by Franz Josef Sandmann, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1820</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Longwood_House_(16311222817).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg/220px-Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg/220px-Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg/330px-Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg/440px-Longwood_House_%2816311222817%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Longwood_House" title="Longwood House">Longwood House</a>, Saint Helena, site of Napoleon's captivity</figcaption></figure> Napoleon was held in British custody and transferred to the island of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> in the Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km (1,010 nmi) from the west coast of Africa. Napoleon and 27 followers arrived at Jamestown, Saint Helena, in October 1815 on board <a href="/wiki/HMS_Northumberland_(1798)" title="HMS Northumberland (1798)">HMS Northumberland</a>. The prisoner was guarded by a garrison of 2,100 soldiers while a squadron of 10 ships continuously patrolled the waters to prevent escape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201813%E2%80%9334-314">[307]</a> In the following years, there were rumours of escape plots, but no serious attempts were made.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201871%E2%80%9374-315">[308]</a> Napoleon stayed for two months at a pavilion in <a href="/wiki/Briars,_Saint_Helena" title="Briars, Saint Helena">Briars</a> before he was moved to <a href="/wiki/Longwood_House" title="Longwood House">Longwood House</a>, a 40-room wooden bungalow. The location and interior of the house were damp, windswept, rat-infested and unhealthy.<a href="#cite_note-316">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201839%E2%80%9341,_90-317">[310]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> published articles insinuating the British government was trying to hasten his death. Napoleon often complained of his living conditions in letters to the island's governor, <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Lowe" title="Hudson Lowe">Hudson Lowe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchom1997769%E2%80%93770-318">[311]</a> while his attendants complained of "colds, <a href="/wiki/Catarrh" title="Catarrh">catarrhs</a>, damp floors and poor provisions".<a href="#cite_note-319">[312]</a> Napoleon insisted on imperial formality. When he held a dinner party, men were expected to wear military dress and "women [appeared] in evening gowns and gems. It was an explicit denial of the circumstances of his captivity".<a href="#cite_note-320">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201844%E2%80%9346,_64%E2%80%9367-321">[314]</a> He formally received visitors, read, and dictated his memoirs and commentaries on military campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201843%E2%80%9344-322">[315]</a> He studied English under <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel,_comte_de_Las_Cases" title="Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases">Emmanuel, comte de Las Cases</a> for a few months but gave up as he was poor at languages.<a href="#cite_note-323">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201841-324">[317]</a> Napoleon also circulated reports of poor treatment in the hope that public opinion would force the allies to revoke his exile on Saint Helena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201864%E2%80%9367-325">[318]</a> Under instructions from the British government, Lowe cut Napoleon's expenditure, refused to recognize him as a former emperor, and made his supporters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner indefinitely.<a href="#cite_note-Lowe2-326">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201864%E2%80%9367-325">[318]</a> Accounts of the mistreatment led, in March 1817, to a debate in parliament and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Vassall-Fox,_3rd_Baron_Holland" title="Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland">Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland</a>'s call for an inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201864-327">[320]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%">Custody of Napoleon Buonaparte Act 1816</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 140px;height: 140px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="140" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An Act for the more effectually detaining in Custody Napoleon Buonaparté.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/56_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="56 Geo. 3">56 Geo. 3</a>. c. 22</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">11 April 1816</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">Commencement</a></th><td class="infobox-data dtstart">11 April 1816</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Repealed</th><td class="infobox-data dtend">5 August 1873</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repealed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1873" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1873">Statute Law Revision Act 1873</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffcccc;">Status: Repealed</div></th></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox vevent mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:100%">Intercourse with Saint Helena Act 1816</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;">Act of Parliament</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1550"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 140px;height: 140px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/140px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="140" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/210px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg/280px-Coat_of_Arms_of_the_United_Kingdom_%281816-1837%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Short_and_long_titles" title="Short and long titles">Long title</a></th><td class="infobox-data description">An Act for regulating the Intercourse with the Island of Saint Helena, during the time Napoleon Buonaparté shall be detained there; and for indemnifying persons in the cases therein mentioned.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Citation_of_United_Kingdom_legislation" title="Citation of United Kingdom legislation">Citation</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/56_Geo._3" class="mw-redirect" title="56 Geo. 3">56 Geo. 3</a>. c. 23</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Dates</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Royal_assent" title="Royal assent">Royal assent</a></th><td class="infobox-data">11 April 1816</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coming_into_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Coming into force">Commencement</a></th><td class="infobox-data dtstart">11 April 1816</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Repealed</th><td class="infobox-data dtend">5 August 1873</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;">Other legislation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repealed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_Act_1873" title="Statute Law Revision Act 1873">Statute Law Revision Act 1873</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa;"><div style="background-color: #ffcccc;">Status: Repealed</div></th></tr></tbody></table> In mid-1817, Napoleon's health worsened. His physician, <a href="/wiki/Barry_O%27Meara" title="Barry O'Meara">Barry O'Meara</a>, diagnosed chronic <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a> and warned Lowe that he could die from the poor climate and lack of exercise. Lowe thought O'Meara was exaggerating and dismissed him in July 1818.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201893%E2%80%9397-328">[321]</a> In November 1818, the allies announced that Napoleon would remain a prisoner on Saint Helena for life. When he learnt the news, he became depressed and more isolated, spending longer periods in his rooms which further undermined his health.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018103%E2%80%93105-329">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2018638%E2%80%93639-330">[323]</a> A number of his entourage also left Saint Helena including Las Cases in December 1816, General Gaspard Gourgaud in March 1818 and <a href="/wiki/Albine_de_Montholon" title="Albine de Montholon">Albine de Montholon</a>, who was possibly Napoleon's lover, in July 1819.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201882%E2%80%9389,_90%E2%80%9393-331">[324]</a> In September 1819, two priests and a new physician, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Carlo_Antommarchi" title="François Carlo Antommarchi">François Carlo Antommarchi</a>, joined Napoleon's retinue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018105-332">[325]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Death_mask_of_Napoleon" title="Death mask of Napoleon">Death mask of Napoleon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retour_des_cendres" title="Retour des cendres">Retour des cendres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_tomb" title="Napoleon's tomb">Napoleon's tomb</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Napoleon_I" title="Death of Napoleon I">Death of Napoleon I</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg/220px-Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4635" data-file-height="3580"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 170px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg/220px-Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg/330px-Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg/440px-Napoleone_Bonaparte%27s_Tomb.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_tomb" title="Napoleon's tomb">Napoleon's tomb</a> at <a href="/wiki/Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">Les Invalides</a> in Paris</figcaption></figure> Napoleon's health continued to worsen, and in March 1821 he was confined to bed. In April he wrote two wills declaring that he had been murdered by the British, that the Bourbons would fall and that his son would rule France. He left his fortune to 97 legatees and asked to be buried by the Seine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018108%E2%80%9313-333">[326]</a> On 3 May he was given the <a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">last rites</a> but could not take communion due to his illness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018115-334">[327]</a> He died on 5 May 1821 at age 51. His last words, variously recorded by those present, were either France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine ("France, the army, head of the army, Joséphine"),<a href="#cite_note-McLynn6552-335">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[329]</a> or qui recule...à la tête d'armée ("who retreats... at the head of the army")<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018115,_282n82-337">[330]</a> or "France, my son, the Army."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018115,_282n82-337">[330]</a> Antommarchi and the British wrote separate autopsy reports, each concluding that Napoleon had died of internal bleeding caused by <a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">stomach cancer</a>, the disease that had killed his father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018120%E2%80%9323-338">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lugli-2021-339">[332]</a> A later theory, based on high concentrations of arsenic found in samples of Napoleon's hair, held that Napoleon had died of <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">arsenic poisoning</a>. However, subsequent studies also found high concentrations of arsenic in hair samples from Napoleon's childhood and from his son and Joséphine. Arsenic was widely used in medicines and products such as hair creams in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-cullen1562-340">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHindmarshSavory20082092-341">[334]</a> A 2021 study by an international team of gastrointestinal pathologists once again concluded that Napoleon died of stomach cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Lugli-2021-339">[332]</a> Napoleon was buried with military honours in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Tomb" title="Valley of the Tomb">Valley of the Geraniums</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018126%E2%80%9327-342">[335]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLynn6552-335">[328]</a> Napoleon's heart and intestines were removed and sealed inside his coffin. <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_penis" title="Napoleon's penis">Napoleon's penis</a> was allegedly removed during the autopsy and sold and exhibited. In 1840, the British government gave <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a> permission to return Napoleon's remains to France. Napoleon's body was exhumed and found to be well preserved as it had been sealed in four coffins (two of metal and two of mahogany) and placed in a masonry tomb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018141,_195%E2%80%9399-343">[336]</a> On 15 December 1840, a <a href="/wiki/State_funeral" title="State funeral">state funeral</a> was held in Paris with 700,000-1,000,000 attendees who lined the route of the funeral procession to the chapel of <a href="/wiki/Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">Les Invalides</a>. The coffin was later placed in the cupola in St Jérôme's Chapel, where it remained until <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_tomb" title="Napoleon's tomb">Napoleon's tomb</a>, designed by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Visconti" title="Louis Visconti">Louis Visconti</a>, was completed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018216%E2%80%9319,_225-344">[337]</a> In 1861, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a>, his remains were entombed in a <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagus</a> in the crypt under the dome at Les Invalides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2018235-345">[338]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Napoleon and the Catholic Church">Napoleon and the Catholic Church</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France_dioceses_1801.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/France_dioceses_1801.svg/220px-France_dioceses_1801.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="1412"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 231px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/France_dioceses_1801.svg/220px-France_dioceses_1801.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/France_dioceses_1801.svg/330px-France_dioceses_1801.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/France_dioceses_1801.svg/440px-France_dioceses_1801.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Reorganisation of the religious geography: France is divided into 59 <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">dioceses</a> and 10 <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesiastical provinces">ecclesiastical provinces</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_beliefs">Religious beliefs</h3></div> Napoleon was baptized in Ajaccio on 21 July 1771, and raised a Roman Catholic. He began to question his faith at age 13 while at Brienne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a239%E2%80%9341-346">[339]</a> Biographers have variously described him from that time as a <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deist</a>, a follower of Rousseau's "natural religion" or a believer in destiny. He consistently expressed his belief in a God or creator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a236-347">[340]</a> He understood the power of organized religion in social and political affairs, and later sought to use it to support his regime.<a href="#cite_note-348">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a236%E2%80%9337-349">[342]</a> His attitude to religion is often described as utilitarian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a235-350">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer201384-351">[344]</a> In 1800 he stated, "it was by making myself a Catholic that I won the war in the Vendée, by making myself a Moslem that I established myself in Egypt, by making myself an <a href="/wiki/Ultramontanism" title="Ultramontanism">ultramontane</a> that I turned men's hearts towards me in Italy. If I were to govern a nation of Jews I would rebuild the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple of Solomon</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a235-350">[343]</a> Napoleon had a <a href="/wiki/Civil_marriage" title="Civil marriage">civil marriage</a> with Joséphine in 1796 and, at the pope's insistence, a private religious ceremony with her the day before his coronation as Emperor in 1804. This marriage was annulled by tribunals under Napoleon's control in January 1810.<a href="#cite_note-352">[345]</a> In April 1810, Napoleon married Austrian princess Marie Louise in a Catholic ceremony. Napoleon was <a href="/wiki/Excommunicated" class="mw-redirect" title="Excommunicated">excommunicated</a> by the pope through the bull <a href="/wiki/Quum_memoranda" title="Quum memoranda">Quum memoranda</a> in 1809.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a248-353">[346]</a> His will in 1821 stated, "I die in the Apostolical Roman religion, in the bosom of which I was born, more than fifty years since."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner2004197-354">[347]</a> Napoleon read the <a href="/wiki/Koran" class="mw-redirect" title="Koran">Koran</a> in translation and had an interest in <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Orient" title="Orient">Orient</a>.<a href="#cite_note-355">[348]</a> He also defended <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> ("a great man") against Voltaire's <a href="/wiki/Mahomet_(play)" title="Mahomet (play)">Mahomet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-356">[349]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concordat">Concordat</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg/220px-FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1076" data-file-height="849"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 174px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg/220px-FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="174" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg/330px-FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg/440px-FrenchChurchOathConcordat.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Leaders of the Catholic Church taking the civil oath required by the <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a></figcaption></figure> Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics, Napoleon and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a> agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a>. The agreement recognized the Catholic Church as the majority church of France and in return the Church recognized Napoleon's regime, undercutting much of the ground from royalists. The Concordat confirmed the seizure of Church lands and endowments during the revolution, but reintroduced state salaries for the clergy. The government also controlled the nomination of bishops for investiture by the pope. Bishops and other clergy were required to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a244%E2%80%9345-357">[350]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[352]</a> When the Concordat was published on 8 April 1802, Napoleon presented another set of laws called the <a href="/wiki/Organic_Articles" title="Organic Articles">Organic Articles</a>, which further increased state control over the French Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a244%E2%80%9345-357">[350]</a> Similar arrangements were made with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon, especially in Italy and Germany.<a href="#cite_note-360">[353]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrest_of_Pope_Pius_VII">Arrest of Pope Pius VII</h3></div> Napoleon progressively occupied and annexed the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> from 1805. When he annexed Rome in May 1809, the pope excommunicated him the following month. In July, French officials arrested the pope in the Vatican and exiled him to <a href="/wiki/Savona" title="Savona">Savona</a>. In 1812 the pontiff was transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Fontainebleau" title="Palace of Fontainebleau">Palace of Fontainebleau</a> in France.<a href="#cite_note-361">[354]</a> In January 1813, Napoleon pressured the pope to sign a new "Concordat of Fontainebleau" which was soon repudiated by the pontiff. The pope was not released until 1814.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a248-353">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_emancipation">Religious emancipation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">Napoleon and the Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_and_Protestants" title="Napoleon and Protestants">Napoleon and Protestants</a></div> In February 1795, the National Convention proclaimed religious equality for France's Protestant churches and other religions. In April 1802, Napoleon published laws increasing state control of Calvinist congregations and Lutheran directories, with their pastors to be paid by the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a242,_245-362">[355]</a> With Napoleon's military victories, formal religious equality and civil rights for religious minorities spread to the conquered territories and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">satellite states</a>, although their implementation varied with the local authorities.<a href="#cite_note-McLynn-1997a-363">[356]</a> The Jews of France had been granted full civil rights in September 1791 and religious equality in 1795. The revolutionary and Napoleonic regimes abolished Jewish ghettoes in the territories they conquered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984160%E2%80%9361-364">[357]</a> Napoleon wished to assimilate Jews into French society and convened an assembly of Jewish notables in 1806 to that end. In 1807, he summoned a <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a> to adapt the law of Moses to those of the empire. An imperial decree of March 1808 organized Jewish worship into consistories, limited usury and encouraged Jews to adopt a family name, intermarriage, and civil marriage and divorce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200438%E2%80%9340-7">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984160%E2%80%9361-364">[357]</a> Jews, however, were still subject to discrimination in many parts of the empire and satellite states.<a href="#cite_note-McLynn-1997a-363">[356]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Personality">Personality</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Geyl" title="Pieter Geyl">Pieter Geyl</a> wrote in 1947, "It is impossible that two historians, especially two historians living in different periods, should see any historical personality in the same light."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl194915-365">[358]</a> There is no dispute that Napoleon was ambitious, although commentators disagree on whether his ambition was mostly for his own power and glory or for the welfare of France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135%E2%80%9337,_198-366">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318%E2%80%9319-367">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199788%E2%80%9389-368">[361]</a> Historians agree that Napoleon was highly intelligent with an excellent memory,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201526-369">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318-370">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280-83-371">[364]</a> and was a superior organizer who could work efficiently for long hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318-370">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280%E2%80%9381-372">[365]</a> In battle, he could rapidly dictate a series of complex commands to his subordinates, keeping in mind where major units were expected to be at each future point.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1966%22Introduction%22,_pp._3-36-373">[366]</a> He was an inspiring leader who could obtain the best from his soldiers and subordinates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglund2010379ff-374">[367]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington</a> said his presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-375">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-376">[369]</a> He could charm people when he needed to but could also publicly humiliate them and was known for his rages when his plans were frustrated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice20148-377">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318-19-378">[371]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279%E2%80%9380-379">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135%E2%80%9337-380">[373]</a> Historian McLynn sees him as a <a href="/wiki/Misogynist" class="mw-redirect" title="Misogynist">misogynist</a> with a cruel streak which he often inflicted on women, children and animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997277%E2%80%9379-381">[374]</a> There is debate over whether Napoleon was an outsider who never felt at home in France or with other people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997287-382">[375]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Hippolyte Taine</a> said Napoleon saw others only as instruments and was cut off from feelings of admiration, sympathy or pity. Arthur Lévy replied that Napoleon genuinely loved Joséphine and often showed humanity and compassion to his enemies or those who had let him down. He had the normal middle class virtues and understood the common man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135%E2%80%9337,_175-383">[376]</a> Similarly, historians are divided over whether Napoleon was consistently ruthless when his power was threatened or surprisingly indulgent in some cases. Those arguing for a ruthless personality point to episodes such as his violent suppression of revolts in France and conquered territories,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949198-384">[377]</a> his execution of the Duc d'Enghien and plotters against his rule,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201552-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196316%E2%80%9317-385">[378]</a> and his massacre of Turkish prisoners of war in Syria in 1799.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279%E2%80%9380-379">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201539%E2%80%9340-109">[104]</a> Others point to his mild treatment of disloyal subordinates such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Charles XIV John</a>, Talleyrand and Fouché.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279-80-386">[379]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_(Palais_Royal)_in_1807.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg/220px-Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="435" data-file-height="573"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 290px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg/220px-Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="290" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg/330px-Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Napoleon_visiting_the_Tribunat_%28Palais_Royal%29_in_1807.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon visiting the <a href="/wiki/Tribunat" title="Tribunat">Tribunat</a></figcaption></figure> Many historians see Napoleon as pragmatic and a realist, at least in the early years of his rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196312-387">[380]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997286-388">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a573-389">[382]</a> He was not driven by ideology and promoted capable men irrespective of their political and social background, as long as they were loyal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196321-390">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a573,_575%E2%80%9376-391">[384]</a> As an expert in military matters, he valued technical expertise and listened to the advice of experts in other fields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196321-390">[383]</a> However, there is a consensus that once he dominated Europe he became more intolerant of other views and surrounded himself with "yes men".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196356-392">[385]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a582-393">[386]</a> Towards the end of his reign he lost his realism and ability to compromise.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196319,_47-394">[387]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200495%E2%80%9396-395">[388]</a> Some historians talk of Napoleon's dual nature: a rationalist with a strong romantic streak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl194920-396">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997287%E2%80%9391-397">[390]</a> He took a team of scholars, artists and engineers with him to Egypt in order to scientifically study the country's culture and history, but at the same time was struck by romantic "orientalism". "I was full of dreams," he stated. "I saw myself founding a religion, marching into Asia, riding an elephant, a turban on my head and in my hand a new Koran that I would have composed to suit my need."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201537-38-398">[391]</a> Napoleon was superstitious. He believed in <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a>, numerology, fate and lucky stars, and always asked of his generals: is he lucky?<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997288%E2%80%9389-399">[392]</a> Dwyer states that Napoleon's victories at Austerlitz and Jena in 1805–06 left him even more certain of his destiny and invincibility.<a href="#cite_note-400">[393]</a> "I am of the race that founds empires", he once boasted, deeming himself an heir to the Ancient Romans.<a href="#cite_note-401">[394]</a> Various psychologists have attempted to explain Napoleon's personality. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Adler" title="Alfred Adler">Alfred Adler</a> cited Napoleon to describe an <a href="/wiki/Inferiority_complex" title="Inferiority complex">inferiority complex</a> in which short people adopt over-aggressive behaviour to compensate for lack of height; this inspired the term <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_complex" title="Napoleon complex">Napoleon complex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-402">[395]</a> Adler, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Erich Fromm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Reich" title="Wilhelm Reich">Wilhelm Reich</a> ascribed his nervous energy to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">sexual dysfunction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997285-403">[396]</a> Harold T. Parker speculated that rivalry with his older brother and bullying when he moved to France led him to develop an inferiority complex which made him domineering.<a href="#cite_note-404">[397]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Appearance_and_image">Appearance and image</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Napoleon" title="Cultural depictions of Napoleon">Cultural depictions of Napoleon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uniforms_of_Napoleon" title="Uniforms of Napoleon">Uniforms of Napoleon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_in_1806.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Napoleon_in_1806.PNG/170px-Napoleon_in_1806.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1740"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 247px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Napoleon_in_1806.PNG/170px-Napoleon_in_1806.PNG" data-width="170" data-height="247" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Napoleon_in_1806.PNG/255px-Napoleon_in_1806.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Napoleon_in_1806.PNG/340px-Napoleon_in_1806.PNG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Napoleon is often represented in his green colonel uniform of the <a href="/wiki/Chasseurs_%C3%A0_Cheval_de_la_Garde_Imp%C3%A9riale" class="mw-redirect" title="Chasseurs à Cheval de la Garde Impériale">Chasseur à Cheval of the Imperial Guard</a>, the regiment that often served as his personal escort, with a large <a href="/wiki/Bicorne" title="Bicorne">bicorne</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Hand-in-waistcoat" title="Hand-in-waistcoat">hand-in-waistcoat</a> gesture.</figcaption></figure>In his youth, Bonaparte was consistently described as small and thin. Johann Ludwig Wurstemberger, who accompanied him in 1797 and 1798, noted that "Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciated-looking; his face, too, was very thin, with a dark complexion... his black, unpowdered hair hung down evenly over both shoulders", but that, despite his slight and unkempt appearance, "his looks and expression were earnest and powerful."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKircheisen1932129-405">[398]</a> English painter <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Farington" title="Joseph Farington">Joseph Farington</a>, who met him in 1802, said Bonaparte's eyes were "lighter, and more of a grey, than I should have expected from his complexion", that "his person is below middle size", and that "his general aspect was milder than I had before thought it."<a href="#cite_note-406">[399]</a> In his later years Napoleon gained weight and had a sallow complexion. Novelist Paul de Kock, who saw him in 1811, called Napoleon "yellow, obese, and bloated".<a href="#cite_note-407">[400]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the British press depicted Napoleon as a dangerous <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>, poised to invade. A nursery rhyme warned children that he ate naughty people; the "<a href="/wiki/Bogeyman" title="Bogeyman">bogeyman</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts200493-408">[401]</a> He was mocked as a short-tempered small man and was nicknamed "Little Boney in a strong fit".<a href="#cite_note-nationalpostBoney2-409">[402]</a> In fact, at about 170 cm (5 ft 7 in), he was of average height.<a href="#cite_note-410">[403]</a><a href="#cite_note-411">[404]</a> He is often portrayed wearing a large <a href="/wiki/Bicorne" title="Bicorne">bicorne</a> hat—sideways—with a <a href="/wiki/Hand-in-waistcoat" title="Hand-in-waistcoat">hand-in-waistcoat</a> gesture—a reference to the painting produced in 1812 by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBordes2007118-412">[405]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Reforms">Reforms</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg/400px-Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="303" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2272"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 303px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg/400px-Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg" data-width="400" data-height="303" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg/600px-Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg/800px-Debret_-_Premiere_distribution_des_decorations_de_la_Legion_d%27honneur.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>First remittance of the Legion of Honour, 15 July 1804, at <a href="/wiki/Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">Saint-Louis des Invalides</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Debret" title="Jean-Baptiste Debret">Jean-Baptiste Debret</a> (1812)</figcaption></figure>Napoleon instituted numerous reforms, many of which had a lasting influence on France, Europe and the world. He reformed the French administration, codified French law, implemented a new education system, and established the first French central bank, the <a href="/wiki/Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Banque de France</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201553%E2%80%9356-413">[406]</a> He negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a> with the Catholic Church, which sought to reconcile the majority Catholic population to his regime. It was presented alongside the <a href="/wiki/Organic_Articles" title="Organic Articles">Organic Articles</a>, which regulated public worship in France. He also implemented civil and religious equality for Protestants and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200437%E2%80%9340-414">[407]</a> In May 1802, he instituted the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a> to encourage civilian and military achievements. The order is still the highest decoration in France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaufarb2008101%E2%80%9310-415">[408]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200449%E2%80%9351-416">[409]</a> He introduced three French constitutions culminating in the reintroduction of a hereditary monarchy and nobility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200429-35,_51-53-417">[410]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administration">Administration</h3></div> Napoleon introduced a series of centralizing administrative reforms soon after taking power. In 1800, he established prefects appointed to run France's regional departments, sub-prefects to run districts and mayors to run towns. Local representative bodies were retained, but their powers were reduced and indirect elections with a high property qualification replaced direct elections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200475%E2%80%9376-418">[411]</a> Real power in the regions was now in the hands of the prefects who were judged by how they met the main priorities of Napoleon's government: efficient administration, law and order, stimulating the local economy, gathering votes for plebiscites, conscripting soldiers and provisioning the army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196324%E2%80%9325-419">[412]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200476-420">[413]</a> An enduring reform was the foundation, in December 1799, of the <a href="/wiki/Conseil_d%27%C3%89tat_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conseil d'État (France)">Council of State</a>, an advisory body of experts which could also draft laws for submission to the legislative body. Napoleon drew many of his ministers and ambassadors from the council. It was the council which undertook the codification of French law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196321%E2%80%9323-421">[414]</a> After several attempts by revolutionary governments, Napoleon officially introduced the <a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">metric system</a> in France in 1801 and it was spread through western Europe by his armies.<a href="#cite_note-422">[415]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'ConnorRobertson2003-423">[416]</a> The new system was unpopular in some circles, so in 1812 he introduced a compromise system in the retail trade called the <a href="/wiki/Mesures_usuelles" title="Mesures usuelles">mesures usuelles</a> (traditional units of measurement).<a href="#cite_note-H&H2-424">[417]</a> In December 1805, Napoleon abolished the Revolutionary calendar, with its ten-day week, which had been introduced in 1793.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984234-425">[418]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Napoleonic_Code">Napoleonic Code</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Code" title="Napoleonic Code">Napoleonic Code</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Code_Civil_1804.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Page of French writing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/220px-Code_Civil_1804.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="762"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 264px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/220px-Code_Civil_1804.png" data-alt="Page of French writing" data-width="220" data-height="264" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/330px-Code_Civil_1804.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Code_Civil_1804.png/440px-Code_Civil_1804.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>First page of the 1804 original edition of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_code" title="Civil code">Code Civil</a></figcaption></figure> Napoleon's <a href="/wiki/Civil_code" title="Civil code">civil code of laws</a>, known from 1807 as the Napoleonic Code, was implemented in March 1804. It was prepared by committees of legal experts under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques-R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" title="Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès">Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès</a>, the Second Consul. Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_State_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State (France)">Council of State</a> that revised the drafts. The code introduced a clearly written and accessible set of national laws to replace the various regional and customary law systems that had operated in France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200441-426">[419]</a> The civil code entrenched the principles of equality before the law, religious toleration, secure property rights, equal inheritance for all legitimate children, and the abolition of the vestiges of feudalism. However, it also reduced the rights of women and children and severely restricted the grounds for divorce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196327-28-427">[420]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a577-78-428">[421]</a> A criminal code was promulgated in 1808, and eventually seven codes of law were produced under Napoleon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200443%E2%80%9344-429">[422]</a> The Napoleonic code was carried by Napoleon's armies across Europe and influenced the law in many parts of the world. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cobban" title="Alfred Cobban">Alfred Cobban</a> described it as, "the most effective agency for the propagation of the basic principles of the French Revolution."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196328-430">[423]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warfare">Warfare</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">Napoleonic weaponry and warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Napoleon" title="Military career of Napoleon">Military career of Napoleon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Photo of a grey and phosphorous-coloured equestrian statue. Napoleon is seated on the horse, which is rearing up, he looks forward with his right hand raised and pointing forward; his left hand holds the reins." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg/170px-Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="794"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg/170px-Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg" data-alt="Photo of a grey and phosphorous-coloured equestrian statue. Napoleon is seated on the horse, which is rearing up, he looks forward with his right hand raised and pointing forward; his left hand holds the reins." data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg/255px-Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg/340px-Napoleon_a_Cherbourg_bordercropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Statue in <a href="/wiki/Cherbourg-Octeville" title="Cherbourg-Octeville">Cherbourg-Octeville</a> unveiled by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> in 1858. Napoleon I strengthened the town's defences to prevent British naval incursions.</figcaption></figure> In the field of <a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">military organization</a>, Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Antoine_Hippolyte,_Comte_de_Guibert" title="Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert">Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert</a>, and from the reforms of preceding French governments, and then developed what was already in place. He continued the Revolutionary policies of conscription and promotion based primarily on merit.<a href="#cite_note-Archer-431">[424]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlynn200116-432">[425]</a> <a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">Corps</a> replaced divisions as the largest army units, <a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery" title="Self-propelled artillery">mobile artillery</a> was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare.<a href="#cite_note-Archer-431">[424]</a> Napoleon was regarded by the influential military theorist <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Carl von Clausewitz</a> as a genius in the art of war, and many historians rank him as a great military commander.<a href="#cite_note-Archer-431">[424]</a> Wellington considered him the greatest military commander of all time,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2004272-433">[426]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Vassall-Fox,_3rd_Baron_Holland" title="Henry Vassall-Fox, 3rd Baron Holland">Henry Vassall-Fox</a> called him "the greatest statesman and the ablest general of ancient or modern times".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts200159-434">[427]</a> Cobban states that he showed his genius in moving troops quickly and concentrating them on strategic points.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196346%E2%80%9347-435">[428]</a> His principles were to keep his forces united, keep no weak point unguarded, seize important points quickly, and seize his chance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200490-436">[429]</a> Owen Connelly, however, states, "Napoleon's personal tactics defy analysis." He used his intuition, engaged his troops, and reacted to what developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200493%E2%80%9394-437">[430]</a> Napoleon was an aggressive commander with a preference for the offensive.<a href="#cite_note-438">[431]</a> Under Napoleon, the focus shifted towards destroying enemy armies rather than simply outmanoeuvering them. Wars became more costly and decisive as invasions of enemy territory occurred on larger fronts. The political cost of war also increased, as defeat for a European power now meant more than just losing isolated territories. Peace terms were often punitive, sometimes involving regime change, which intensified the trend towards <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total war</a> since the Revolutionary era.<a href="#cite_note-Archer-431">[424]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201510%E2%80%9313-439">[432]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> Napoleon's educational reforms laid the foundation of a modern system of secondary and tertiary education in France and throughout much of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-440">[433]</a> He synthesized academic elements from the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">The Enlightenment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">the Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-441">[434]</a> His education laws of 1802 left most primary education in the hands of religious or communal schools which taught basic literacy and numeracy for a minority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196334-442">[435]</a> He abolished the revolutionary central schools and replaced them with secondary schools and elite lycées where the curriculum was based on reading, writing, mathematics, Latin, natural history, classics, and ancient history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200458%E2%80%9359-443">[436]</a> He retained the revolutionary higher education system, with grandes écoles in professions including law, medicine, pharmacy, engineering and school teaching. He introduced grandes écoles in history and geography, but opposed one in literature because it was not vocational. He also founded the military academy of Saint Cyr.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200460-444">[437]</a> He promoted the advanced centres, such as the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique" class="mw-redirect" title="École Polytechnique">École Polytechnique</a>, that provided both military expertise and advanced research in science.<a href="#cite_note-445">[438]</a> In 1808, he founded the Imperial University, a supervisory body with control over curriculum and discipline. The following year he introduced the baccalaureate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200459-446">[439]</a> The system was designed to produce the efficient bureaucrats, technicians, professionals and military officers that the Napoleonic state required. It outperformed its European counterparts, many of which borrowed from the French system.<a href="#cite_note-447">[440]</a> Female education, in contrast, was designed to be practical and religious, based on home science, the catechism, basic literacy and numeracy, and enough science to eradicate superstition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200460%E2%80%9361-448">[441]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobility_and_honours">Nobility and honours</h3></div> In May 1802, Bonaparte created the Legion of Honour whose members would be military personnel and civilians with distinguished service to the state. The new institution was unpopular with republicans and the measure only passed by 14 votes to 10 in the Council of State.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200449-449">[442]</a> The Legion of Honour became an order of chivalry after the empire was proclaimed in 1804. In August 1806, Napoleon created an hereditary imperial nobility including princes, dukes, counts, barons and knights. Eventually the empire had over 3,000 nobles and more than 30,000 members of the Legion of Honour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZamoyski2018358,_398%E2%80%9399-450">[443]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200450%E2%80%9351-451">[444]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Memory_and_evaluation">Memory and evaluation</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Legacy of Napoleon</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/220px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="29294" data-file-height="22626"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 170px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/220px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="170" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/330px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg/440px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_thin_black_margin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Third_of_May_1808" title="The Third of May 1808">The Third of May 1808</a> by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Francisco Goya</a>, showing Spanish resisters being executed by French troops</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_(1817).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg/220px-Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1629" data-file-height="1236"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 167px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg/220px-Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="167" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg/330px-Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg/440px-Plate_L_from_%27An_Historical_Account_of_the_Campaign_in_the_Netherlands%27_by_William_Mudford_%281817%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A mass grave of soldiers killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a></figcaption></figure>There is debate over whether Napoleon was "an <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened despot</a> who laid the foundations of modern Europe" or "a <a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder" title="Narcissistic personality disorder">megalomaniac</a> who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler".<a href="#cite_note-452">[445]</a> He was compared to <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Geyl" title="Pieter Geyl">Pieter Geyl</a> in 1947,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl19497%E2%80%9310-453">[446]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claude_Ribbe" title="Claude Ribbe">Claude Ribbe</a> in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-454">[447]</a> Most modern critics of Napoleon, however, reject the Hitler comparison, arguing that Napoleon did not commit genocide and did not engage in the mass murder and imprisonment of his political opponents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997666%E2%80%9367-455">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1973xliii-456">[449]</a> Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/David_A._Bell" title="David A. Bell">David A. Bell</a> and McLynn condemn his killing of 3,000–5,000 Turkish prisoners of war in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201539%E2%80%9340-109">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280-110">[105]</a> A number of historians have argued that his expansionist foreign policy was a major factor in the Napoleonic wars,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a574-457">[450]</a><a href="#cite_note-458">[451]</a> which cost six million lives and caused economic disruption for a generation.<a href="#cite_note-459">[452]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997666-460">[453]</a> McLynn and <a href="/wiki/Correlli_Barnett" title="Correlli Barnett">Correlli Barnett</a> suggest that Napoleon's reputation as a military genius is exaggerated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199741,_53,_75,_103-461">[454]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997665-462">[455]</a> Cobban and Susan P. Conner argue that Napoleon had insufficient regard for the lives of his soldiers and that his battle tactics led to excessive casualties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196319-463">[456]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200462,_105%E2%80%9307-464">[457]</a> Critics also cite Napoleon's exploitation of conquered territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997665-462">[455]</a> To finance his wars, Napoleon increased taxes and levies of troops from annexed territories and satellite states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200481%E2%80%9382-465">[458]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196329,_46-466">[459]</a> He also introduced discriminatory tariff policies which promoted French trade at the expense of allies and satellite states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196352-467">[460]</a> He institutionalized plunder: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon's forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Musée du Louvre</a> for a grand central museum; an example which would later be followed by others.<a href="#cite_note-468">[461]</a> Many historians have criticized Napoleon's authoritarian rule, especially after 1807, which included censorship, the closure of independent newspapers, the bypassing of direct elections and representative government, the dismissal of judges showing independence, and the exile of critics of the regime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a574%E2%80%9376,_582%E2%80%9384-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200432%E2%80%9334-469">[462]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201552-13">[10]</a> Historians also blame Napoleon for reducing the civil rights of women, children and people of colour, and reintroducing the legal penalties of <a href="/wiki/Civil_death" title="Civil death">civil death</a> and confiscation of property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a578,_584-470">[463]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200432%E2%80%9334-469">[462]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196327-28-427">[420]</a> His reintroduction of an hereditary monarchy and nobility remains controversial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200449-449">[442]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a579%E2%80%9384-471">[464]</a> His role in the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> and decision to reinstate slavery in France's colonies in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean adversely affect his reputation.<a href="#cite_note-Repa22-472">[465]</a><a href="#cite_note-473">[466]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propaganda_and_memory">Propaganda and memory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_propaganda" title="Napoleonic propaganda">Napoleonic propaganda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg/290px-Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="238" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3545" data-file-height="2910"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 238px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg/290px-Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg" data-width="290" data-height="238" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg/435px-Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg/580px-Napoleon%27s_exile_to_Elba3.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1814 English caricature of Napoleon being exiled to <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a>: the ex-emperor is riding a donkey backwards while holding a broken sword.</figcaption></figure> Napoleon's use of propaganda contributed to his rise to power, legitimated his regime, and established his image for posterity. Strict censorship and control of the <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">press</a>, books, theatre, and art were part of his propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing peace and stability to France. Propaganda focused on his role first as a general then as a civil leader and emperor. He fostered a relationship with artists, commissioning and controlling different forms of art to suit his propaganda goals.<a href="#cite_note-474">[467]</a> Napoleonic propaganda survived his exile to Saint Helena. Las Cases, who was with Napoleon in exile, published <a href="/wiki/The_Memorial_of_Saint_Helena" title="The Memorial of Saint Helena">The Memorial of Saint Helena</a> in 1822, creating a legend of Napoleon as a liberal, visionary proponent of European unification, deposed by reactionary elements of the Ancien Régime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice2014262-475">[468]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell2015106-476">[469]</a> Napoleon remained a central figure in the romantic art and literature of the 1820s and 1830s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell2015107-477">[470]</a> The Napoleonic legend played a key role in collective political defiance of the Bourbon restoration monarchy in 1815–1830. People from different walks of life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections with the ideals of the 1789 Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-Memory-478">[471]</a> The defiance manifested itself in seditious materials, displaying the tricolour and rosettes. There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleon's life and reign and disrupting royal celebrations.<a href="#cite_note-Memory-478">[471]</a> Bell sees the return of Napoleon's remains to France in 1840 as an attempt by Louis-Phillipe to prop up his unpopular regime by associating it with Napoleon, and that the regime of Napoleon III was only possible due to the continued resonance of the Napoleonic legend.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell2015107%E2%80%93109-479">[472]</a> Venita Datta argues that following the collapse of militaristic <a href="/wiki/Georges_Ernest_Boulanger" title="Georges Ernest Boulanger">Boulangism</a> in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic legend was divorced from party politics and revived in popular culture. Writers and critics of the <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a> exploited the Napoleonic legend for diverse political and cultural ends.<a href="#cite_note-480">[473]</a> In the 21st century, Napoleon appears regularly in popular fiction, drama and advertising. Napoleon and his era remain major topics of historical research with a sharp increase in historical books, articles and symposia during the bicentenary years of 1999 to 2015.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell2015109%E2%80%9312-481">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-482">[475]</a><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Napoleon Crossing the Alps, romantic version by Jacques-Louis David in 1805"><noscript><img alt="Napoleon Crossing the Alps, romantic version by Jacques-Louis David in 1805" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg/167px-Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4897" data-file-height="5850"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 167px;height: 200px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg/167px-Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg" data-alt="Napoleon Crossing the Alps, romantic version by Jacques-Louis David in 1805" data-width="167" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg/251px-Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg/335px-Napoleon_at_the_Great_St._Bernard_-_Jacques-Louis_David_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps" title="Napoleon Crossing the Alps">Napoleon Crossing the Alps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romantic</a> version by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a> in 1805</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, realist version by Paul Delaroche in 1848"><noscript><img alt="Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, realist version by Paul Delaroche in 1848" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/155px-Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1977" data-file-height="2545"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 155px;height: 200px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/155px-Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg" data-alt="Bonaparte Crossing the Alps, realist version by Paul Delaroche in 1848" data-width="155" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/233px-Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/311px-Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Bonaparte_Crossing_the_Alps" title="Bonaparte Crossing the Alps">Bonaparte Crossing the Alps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">realist</a> version by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Delaroche" title="Paul Delaroche">Paul Delaroche</a> in 1848</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Moscow_(1812)._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Moscow (1812). Napoleon leaves the Kremlin, part of the French occupation of Moscow, painting by Maurice Orange."><noscript><img alt="Moscow (1812). Napoleon leaves the Kremlin, part of the French occupation of Moscow, painting by Maurice Orange." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg/141px-Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 141px;height: 200px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg/141px-Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg" data-alt="Moscow (1812). Napoleon leaves the Kremlin, part of the French occupation of Moscow, painting by Maurice Orange." data-width="141" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg/212px-Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg/283px-Moscow_%281812%29._Napoleon_leaves_the_Kremlin.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Moscow (1812). Napoleon leaves the Kremlin, part of the <a href="/wiki/French_occupation_of_Moscow" title="French occupation of Moscow">French occupation of Moscow</a>, painting by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Orange" title="Maurice Orange">Maurice Orange</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term_influence_outside_France">Long-term influence outside France</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_(1769-1821).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg/170px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2379" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 214px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg/170px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="214" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg/255px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg/340px-Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Napoleon_I_%281769-1821%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bas-reliefs_in_the_chamber_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" class="extiw" title="commons:Bas-reliefs in the chamber of the United States House of Representatives">Bas-relief</a> of Napoleon in the chamber of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a></figcaption></figure>Napoleon was responsible for spreading many of the values of the French Revolution to other countries, especially through the Napoleonic Code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrab20172016ff-483">[476]</a> After the fall of Napoleon, it continued to influence the law in western Europe and other parts of the world including Latin America, the Dominican Republic, Louisiana and Quebec.<a href="#cite_note-484">[477]</a> Napoleon's regime abolished remnants of feudalism in the lands he conquered and in his satellite states. He liberalized <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property laws</a>, ended <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a>, abolished the <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guild</a> of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalized divorce, closed the Jewish <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a> and ended the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a> was proclaimed for all men.<a href="#cite_note-485">[478]</a> Napoleon reorganized what had been the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, made up of about three hundred <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kleinstaaten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kleinstaaten (page does not exist)">Kleinstaaten</a>, into a more streamlined forty-state <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>; this helped promote the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of Germany</a> in 1871, as it sparked a new wave of <a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German nationalism</a> that opposed the French intervention.<a href="#cite_note-486">[479]</a> The movement toward <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Italian unification</a> was similarly sparked by Napoleonic rule.<a href="#cite_note-487">[480]</a> These changes contributed to the development of nationalism and the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-488">[481]</a> The Napoleonic invasion of Spain and ousting of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy had a significant effect on <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Spanish America</a>. Many local elites sought to rule in the name of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII of Spain</a>, whom they considered the legitimate monarch. Napoleon indirectly began the process of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Latin American independence</a> when the power vacuum was filled by local political leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn" title="José de San Martín">José de San Martín</a>. Such leaders embraced nationalistic sentiments influenced by French nationalism and led successful independence movements in Latin America.<a href="#cite_note-489">[482]</a><a href="#cite_note-490">[483]</a> Napoleon's reputation is generally favourable in Poland, which is the only country in the world to evoke him in its national anthem, <a href="/wiki/Poland_Is_Not_Yet_Lost" title="Poland Is Not Yet Lost">Poland Is Not Yet Lost</a>.<a href="#cite_note-491">[484]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Children">Children</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg/190px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="292" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1238" data-file-height="1902"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 190px;height: 292px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg/190px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg" data-width="190" data-height="292" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg/285px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg/380px-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pascal_Simon_G%C3%A9rard_004b.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Empress <a href="/wiki/Marie_Louise,_Duchess_of_Parma" title="Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma">Marie Louise</a> and her <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_II" title="Napoleon II">son Napoleon</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard" title="François Gérard">François Gérard</a>, 1813</figcaption></figure> Napoleon married Joséphine in 1796, but the marriage produced no children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013320%E2%80%9321-492">[485]</a> In 1806, he adopted his step-son, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Beauharnais" title="Eugène de Beauharnais">Eugène de Beauharnais</a> (1781–1824), and his second cousin, <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phanie_de_Beauharnais" title="Stéphanie de Beauharnais">Stéphanie de Beauharnais</a> (1789–1860), and arranged dynastic marriages for them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997318-19-493">[486]</a> Napoleon's marriage to Marie Louise produced one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (<a href="/wiki/Napoleon_II" title="Napoleon II">Napoleon II</a>) (1811–1832), known from birth as the <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Romans" title="King of the Romans">King of Rome</a>. When Napoleon abdicated in 1815 he named his son his successor as "Napoleon II", but the allies refused to recognize him. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reichstadt in 1818 and died of <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> aged 21, with no children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984203-494">[487]</a><a href="#cite_note-McLynn_1997,_p.6632-495">[488]</a> Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son: <a href="/wiki/Charles_L%C3%A9on" title="Charles Léon">Charles Léon</a> (1806–1881) by <a href="/wiki/El%C3%A9onore_Denuelle_de_La_Plaigne" title="Eléonore Denuelle de La Plaigne">Eléonore Denuelle de La Plaigne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984105-496">[489]</a><a href="#cite_note-m6302-497">[490]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Colonna-Walewski" title="Alexandre Colonna-Walewski">Alexandre Colonna-Walewski</a> (1810–1868), the son of his Polish mistress <a href="/wiki/Maria_Walewska" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Walewska">Maria Walewska</a>, was also widely known to be his child,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013320%E2%80%9321-492">[485]</a> as DNA evidence has confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-498">[491]</a> He may have had further illegitimate offspring.<a href="#cite_note-McLynn4232-499">[492]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Titles">Titles</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/First_Consul_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="First Consul of France">First Consul of the French Republic</a><a href="#cite_note-500">[493]</a> 13 December 1799 – 18 May 1804 with <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques-R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" title="Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès">Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Himself as Emperor</div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Republic" title="Cisalpine Republic">Cisalpine Directory</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Republic_(Napoleonic)" title="Italian Republic (Napoleonic)">President of the Italian Republic</a><a href="#cite_note-501">[494]</a> 26 January 1802 – 18 May 1805 with <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Melzi_d%27Eril" title="Francesco Melzi d'Eril">Francesco Melzi d'Eril</a> as Vicepresident </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Himself as King</div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Assembly</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Mediation" title="Act of Mediation">Mediator of the Swiss Confederation</a><a href="#cite_note-502">[495]</a> 19 February 1803 – 29 December 1813 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_and_Regeneration_in_Switzerland" title="Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland">Swiss Restoration</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Himself as <a href="/wiki/First_Consul" class="mw-redirect" title="First Consul">First Consul</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a> as <a href="/wiki/King_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="King of France">King of France</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">Emperor of the French</a><a href="#cite_note-503">[496]</a> as Napoleon I 18 May 1804 – 6 April 1814 20 March – 22 June 1815 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a> as <a href="/wiki/King_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="King of France">King of France</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Himself as President</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">King of Italy</a><a href="#cite_note-504">[497]</a> 17 March 1805 – 6 April 1814 with <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Beauharnais" title="Eugène de Beauharnais">Eugène de Beauharnais</a> as <a href="/wiki/Viceroy" title="Viceroy">Viceroy</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Vacant<div style="font-size:90%">Title next held by</div><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II" title="Victor Emmanuel II">Victor Emmanuel II</a> in 1861 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis II</a> (Emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Protector_of_the_Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine">Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine</a><a href="#cite_note-505">[498]</a><a href="#cite_note-506">[499]</a> 12 July 1806 – 4 November 1813 with <a href="/wiki/Karl_Theodor_Anton_Maria_von_Dalberg" title="Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg">Karl von Dalberg</a> as <a href="/wiki/Prince-primate" title="Prince-primate">Prince-primate</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Francis_I,_Emperor_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis I, Emperor of Austria">Francis II (I)</a> (Head of the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>)</div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Himself as Emperor</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">Prince of Elba</a><a href="#cite_note-507">[500]</a> 11 April 1814 – 26 February 1815 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold">Himself as Emperor</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Arms">Arms</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Armorial_of_the_First_French_Empire" title="Armorial of the First French Empire">Armorial of the First French Empire</a></div> On becoming emperor, Napoleon adopted the <a href="/wiki/French_Imperial_Eagle" title="French Imperial Eagle">French Imperial Eagle</a> as his arms.<a href="#cite_note-508">[501]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center" style="background-color:white"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px;background-color:white"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="background-color:White">Imperial Arms of Napoleon</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:141px;max-width:141px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Arms of Napoleon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg/139px-Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="139" height="161" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="594"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 139px;height: 161px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg/139px-Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg.png" data-alt="Arms of Napoleon" data-width="139" data-height="161" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg/209px-Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg/278px-Arms_of_the_French_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Arms: Azure, an Eagle Or, head facing to the sinister, clutching in its talons a Thunderbolt Or.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="background-color:white;width:147px;max-width:147px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:161px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_(1804-1815).svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg/145px-Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="145" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2229"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 145px;height: 162px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg/145px-Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="145" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg/218px-Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg/290px-Imperial_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_%281804-1815%29.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Achievement of Napoleon</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption" style="background-color:White">Arms and Achievement of Napoleon<a href="#cite_note-Neubecker-509">[502]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-Louda-510">[503]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-511">[504]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-Lamarque21-512">[505]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-513">[506]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-514">[507]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-Roret1854-515">[508]</a> · <a href="#cite_note-516">[509]</a></div></div></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-louis_reign-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-louis_reign_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-louis_reign_1-1">b</a> As <a href="/wiki/King_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="King of France">King of France</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> English: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/nəˈpoʊliən ˈboʊnəpɑːrt/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">nə-POH-lee-ən BOH-nə-part</a>; French: Napoléon Bonaparte <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[napɔleɔ̃ bɔnapaʁt]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Italian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[napoleˈoːne ˌbwɔnaˈparte]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Corsican_language" title="Corsican language">Corsican</a>: Napulione Buonaparte <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Corsican" title="Help:IPA/Corsican">[napuliˈɔnɛ ˌbwɔnaˈbartɛ]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1768)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1768)">1768 Treaty of Versailles</a> formally ceded Corsica's rights, it remained un-incorporated during 1769<a href="#cite_note-McLynn-1997b-19">[16]</a> until it became one of the <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_France" title="Provinces of France">Provinces of France</a> in 1770.<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> Corsica would be legally integrated as a <a href="/wiki/Departments_of_France" title="Departments of France">département</a> in 1789.<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014142-22">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Aside from his name, there does not appear to be a connection between him and <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_theorem" title="Napoleon's theorem">Napoleon's theorem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells199274-34">[30]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> This is depicted in <a href="/wiki/Bonaparte_Crossing_the_Alps" title="Bonaparte Crossing the Alps">Bonaparte Crossing the Alps</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Delaroche" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippolyte Delaroche">Hippolyte Delaroche</a> and in Jacques-Louis David's imperial Napoleon Crossing the Alps. He is less realistically portrayed on a <a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">charger</a> in the latter work.<a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> There were actually three versions of the act written on 4 April 1814. The final signed version explicitly refers to "Napoleon II" as his successor.<a href="#cite_note-283">[277]</a> </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2008axv-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2008axv_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2008a">Dwyer (2008a)</a>, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrab200356-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrab200356_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrab2003">Grab (2003)</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-Broers-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Broers_6-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBroersHicksGuimera2012" class="citation book cs1">Broers, M.; Hicks, P.; Guimera, A. (10 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MMgIBFA5AcUC&pg=PA230">The Napoleonic Empire and the New European Political Culture</a>. Springer. p. 230. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-27139-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-27139-6"><bdi>978-1-137-27139-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040241/https://books.google.com/books?id=MMgIBFA5AcUC&pg=PA230">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Napoleonic+Empire+and+the+New+European+Political+Culture&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012-10-10&rft.isbn=978-1-137-27139-6&rft.aulast=Broers&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hicks%2C+P.&rft.au=Guimera%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMMgIBFA5AcUC%26pg%3DPA230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200438–40-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200438%E2%80%9340_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200438%E2%80%9340_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 38–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPérez2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P%C3%A9rez" title="Joseph Pérez">Pérez, Joseph</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9oL0js9g5kkC&pg=PA98">The Spanish Inquisition: A History</a>. Yale University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11982-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11982-4"><bdi>978-0-300-11982-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040241/https://books.google.com/books?id=9oL0js9g5kkC&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Inquisition%3A+A+History&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-300-11982-4&rft.aulast=P%C3%A9rez&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9oL0js9g5kkC%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004336-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFremont-BarnesFisher2004336_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFremont-BarnesFisher2004">Fremont-Barnes & Fisher (2004)</a>, p. 336. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrab2017204–211-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrab2017204%E2%80%93211_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrab2017">Grab (2017)</a>, pp. 204–211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a574–76,_582–84-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a574%E2%80%9376,_582%E2%80%9384_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a574%E2%80%9376,_582%E2%80%9384_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2015a">Dwyer (2015a)</a>, pp. 574–76, 582–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200432–34,_50–51-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200432%E2%80%9334,_50%E2%80%9351_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 32–34, 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201552-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201552_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201552_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201552_13-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBell2015">Bell (2015)</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Repa222-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Repa222_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRepa2005" class="citation news cs1">Repa, Jan (2 December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4491668.stm">"Furore over Austerlitz ceremony"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100420234710/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4491668.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2010. Retrieved 5 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Furore+over+Austerlitz+ceremony&rft.date=2005-12-02&rft.aulast=Repa&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F4491668.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZamoyski2018">Zamoyski (2018)</a>, pp. xiv, 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-dwyerxv2-18"><a href="#cite_ref-dwyerxv2_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2008a">Dwyer (2008a)</a>, p. xv </li> <li id="cite_note-McLynn-1997b-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McLynn-1997b_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McLynn-1997b_19-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Corsica">"Corsica"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171128091618/https://www.britannica.com/place/Corsica">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Corsica&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FCorsica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2014142-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2014142_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2014">Roberts (2014)</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZamoyski2018">Zamoyski (2018)</a>, pp. 13–17 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellis22-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Ellis22_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1997b" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Geoffrey (1997b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QlzJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">"Chapter 2"</a>. Napoleon. Pearson Education Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317874690" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317874690"><bdi>978-1317874690</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220822095518/https://books.google.com/books?id=QlzJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Archived</a> from the original on 22 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2&rft.btitle=Napoleon&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1317874690&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQlzJAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECronin199420–21-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECronin199420%E2%80%9321_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECronin199420%E2%80%9321_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCronin1994">Cronin (1994)</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZamoyski2018">Zamoyski (2018)</a>, pp. 16–20 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamberlain1896" class="citation book cs1">Chamberlain, Alexander (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fcYZlz0ezQUC&q=%22The+future+destiny+of+the+child+is+always+the+work+of+the+mother%22&pg=PA385">The Child and Childhood in Folk Thought: (The Child in Primitive Culture)</a>. MacMillan. p. 385. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4219-8748-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4219-8748-4"><bdi>978-1-4219-8748-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227171711/https://books.google.com/books?id=fcYZlz0ezQUC&q=%22The+future+destiny+of+the+child+is+always+the+work+of+the+mother%22&pg=PA385#v=onepage&q=%22The%20future%20destiny%20of%20the%20child%20is%20always%20the%20work%20of%20the%20mother%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024. 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(1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286104">"The Formation of Napoleon's Personality: An Exploratory Essay"</a>. French Historical Studies. 7 (1): 6–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F286104">10.2307/286104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-1071">0016-1071</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286104">286104</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180225135113/https://www.jstor.org/stable/286104">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2018. 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Indiana University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-11093-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-11093-0"><bdi>978-0-253-11093-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040239/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ya9hFI4h28C&pg=PA48">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. 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Virchows Archiv. 2021 (479): 1055–1060. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00428-021-03061-1">10.1007/s00428-021-03061-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8572813">8572813</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33661330">33661330</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227173042/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00428-021-03061-1">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 28 November 2023 – via Springer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virchows+Archiv&rft.atitle=The+gastric+disease+of+Napoleon+Bonaparte%3A+brief+report+for+the+bicentenary+of+Napoleon%27s+death+on+St.+Helena+in+1821&rft.volume=2021&rft.issue=479&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1055-%3C%2Fspan%3E1060&rft.date=2021-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8572813%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33661330&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00428-021-03061-1&rft.aulast=Lugli&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rft.au=Carneiro%2C+Fatima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs00428-021-03061-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cullen1562-340"><a href="#cite_ref-cullen1562_340-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCullen2008" class="citation book cs1">Cullen, William (2008). 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Vol. 2. Redfield. p. 94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Life%2C+Exile%2C+and+Conversations+of+the+Emperor+Napoleon&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Redfield&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Cases&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel-Auguste-Dieudonn%C3%A9+comte+de+Las+Cases&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5XUuAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a244–45-357">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a244%E2%80%9345_357-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a244%E2%80%9345_357-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllis1997a">Ellis (1997a)</a>, pp. 244–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> William Roberts (1999), "Napoleon, the Concordat of 1801, and Its Consequences". in by Frank J. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 261–262. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46592-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46592-2"><bdi>978-0-521-46592-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040240/https://books.google.com/books?id=r7yVDUMVITkC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+and+Revolutionary+Europe%2C+1750-1830&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E261-%3C%2Fspan%3E262&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-46592-2&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr7yVDUMVITkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleon-and-the-pope-from-the-concordat-to-the-excommunication/">"Napoleon and the Pope: From the Concordat to the Excommunication"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180124005648/https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/napoleon-and-the-pope-from-the-concordat-to-the-excommunication/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Napoleon+and+the+Pope%3A+From+the+Concordat+to+the+Excommunication&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon.org%2Fen%2Fhistory-of-the-two-empires%2Farticles%2Fnapoleon-and-the-pope-from-the-concordat-to-the-excommunication%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a242,_245-362"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis1997a242,_245_362-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEllis1997a">Ellis (1997a)</a>, pp. 242, 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-McLynn-1997a-363">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McLynn-1997a_363-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McLynn-1997a_363-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, pp. 435–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984160–61-364">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984160%E2%80%9361_364-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984160%E2%80%9361_364-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer1984">Palmer (1984)</a>, pp. 160–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl194915-365"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeyl194915_365-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeyl1949">Geyl (1949)</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135–37,_198-366"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135%E2%80%9337,_198_366-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeyl1949">Geyl (1949)</a>, pp. 135–37, 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318–19-367"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196318%E2%80%9319_367-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, pp. 18–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199788–89-368"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnett199788%E2%80%9389_368-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarnett1997">Barnett (1997)</a>, pp. 88–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201526-369"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201526_369-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBell2015">Bell (2015)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318-370">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196318_370-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196318_370-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280-83-371"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280-83_371-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 280-83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280–81-372"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997280%E2%80%9381_372-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, pp. 280–81. </li> <li id='cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandler1966"Introduction",_pp._3-36-373'><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandler1966%22Introduction%22,_pp._3-36_373-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChandler1966">Chandler (1966)</a>, "Introduction", pp. 3-36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEnglund2010379ff-374"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEnglund2010379ff_374-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEnglund2010">Englund (2010)</a>, p. 379ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHibbert1999" class="citation book cs1">Hibbert, Christopher (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pbQIAQAAMAAJ">Wellington: A Personal History</a>. Da Capo Press. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0148-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0148-1"><bdi>978-0-7382-0148-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wellington%3A+A+Personal+History&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0148-1&rft.aulast=Hibbert&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpbQIAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_Coggins1966" class="citation book cs1">Jack Coggins (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V8qaEDqjkv0C&pg=PA187">Soldiers And Warriors: An Illustrated History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Courier_Dover_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Courier Dover Publications">Courier Dover Publications</a>. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-45257-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-45257-9"><bdi>978-0-486-45257-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207110504/https://books.google.com/books?id=V8qaEDqjkv0C&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soldiers+And+Warriors%3A+An+Illustrated+History&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-486-45257-9&rft.au=Jack+Coggins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV8qaEDqjkv0C%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrice20148-377"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrice20148_377-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrice2014">Price (2014)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196318-19-378"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196318-19_378-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 18-19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279–80-379">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279%E2%80%9380_379-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279%E2%80%9380_379-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, pp. 279–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135–37-380"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135%E2%80%9337_380-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeyl1949">Geyl (1949)</a>, pp. 135–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997277–79-381"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997277%E2%80%9379_381-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, pp. 277–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997287-382"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997287_382-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 287. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135–37,_175-383"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949135%E2%80%9337,_175_383-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeyl1949">Geyl (1949)</a>, pp. 135–37, 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949198-384"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeyl1949198_384-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeyl1949">Geyl (1949)</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196316–17-385"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196316%E2%80%9317_385-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279-80-386"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997279-80_386-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 279-80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196312-387"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196312_387-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997286-388"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997286_388-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 286. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a573-389"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a573_389-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2015a">Dwyer (2015a)</a>, p. 573. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196321-390">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196321_390-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196321_390-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a573,_575–76-391"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a573,_575%E2%80%9376_391-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2015a">Dwyer (2015a)</a>, pp. 573, 575–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196356-392"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196356_392-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a582-393"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a582_393-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2015a">Dwyer (2015a)</a>, p. 582. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196319,_47-394"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196319,_47_394-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, pp. 19, 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200495–96-395"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200495%E2%80%9396_395-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 95–96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeyl194920-396"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeyl194920_396-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGeyl1949">Geyl (1949)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997287–91-397"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997287%E2%80%9391_397-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, pp. 287–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201537-38-398"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201537-38_398-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBell2015">Bell (2015)</a>, p. 37-38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997288–89-399"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997288%E2%80%9389_399-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, pp. 288–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2013">Dwyer (2013)</a>, pp. 175–176 </li> <li id="cite_note-401"><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis2003" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Geoffrey (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-349-08847-8">The Napoleonic Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-08847-8">10.1007/978-1-349-08847-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-4401-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-4401-6"><bdi>978-1-4039-4401-6</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Napoleonic+Empire&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-08847-8&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-4401-6&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-08847-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-402"><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2006" class="citation web cs1">Hall, H.K. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260553327">"Perfectionism: A Hallmark Quality of World Class Performers, or a Psychological Impediment to Athletic Development?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: Meyer & Meyer. pp. 178–211.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Perfectionism%3A+A+Hallmark+Quality+of+World+Class+Performers%2C+or+a+Psychological+Impediment+to+Athletic+Development%3F&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E178-%3C%2Fspan%3E211&rft.pub=Meyer+%26+Meyer&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=H.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F260553327&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997285-403"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997285_403-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-404"><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1971" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, Harold T. (1971). "The Formation of Napoleon's Personality: An Exploratory Essay". French Historical Studies. 7 (1): 6–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F286104">10.2307/286104</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/286104">286104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+Napoleon%27s+Personality%3A+An+Exploratory+Essay&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F286104&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F286104%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=Harold+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKircheisen1932129-405"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKircheisen1932129_405-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKircheisen1932">Kircheisen (1932)</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a> The Fortnightly, Volume 114. Chapman and Hall, 1923. p. 836. </li> <li id="cite_note-407"><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeward1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Seward" title="Desmond Seward">Seward, Desmond</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleonsfamily0000sewa/page/124">Napoleon's family</a>. <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_and_Nicolson" class="mw-redirect" title="Weidenfeld and Nicolson">Weidenfeld and Nicolson</a>. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-78809-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-78809-6"><bdi>978-0-297-78809-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%27s+family&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-297-78809-6&rft.aulast=Seward&rft.aufirst=Desmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonsfamily0000sewa%2Fpage%2F124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts200493-408"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts200493_408-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2004">Roberts (2004)</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-nationalpostBoney2-409"><a href="#cite_ref-nationalpostBoney2_409-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nationalpost.com/news/world/greatest-cartooning-coup-of-all-time-the-brit-who-convinced-everyone-napoleon-was-short">"Greatest cartooning coup of all time: The Brit who convinced everyone Napoleon was short"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Post" title="National Post">National Post</a>. 28 April 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603212831/https://nationalpost.com/news/world/greatest-cartooning-coup-of-all-time-the-brit-who-convinced-everyone-napoleon-was-short">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Post&rft.atitle=Greatest+cartooning+coup+of+all+time%3A+The+Brit+who+convinced+everyone+Napoleon+was+short&rft.date=2016-04-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnationalpost.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fgreatest-cartooning-coup-of-all-time-the-brit-who-convinced-everyone-napoleon-was-short&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-410"><a href="#cite_ref-410">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.napoleon.org/histoire-des-2-empires/articles/la-taille-de-napoleon/">"La taille de Napoléon"</a>. napoleon.org (in French). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160604091554/https://www.napoleon.org/histoire-des-2-empires/articles/la-taille-de-napoleon/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 15 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=napoleon.org&rft.atitle=La+taille+de+Napol%C3%A9on&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.napoleon.org%2Fhistoire-des-2-empires%2Farticles%2Fla-taille-de-napoleon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-411"><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZelazko2023" class="citation web cs1">Zelazko, Alicja (30 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/story/was-napoleon-short">"Was Napoleon Short?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220901070919/https://www.britannica.com/story/was-napoleon-short">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Was+Napoleon+Short%3F&rft.date=2023-11-30&rft.aulast=Zelazko&rft.aufirst=Alicja&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fstory%2Fwas-napoleon-short&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBordes2007118-412"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBordes2007118_412-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBordes2007">Bordes (2007)</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201553–56-413"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201553%E2%80%9356_413-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBell2015">Bell (2015)</a>, pp. 53–56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200437–40-414"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200437%E2%80%9340_414-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 37–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlaufarb2008101–10-415"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlaufarb2008101%E2%80%9310_415-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlaufarb2008">Blaufarb (2008)</a>, pp. 101–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200449–51-416"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200449%E2%80%9351_416-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 49–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200429-35,_51-53-417"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200429-35,_51-53_417-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, p. 29-35, 51-53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200475–76-418"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200475%E2%80%9376_418-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196324–25-419"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196324%E2%80%9325_419-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, pp. 24–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200476-420"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200476_420-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196321–23-421"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196321%E2%80%9323_421-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, pp. 21–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-422"><a href="#cite_ref-422">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1984" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Alan (1984). An Encyclopaedia of Napoleon's Europe. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-78394-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-297-78394-7"><bdi>0-297-78394-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopaedia+of+Napoleon%27s+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+and+Nicolson&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-297-78394-7&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'ConnorRobertson2003-423"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'ConnorRobertson2003_423-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson2003">O'Connor & Robertson (2003)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-H&H2-424"><a href="#cite_ref-H&H2_424-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallockWade1906" class="citation web cs1">Hallock, William; Wade, Herbert T (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/outlinesofevolut00halluoft/outlinesofevolut00halluoft_djvu.txt">"Outlines of the evolution of weights and measures and the metric system"</a>. London: The Macmillan Company. pp. 66–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Outlines+of+the+evolution+of+weights+and+measures+and+the+metric+system&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E66-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Hallock&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Wade%2C+Herbert+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Foutlinesofevolut00halluoft%2Foutlinesofevolut00halluoft_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984234-425"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984234_425-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer1984">Palmer (1984)</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200441-426"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200441_426-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196327-28-427">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196327-28_427-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196327-28_427-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 27-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a577-78-428"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2015a577-78_428-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2015a">Dwyer (2015a)</a>, p. 577-78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200443–44-429"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200443%E2%80%9344_429-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196328-430"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196328_430-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-Archer-431">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_431-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_431-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_431-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Archer_431-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Christon I.; Ferris, John R.; Herwig, Holger H.; Travers, Timothy H. E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0lfSwAEACAAJ">World History of Warfare</a>. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 380–404. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1941-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1941-0"><bdi>978-0-8032-1941-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207110506/https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=0lfSwAEACAAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&hl=es&redir_esc=y">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History+of+Warfare&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E380-%3C%2Fspan%3E404&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1941-0&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Christon+I.&rft.au=Ferris%2C+John+R.&rft.au=Herwig%2C+Holger+H.&rft.au=Travers%2C+Timothy+H.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0lfSwAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlynn200116-432"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlynn200116_432-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlynn2001">Flynn (2001)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts2004272-433"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts2004272_433-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2004">Roberts (2004)</a>, p. 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts200159-434"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoberts200159_434-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoberts2001">Roberts (2001)</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECobban196346–47-435"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECobban196346%E2%80%9347_435-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCobban1963">Cobban (1963)</a>, pp. 46–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200490-436"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200490_436-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConner200493–94-437"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConner200493%E2%80%9394_437-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConner2004">Conner (2004)</a>, pp. 93–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-438"><a href="#cite_ref-438">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRothenbergKeegan2000" class="citation book cs1">Rothenberg, Gunther E.; Keegan, John (2000). The Napoleonic Wars. The Cassell history of warfare. London: Cassell. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-35267-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-35267-8"><bdi>978-0-304-35267-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Napoleonic+Wars&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+Cassell+history+of+warfare&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-304-35267-8&rft.aulast=Rothenberg&rft.aufirst=Gunther+E.&rft.au=Keegan%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell201510–13-439"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBell201510%E2%80%9313_439-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBell2015">Bell (2015)</a>, pp. 10–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-440"><a href="#cite_ref-440">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClive_Emsley2014" class="citation book cs1">Clive Emsley (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L7sbBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">Napoleon: Conquest, Reform and Reorganisation</a>. Routledge. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-61028-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-61028-1"><bdi>978-1-317-61028-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151018173545/https://books.google.com/books?id=L7sbBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+Conquest%2C+Reform+and+Reorganisation&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-61028-1&rft.au=Clive+Emsley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL7sbBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1956" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, L. Pearce (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/226629">"Science, Education and Napoleon I"</a>. Isis. 47 (4): 369–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348507">10.1086/348507</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/226629">226629</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144112149">144112149</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171203115348/https://www.jstor.org/stable/226629">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2017. 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McGraw-Hill. pp. 428–429. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-040826-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-040826-5"><bdi>978-0-07-040826-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+modern+world&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E428-%3C%2Fspan%3E429&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-07-040826-5&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmodernw0000palm_l5v4%2Fpage%2F428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-486"><a href="#cite_ref-486">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheck2008" class="citation book cs1">Scheck, Raffael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QWqtAwAAQBAJ">Germany, 1871-1945: A Concise History</a>. Berg. pp. 11–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84520-817-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84520-817-2"><bdi>978-1-84520-817-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207104231/https://books.google.com/books?id=QWqtAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany%2C+1871-1945%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=Berg&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84520-817-2&rft.aulast=Scheck&rft.aufirst=Raffael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQWqtAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-487"><a href="#cite_ref-487">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstarita2005" class="citation book cs1">Astarita, Tommaso (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betweensaltwater00tomm">Between Salt Water And Holy Water: A History Of Southern Italy</a>. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 264ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-05864-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-05864-6"><bdi>0-393-05864-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Salt+Water+And+Holy+Water%3A+A+History+Of+Southern+Italy&rft.pages=264ff&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-393-05864-6&rft.aulast=Astarita&rft.aufirst=Tommaso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetweensaltwater00tomm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-488"><a href="#cite_ref-488">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlter2006" class="citation book cs1">Alter, Peter (2006). <a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">T. C. W. Blanning</a>; <a href="/wiki/Hagen_Schulze" title="Hagen Schulze">Hagen Schulze</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unitydiversityin0000unse_f1p7">Unity and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 61–76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-726382-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-726382-8"><bdi>0-19-726382-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unity+and+Diversity+in+European+Culture+c.+1800&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-726382-8&rft.aulast=Alter&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funitydiversityin0000unse_f1p7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-489"><a href="#cite_ref-489">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/spanishsetting/pages/crisis.html">"The Crisis of 1808"</a>. www.brown.edu. Brown University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210731113614/https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/spanishsetting/pages/crisis.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.brown.edu&rft.atitle=The+Crisis+of+1808&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brown.edu%2FFacilities%2FJohn_Carter_Brown_Library%2Fexhibitions%2Fspanishsetting%2Fpages%2Fcrisis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-490"><a href="#cite_ref-490">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Lynch_(historian)" title="John Lynch (historian)">John Lynch</a>, Caudillos in Spanish America 1800–1850. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1992, pp. 402–403. </li> <li id="cite_note-491"><a href="#cite_ref-491">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNieuwazny" class="citation web cs1">Nieuwazny, Andrzej. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/napoleon-and-polish-identity">"Napoleon and Polish Identity"</a>. www.historytoday.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207104311/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/napoleon-and-polish-identity">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.historytoday.com&rft.atitle=Napoleon+and+Polish+Identity&rft.aulast=Nieuwazny&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Farchive%2Fnapoleon-and-polish-identity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013320–21-492">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013320%E2%80%9321_492-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDwyer2013320%E2%80%9321_492-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDwyer2013">Dwyer (2013)</a>, pp. 320–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997318-19-493"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLynn1997318-19_493-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 318-19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984203-494"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984203_494-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer1984">Palmer (1984)</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-McLynn_1997,_p.6632-495"><a href="#cite_ref-McLynn_1997,_p.6632_495-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 663 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984105-496"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer1984105_496-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer1984">Palmer (1984)</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-m6302-497"><a href="#cite_ref-m6302_497-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 630 </li> <li id="cite_note-498"><a href="#cite_ref-498">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucotteMacéHrechdakian2013" class="citation journal cs1">Lucotte, Gérard; Macé, Jacques & Hrechdakian, Peter (September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijsciences.com/pub/pdf/V220130935.pdf">"Reconstruction of the Lineage Y Chromosome Haplotype of Napoléon the First"</a> (PDF). International Journal of Sciences. 2 (9): 127–139. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2305-3925">2305-3925</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140406223823/http://www.ijsciences.com/pub/pdf/V220130935.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+of+the+Lineage+Y+Chromosome+Haplotype+of+Napol%C3%A9on+the+First&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E139&rft.date=2013-09&rft.issn=2305-3925&rft.aulast=Lucotte&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft.au=Mac%C3%A9%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Hrechdakian%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijsciences.com%2Fpub%2Fpdf%2FV220130935.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McLynn4232-499"><a href="#cite_ref-McLynn4232_499-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcLynn1997">McLynn (1997)</a>, p. 423 </li> <li id="cite_note-500"><a href="#cite_ref-500">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Constitutions_and_Other_Select_Documents_Illustrative_of_the_History_of_France,_1789%E2%80%931907/58" class="extiw" title="s:The Constitutions and Other Select Documents Illustrative of the History of France, 1789–1907/58">Constitution of 13 December 1799</a> (decreed on the 13th, proclaimed on the 15th) </li> <li id="cite_note-501"><a href="#cite_ref-501">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubben2011" class="citation book cs1">Kubben, Raymond (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z76UjBOEU8cC&pg=PA276">Franco-Batavian Relations in the Revolutionary Era, 1795-1803</a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18558-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18558-6"><bdi>978-90-04-18558-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040849/https://books.google.com/books?id=z76UjBOEU8cC&pg=PA276">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franco-Batavian+Relations+in+the+Revolutionary+Era%2C+1795-1803&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18558-6&rft.aulast=Kubben&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz76UjBOEU8cC%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-502"><a href="#cite_ref-502">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009808/2009-12-08/">Acte de Médiation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040846/https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009808/2009-12-08/">Archived</a> 2 December 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009798/2009-10-29/">Médiation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040847/https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009798/2009-10-29/">Archived</a> 2 December 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-503"><a href="#cite_ref-503">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_XII" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the Year XII">Constitution of 18 May 1804</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-504"><a href="#cite_ref-504">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/fr:Statut_constitutionnel_du_17_mars_1805" class="extiw" title="s:fr:Statut constitutionnel du 17 mars 1805">Statut constitutionnel du 17 mars 1805</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-505"><a href="#cite_ref-505">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/de:Seite:De_Zeumer_V2_532.jpg" class="extiw" title="s:de:Seite:De Zeumer V2 532.jpg">Die Rheinbunds-Akte. – 1806, Juli 12.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-506"><a href="#cite_ref-506">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmsley2014" class="citation book cs1">Emsley, Clive (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6GSPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA246">Napoleonic Europe</a>. Routledge. pp. 246–248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89780-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89780-4"><bdi>978-1-317-89780-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040849/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GSPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA246">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleonic+Europe&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E246-%3C%2Fspan%3E248&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-89780-4&rft.aulast=Emsley&rft.aufirst=Clive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6GSPBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-507"><a href="#cite_ref-507">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1814)" class="extiw" title="s:Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)">Treaty of Fontainebleau, 11 April 1814.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-508"><a href="#cite_ref-508">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoureau1985" class="citation book cs1">Boureau, Alain (1985). "Chp.VI "Un signe de ralliement : l'aigle étatique des États-Unis et de l'Empire français (1776-1804) L'aigle d'Amérique L'aigle de l'Empire français"". L'aigle : chronique politique d'un emblème. Paris: Éditions du Cerf. p. 204.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chp.VI+%22Un+signe+de+ralliement+%3A+l%27aigle+%C3%A9tatique+des+%C3%89tats-Unis+et+de+l%27Empire+fran%C3%A7ais+%281776-1804%29+L%27aigle+d%27Am%C3%A9rique+L%27aigle+de+l%27Empire+fran%C3%A7ais%22&rft.btitle=L%27aigle+%3A+chronique+politique+d%27un+embl%C3%A8me.&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+du+Cerf&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Boureau&rft.aufirst=Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neubecker-509"><a href="#cite_ref-Neubecker_509-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOttfried_Neubecker_&_J_P_Brooke-Little1980" class="citation book cs1">Ottfried Neubecker & J P Brooke-Little (1980). Heraldry: Sources, Symbols and Meanings. The Book Service Ltd. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0354044936" title="Special:BookSources/978-0354044936"><bdi>978-0354044936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heraldry%3A+Sources%2C+Symbols+and+Meanings&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=The+Book+Service+Ltd&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0354044936&rft.au=Ottfried+Neubecker+%26+J+P+Brooke-Little&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Louda-510"><a href="#cite_ref-Louda_510-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJirí_Louda_&_Michael_MacLagan1999" class="citation book cs1">Jirí Louda & Michael MacLagan (1999). Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe. Little, Brown. p. 125. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1856054690" title="Special:BookSources/978-1856054690"><bdi>978-1856054690</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lines+of+Succession%3A+Heraldry+of+the+Royal+Families+of+Europe&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1856054690&rft.au=Jir%C3%AD+Louda+%26+Michael+MacLagan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-511"><a href="#cite_ref-511">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNormand1804" class="citation book cs1">Normand, Charles (1804). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8413215d/f1.zoom">Armes et sceau de l'Empire français</a>. Paris. <q>*The Arms depicts a shield with a golden eagle in front of a blue background, within its talons clutching a thunderbolt. The shield is surrounded by Napoleon's red Imperial mantle, filled with golden bees. The shield is topped by the Imperial crown, which sits atop a golden Imperial helmet. Surrounding the shield is the chain and pendant of the Legion d'honneur. Crossed behind the shield are the Scepters of justice and mercy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Armes+et+sceau+de+l%27Empire+fran%C3%A7ais&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1804&rft.aulast=Normand&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbtv1b8413215d%2Ff1.zoom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lamarque21-512"><a href="#cite_ref-Lamarque21_512-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090202114805/http://ameliefr.club.fr/armorial.html">"ARMORIAL DU PREMIER EMPIRE, Par Philippe LAMARQUE, Index armorum : Michel POPOFF, Iconographie : Gregor JAKUBOWSKI – BARTHEL de WEYDENTHAL, Éditions du Gui, page 21"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ameliefr.club.fr/armorial.html">the original</a> on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 8 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARMORIAL+DU+PREMIER+EMPIRE%2C+Par+Philippe+LAMARQUE%2C+Index+armorum+%3A+Michel+POPOFF%2C+Iconographie+%3A+Gregor+JAKUBOWSKI+%E2%80%93+BARTHEL+de+WEYDENTHAL%2C+%C3%89ditions+du+Gui%2C+page+21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fameliefr.club.fr%2Farmorial.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-513"><a href="#cite_ref-513">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleon.org/fr/essentiels/symbolique/index.asp">Symbolique des armes impériales sur www.napoleon.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-514"><a href="#cite_ref-514">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=8HYxAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA213&dq=Maurice+Gabriel+Joseph+de+Riquet&lr=#PRA1-PA210,M1">Bulletin des lois - France - Google Livres</a> , Publié par Imprimerie impériale, 1809 </li> <li id="cite_note-Roret1854-515"><a href="#cite_ref-Roret1854_515-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoret1854" class="citation book cs1">Roret, Nicolas (1854). Nouveau manuel complet du blason ou code héraldique, archéologique et historique; avec un armorial de l'Empire, une généalogie de la dynastie impériale des Bonaparte jusqu'à nos jours, etc... p. 340.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nouveau+manuel+complet+du+blason+ou+code+h%C3%A9raldique%2C+arch%C3%A9ologique+et+historique%3B+avec+un+armorial+de+l%27Empire%2C+une+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9alogie+de+la+dynastie+imp%C3%A9riale+des+Bonaparte+jusqu%27%C3%A0+nos+jours%2C+etc...&rft.pages=340&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Roret&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-516"><a href="#cite_ref-516">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoureau1985" class="citation book cs1">Boureau, Alain (1985). L'aigle : chronique politique d'un emblème. Paris: Éditions du Cerf.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27aigle+%3A+chronique+politique+d%27un+embl%C3%A8me.&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=%C3%89ditions+du+Cerf&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Boureau&rft.aufirst=Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Napoleon" title="Bibliography of Napoleon">Bibliography of Napoleon</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biographical_studies">Biographical studies</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Correlli_Barnett" title="Correlli Barnett">Barnett, Correlli</a> (1997) [1978]. Bonaparte. Ware: Wordsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8532-6678-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-8532-6678-7"><bdi>1-8532-6678-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bonaparte&rft.place=Ware&rft.pub=Wordsworth&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-8532-6678-7&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Correlli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_A._Bell" title="David A. Bell">Bell, David A.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oNeeCgAAQBAJ">Napoleon: A Concise Biography</a>. Oxford and New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1902-6271-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1902-6271-6"><bdi>978-0-1902-6271-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207110510/https://books.google.com/books?id=oNeeCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+A+Concise+Biography&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-1902-6271-6&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoNeeCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaufarb2008" class="citation book cs1">Blaufarb, Rafe (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleonsymbolfo0000blau/page/100">Napoleon: Symbol for an Age, A Brief History with Documents</a>. Bedford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3124-3110-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3124-3110-5"><bdi>978-0-3124-3110-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+Symbol+for+an+Age%2C+A+Brief+History+with+Documents&rft.pub=Bedford&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-3124-3110-5&rft.aulast=Blaufarb&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonsymbolfo0000blau%2Fpage%2F100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroers2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Broers" title="Michael Broers">Broers, Michael</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/title/898153545">Napoleon: Soldier of Destiny</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Faber_and_Faber" class="mw-redirect" title="Faber and Faber">Faber and Faber</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5712-7345-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5712-7345-4"><bdi>978-0-5712-7345-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240227173211/https://search.worldcat.org/title/898153545">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 27 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+Soldier+of+Destiny&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+and+Faber&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-5712-7345-4&rft.aulast=Broers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2F898153545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroers2022" class="citation book cs1">Broers, Michael (2022). Napoleon: The Decline and Fall of an Empire, 1811-1821. New York: Pegasus books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6393-6177-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6393-6177-9"><bdi>978-1-6393-6177-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+The+Decline+and+Fall+of+an+Empire%2C+1811-1821&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pegasus+books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-6393-6177-9&rft.aulast=Broers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler2002" class="citation book cs1">Chandler, David (2002). Napoleon. Leo Cooper. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8505-2750-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8505-2750-6"><bdi>978-0-8505-2750-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon&rft.pub=Leo+Cooper&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8505-2750-6&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKircheisen1932" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kirchner" title="Friedrich Kirchner">Kircheisen, Friedrich</a> (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cp4fAAAAMAAJ&q=%22earnest+and+powerful%22">Napoleon</a>. Harcourt Brace, & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-6981-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8369-6981-8"><bdi>978-0-8369-6981-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040239/https://books.google.com/books?id=cp4fAAAAMAAJ&q=%22earnest+and+powerful%22">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace%2C+%26+Co.&rft.date=1932&rft.isbn=978-0-8369-6981-8&rft.aulast=Kircheisen&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcp4fAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522earnest%2Band%2Bpowerful%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCronin1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Cronin" title="Vincent Cronin">Cronin, Vincent</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleon0000cron_y3x1">Napoleon</a>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0063-7521-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0063-7521-0"><bdi>978-0-0063-7521-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-0063-7521-0&rft.aulast=Cronin&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleon0000cron_y3x1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2008a" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Philip (2008a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleonpathtopo0000dwye">Napoleon: The Path to Power</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-3754-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-3754-5"><bdi>978-0-3001-3754-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+The+Path+to+Power&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-3754-5&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonpathtopo0000dwye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2013" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Philip (2013). Citizen Emperor: Napoleon in Power 1799-1815. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3002-1253-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3002-1253-2"><bdi>978-0-3002-1253-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizen+Emperor%3A+Napoleon+in+Power+1799-1815&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-3002-1253-2&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2018" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Phillip (2018). Napoleon: Passion, Death and Resurrection, 1815-1840. Oxford: Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-9175-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-9175-9"><bdi>978-1-4088-9175-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+Passion%2C+Death+and+Resurrection%2C+1815-1840&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-9175-9&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglund2010" class="citation book cs1">Englund, Steven (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7_q6b24_hXAC">Napoleon: A Political Life</a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-1803-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6740-1803-7"><bdi>978-0-6740-1803-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040244/https://books.google.com/books?id=7_q6b24_hXAC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+A+Political+Life&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-6740-1803-7&rft.aulast=Englund&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7_q6b24_hXAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGueniffey2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Gueniffey" title="Patrice Gueniffey">Gueniffey, Patrice</a> (2015) [2013]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/bonaparte17691800000guen">Bonaparte: 1769–1802</a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6743-6835-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6743-6835-4"><bdi>978-0-6743-6835-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bonaparte%3A+1769%E2%80%931802&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-6743-6835-4&rft.aulast=Gueniffey&rft.aufirst=Patrice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbonaparte17691800000guen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988">; 1008 pp.; vol 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Bonaparte-1769-1802-Patrice-Gueniffey/dp/0674368355/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019132636/https://www.amazon.com/Bonaparte-1769-1802-Patrice-Gueniffey/dp/0674368355">Archived</a> 19 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/12840/reviews/128469/reynolds-gueniffey-bonaparte-1769-1802">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180323030605/https://networks.h-net.org/node/12840/reviews/128469/reynolds-gueniffey-bonaparte-1769-1802">Archived</a> 23 March 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Lyons" title="Martyn Lyons">Lyons, Martyn</a> (1994). Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution. St. Martin's Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+Bonaparte+and+the+Legacy+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Martyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLynn1997" class="citation book cs1">McLynn, Frank (1997). Napoleon: a Biography. London: Jonathan Cape. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-2240-4072-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-2240-4072-3"><bdi>0-2240-4072-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+a+Biography&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-2240-4072-3&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2014" class="citation book cs1">Price, Munro (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LRaSBAAAQBAJ">Napoleon: The End of Glory</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-6080-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-6080-3"><bdi>978-0-1996-6080-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231205215834/https://books.google.com/books/about/Napoleon.html?id=LRaSBAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+The+End+of+Glory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-1996-6080-3&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Munro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLRaSBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2014" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Andrew (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleonlife0000robe">Napoleon: A Life</a>. Penguin Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6700-2532-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6700-2532-9"><bdi>978-0-6700-2532-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Penguin+Group&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-6700-2532-9&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonlife0000robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski2018" class="citation book cs1">Zamoyski, Adam (2018). Napoleon: The Man Behind The Myth. Great Britain: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0081-1607-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0081-1607-1"><bdi>978-0-0081-1607-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+The+Man+Behind+The+Myth&rft.place=Great+Britain&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-0081-1607-1&rft.aulast=Zamoyski&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2008b" class="citation journal cs1">Dwyer, Philip (2008b). "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars". French Politics, Culture & Society. 26 (3): 110–122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3167%2Ffpcs.2008.260306">10.3167/fpcs.2008.260306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=French+Politics%2C+Culture+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Remembering+and+Forgetting+in+Contemporary+France%3A+Napoleon%2C+Slavery%2C+and+the+French+History+Wars&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E122&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3167%2Ffpcs.2008.260306&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeyl1949" class="citation book cs1">Geyl, Pieter (1949). Napoleon: For and Against. London: Jonathan Cape.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+For+and+Against&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Jonathan+Cape&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Geyl&rft.aufirst=Pieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2001" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Andrew (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/napoleonwellingt00robe">Napoleon and Wellington: the Battle of Waterloo and the Great commanders who fought it</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2832-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2832-9"><bdi>978-0-7432-2832-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+and+Wellington%3A+the+Battle+of+Waterloo+and+the+Great+commanders+who+fought+it&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-2832-9&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonwellingt00robe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Specialty_studies">Specialty studies</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmini2000" class="citation book cs1">Amini, Iradj (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA12">Napoleon and Persia</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9342-1158-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9342-1158-1"><bdi>978-0-9342-1158-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+and+Persia&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-9342-1158-1&rft.aulast=Amini&rft.aufirst=Iradj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn5IOAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordes2007" class="citation book cs1">Bordes, Philippe (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jacqueslouisdavi0000bord">Jacques-Louis David</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-2346-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-2346-3"><bdi>978-0-3001-2346-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jacques-Louis+David&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-2346-3&rft.aulast=Bordes&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjacqueslouisdavi0000bord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_G._Chandler" title="David G. Chandler">Chandler, David</a> (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/campaignsofnapol00chan">The Campaigns of Napoleon</a>. New York: Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0252-3660-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0252-3660-8"><bdi>978-0-0252-3660-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/740560411">740560411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Campaigns+of+Napoleon&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F740560411&rft.isbn=978-0-0252-3660-8&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcampaignsofnapol00chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_G._Chandler" title="David G. Chandler">Chandler, David G.</a> (1995) [1966]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/campaignsofnapol00chan">The Campaigns of Napoleon</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-523660-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-523660-1"><bdi>0-02-523660-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Campaigns+of+Napoleon&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-02-523660-1&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcampaignsofnapol00chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_G._Chandler" title="David G. Chandler">Chandler, David</a> (1973) [1966]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/napoleon0000chan">Napoleon</a>. Saturday Review Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8415-0254-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8415-0254-3"><bdi>978-0-8415-0254-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon&rft.pub=Saturday+Review+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8415-0254-3&rft.aulast=Chandler&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleon0000chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobban1963" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Cobban" title="Alfred Cobban">Cobban, Alfred</a> (1963). A History of Modern France, Volume 2: 1799-1871 (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1402-0525-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-1402-0525-X"><bdi>0-1402-0525-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+France%2C+Volume+2%3A+1799-1871&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=0-1402-0525-X&rft.aulast=Cobban&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnelly2006" class="citation book cs1">Connelly, Owen (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blunderingtoglor00conn_0">Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5318-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5318-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-5318-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blundering+to+Glory%3A+Napoleon%27s+Military+Campaigns&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5318-7&rft.aulast=Connelly&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblunderingtoglor00conn_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConner2004" class="citation book cs1">Conner, Susan P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofnapoleon0000conn">The Age of Napoleon</a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3133-2014-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-3133-2014-4"><bdi>0-3133-2014-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Napoleon&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-3133-2014-4&rft.aulast=Conner&rft.aufirst=Susan+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofnapoleon0000conn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCordingly2004" class="citation book cs1">Cordingly, David (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/billyruffianbell0000cord">The Billy Ruffian: The Bellerophon and the Downfall of Napoleon</a>. Bloomsbury. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5823-4468-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5823-4468-3"><bdi>978-1-5823-4468-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Billy+Ruffian%3A+The+Bellerophon+and+the+Downfall+of+Napoleon&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-5823-4468-3&rft.aulast=Cordingly&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbillyruffianbell0000cord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2015a" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Phillip (2015a). "Napoleon, the Revolution and the Empire". In Andress, David (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-3974-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1996-3974-8"><bdi>978-0-1996-3974-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Napoleon%2C+the+Revolution+and+the+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-1996-3974-8&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1997a" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Geoffrey (1997a). "Religion according to Napoleon". In Aston, Nigel (ed.). Religious change in Europe, 1650-1914: essays for John McManners. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1982-0596-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-1982-0596-1"><bdi>0-1982-0596-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religion+according+to+Napoleon&rft.btitle=Religious+change+in+Europe%2C+1650-1914%3A+essays+for+John+McManners&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-1982-0596-1&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Esdaile" class="citation book cs1">Esdaile, Charles J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peninsularwarnew00esda">The Peninsular War: A New History</a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6231-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6231-7"><bdi>978-1-4039-6231-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peninsular+War%3A+A+New+History&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-6231-7&rft.aulast=Esdaile&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeninsularwarnew00esda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsdaile2007" class="citation book cs1">Esdaile, Charles (2007). Napoleon's Wars: An International History, 1803-1815. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1419-0946-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1419-0946-2"><bdi>978-0-1419-0946-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%27s+Wars%3A+An+International+History%2C+1803-1815&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1419-0946-2&rft.aulast=Esdaile&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlynn2001" class="citation book cs1">Flynn, George Q. (2001). Conscription and democracy: The Draft in France, Great Britain, and the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31912-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31912-9"><bdi>978-0-313-31912-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conscription+and+democracy%3A+The+Draft+in+France%2C+Great+Britain%2C+and+the+United+States&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31912-9&rft.aulast=Flynn&rft.aufirst=George+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFremont-BarnesFisher2004" class="citation book cs1">Fremont-Barnes, Gregory; Fisher, Todd (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/napoleonicwarsri0000frem">The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire</a>. Osprey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-6831-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8417-6831-1"><bdi>978-1-8417-6831-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Napoleonic+Wars%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+an+Empire&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-8417-6831-1&rft.aulast=Fremont-Barnes&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Todd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonicwarsri0000frem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGates2003" class="citation book cs1">Gates, David (2003). The Napoleonic Wars, 1803–1815. Pimlico. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0719-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7126-0719-3"><bdi>978-0-7126-0719-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Napoleonic+Wars%2C+1803%E2%80%931815&rft.pub=Pimlico&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7126-0719-3&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlover1967" class="citation journal cs1">Glover, Richard (1967). "The French Fleet, 1807–1814; Britain's Problem; and Madison's Opportunity". <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Modern_History" title="The Journal of Modern History">The Journal of Modern History</a>. 39 (3): 233–252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F240080">10.1086/240080</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143376566">143376566</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+French+Fleet%2C+1807%E2%80%931814%3B+Britain%27s+Problem%3B+and+Madison%27s+Opportunity&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E252&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F240080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143376566%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Glover&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrab2017" class="citation book cs1">Grab, Alexander (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YJJKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3757-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3757-5"><bdi>978-1-4039-3757-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231202040240/https://books.google.com/books?id=YJJKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+and+the+Transformation+of+Europe&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-3757-5&rft.aulast=Grab&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYJJKEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrab2003" class="citation book cs1">Grab, Alexander (2003). Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3336-8275-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3336-8275-3"><bdi>978-0-3336-8275-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+and+the+Transformation+of+Europe&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-3336-8275-3&rft.aulast=Grab&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2007" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Robert (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KxhOPgAACAAJ">The War of Wars: The Epic Struggle Between Britain and France, 1789-1815</a>. Robinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8452-9635-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8452-9635-3"><bdi>978-1-8452-9635-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+War+of+Wars%3A+The+Epic+Struggle+Between+Britain+and+France%2C+1789-1815&rft.pub=Robinson&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-8452-9635-3&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKxhOPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHindmarshSavory2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hindmarsh, J. Thomas; Savory, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1373%2Fclinchem.2008.117358">"The Death of Napoleon, Cancer or Arsenic?"</a>. Clinical Chemistry. 54 (12): 2092. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1373%2Fclinchem.2008.117358">10.1373/clinchem.2008.117358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+Death+of+Napoleon%2C+Cancer+or+Arsenic%3F&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2092&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1373%2Fclinchem.2008.117358&rft.aulast=Hindmarsh&rft.aufirst=J.+Thomas&rft.au=Savory%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1373%252Fclinchem.2008.117358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson2003" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J; Robertson, E F (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Measurement.html">"The history of measurement"</a>. St Andrew's University. Retrieved 18 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+of+measurement&rft.pub=St+Andrew%27s+University&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E+F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FHistTopics%2FMeasurement.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2004" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, Chris (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MdMZqhMzfpYC&pg=PR9">Heavy Words Lightly Thrown</a>. Granta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8620-7765-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8620-7765-2"><bdi>978-1-8620-7765-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207105851/https://books.google.com/books?id=MdMZqhMzfpYC&pg=PR9">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. 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HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-0601-7214-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-0601-7214-5"><bdi>978-0-0601-7214-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon+Bonaparte&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-0601-7214-5&rft.aulast=Schom&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonbonapart00scho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2003" class="citation book cs1">Watson, William (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o4vrUbMK5eEC&pg=PA13">Tricolor and crescent</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2759-7470-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2759-7470-1"><bdi>978-0-2759-7470-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207105804/https://books.google.com/books?id=o4vrUbMK5eEC&pg=PA13">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tricolor+and+crescent&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-2759-7470-1&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do4vrUbMK5eEC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSicker2001" class="citation book cs1">Sicker, Martin (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BzMJys65u9wC&pg=PA99">The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire</a>. Greenwood. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2759-6891-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2759-6891-5"><bdi>978-0-2759-6891-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World+in+Decline%3A+From+the+Treaty+of+Karlowitz+to+the+Disintegration+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-2759-6891-5&rft.aulast=Sicker&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBzMJys65u9wC%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1992" class="citation book cs1">Wells, David (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/penguindictionar0000well">The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry</a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1401-1813-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1401-1813-1"><bdi>978-0-1401-1813-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Dictionary+of+Curious+and+Interesting+Geometry&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-1401-1813-1&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpenguindictionar0000well&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesney2006" class="citation book cs1">Chesney, Charles (2006). Waterloo Lectures:A Study Of The Campaign Of 1815. Kessinger Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4286-4988-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4286-4988-0"><bdi>978-1-4286-4988-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waterloo+Lectures%3AA+Study+Of+The+Campaign+Of+1815&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4286-4988-0&rft.aulast=Chesney&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2002" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Paul (2002). Napoleon: A life. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6700-3078-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6700-3078-1"><bdi>978-0-6700-3078-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%3A+A+life&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-6700-3078-1&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2015b" class="citation journal cs1">Dwyer, Philip (2015b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1468-229X.12089">"'Citizen Emperor': Political Ritual, Popular Sovereignty and the Coronation of Napoleon I"</a>. History. 100 (339): 40–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1468-229X.12089">10.1111/1468-229X.12089</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-229X">1468-229X</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210515151911/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1468-229X.12089">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=%27Citizen+Emperor%27%3A+Political+Ritual%2C+Popular+Sovereignty+and+the+Coronation+of+Napoleon+I&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=339&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1468-229X.12089&rft.issn=1468-229X&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2F1468-229X.12089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre" title="Georges Lefebvre">Lefebvre, Georges</a> (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/napoleonfrom18br00lefe">Napoleon, from 18 Brumaire to Tilsit, 1799-1807</a>. Columbia University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Napoleon%2C+from+18+Brumaire+to+Tilsit%2C+1799-1807&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnapoleonfrom18br00lefe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder1996" class="citation book cs1">Schroeder, Paul W. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BS2z3iGPCigC">The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848</a>. Oxford U.P. pp. 177–560. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0654-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-0654-5"><bdi>978-0-1982-0654-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207105853/https://books.google.com/books?id=BS2z3iGPCigC">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 1 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Transformation+of+European+Politics+1763%E2%80%931848&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E177-%3C%2Fspan%3E560&rft.pub=Oxford+U.P.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-0654-5&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Paul+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBS2z3iGPCigC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"> advanced diplomatic history of Napoleon and his era</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalleyrand1891" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand, Chares-Maurice de</a> (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/28427/pg28427-images.html">Mémoires du Prince de Talleyrand</a> (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Henri Javal. pp. 10–12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231207110527/https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/28427/pg28427-images.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9moires+du+Prince+de+Talleyrand&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.pub=Henri+Javal&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Talleyrand&rft.aufirst=Chares-Maurice+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Fcache%2Fepub%2F28427%2Fpg28427-images.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANapoleon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(16)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-16 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-16"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Napoleon at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 27px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="20" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" class="extiw" title="c:Napoléon Bonaparte">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 27px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Napoleon" class="extiw" title="q:Napoleon">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 26px;height: 27px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="26" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Napoleon Bonaparte">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/European_History/Napoleon_Bonaparte_and_the_Rise_of_Nationalism" class="extiw" title="b:European History/Napoleon Bonaparte and the Rise of Nationalism">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 15px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q517" class="extiw" title="d:Q517">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleonguide.com/index.htm">The Napoleonic Guide</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleon-series.org/">Napoleon Series</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleonicsociety.com/">International Napoleonic Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/empires/napoleon/home.html">Biography</a> by the US <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">Public Broadcasting Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.napoleon-empire.net/en/napoleon-itinerary.php">Daily tracking of Napoleon's location</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/4267">Works by Napoleon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napoleon&oldid=1277313487">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napoleon&oldid=1277313487</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Napoleon&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 23 February 2025, at 22:57 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A8on_Bonapart%C3%A9" title="Napolèon Bonaparté – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Napolèon Bonaparté" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I" title="Наполеон I – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Наполеон I" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%93%E1%8D%96%E1%88%8C%E1%8B%8E%E1%8A%95_%E1%89%A6%E1%8A%93%E1%8D%93%E1%88%AD%E1%89%B5" title="ናፖሌዎን ቦናፓርት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ናፖሌዎን ቦናፓርት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_Francena_C%C4%81sere" title="Napoleon I Francena Cāsere – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Napoleon I Francena Cāsere" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="نابليون بونابرت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نابليون بونابرت" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte" title="Napoleón Bonaparte – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Napoleón Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A2%DC%90%DC%A6%DC%A0%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%A2_%DC%92%DC%98%DC%A2%DC%90%DC%A6%DC%AA%DC%9B" title="ܢܐܦܠܝܘܢ ܒܘܢܐܦܪܛ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܢܐܦܠܝܘܢ ܒܘܢܐܦܪܛ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_I%C3%A9r" title="Napoléon Iér – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Napoléon Iér" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="নেপোলিয়ন বোনাপাৰ্ট – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নেপোলিয়ন বোনাপাৰ্ট" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte" title="Napoleón Bonaparte – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Napoleón Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte" title="Napoleón Bonaparte – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Napoleón Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Наполеон – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Наполеон" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonapart" title="Napoleon Bonapart – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Napoleon Bonapart" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ناپلئون بوناپارت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ناپلئون بوناپارت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Ier" title="Napoléon Ier – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Napoléon Ier" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="নেপোলিয়ন বোনাপার্ট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নেপোলিয়ন বোনাপার্ট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_1-s%C3%A8" title="Napoléon 1-sè – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Napoléon 1-sè" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I" title="Наполеон I – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Наполеон I" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Напалеон I Банапарт – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Напалеон I Банапарт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Напалеон I Банапарт – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Напалеон I Банапарт" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="नेपोलियन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="नेपोलियन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I" title="Наполеон I – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Наполеон I" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Ia%C3%B1" title="Napoleon Iañ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Napoleon Iañ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3_Bonaparte" title="Napoleó Bonaparte – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Napoleó Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон I Бонапарт – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Наполеон I Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napulione_Buonaparte" title="Napulione Buonaparte – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Napulione Buonaparte" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I,_ymerawdwr_Ffrainc" title="Napoleon I, ymerawdwr Ffrainc – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Napoleon I, ymerawdwr Ffrainc" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_1._af_Frankrig" title="Napoleon 1. af Frankrig – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Napoleon 1. af Frankrig" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ناپوليون بوناپارت – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ناپوليون بوناپارت" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AD%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%92%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Ναπολέων Βοναπάρτης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ναπολέων Βοναπάρτης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napul%C3%A8%C3%B2%E1%B9%85" title="Napulèòṅ – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Napulèòṅ" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3n_Bonaparte" title="Napoleón Bonaparte – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Napoleón Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleono_Bonaparte" title="Napoleono Bonaparte – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Napoleono Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3n_I_de_Francia" title="Napoleón I de Francia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Napoleón I de Francia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ناپلئون بناپارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناپلئون بناپارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" title="Napoleon I of France – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Napoleon I of France" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Ier" title="Napoléon Ier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Napoléon Ier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on" title="Napoléon – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Napoléon" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%B3n_I_de_Francia" title="Napoleón I de Francia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Napoleón I de Francia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%BF%E7%A0%B4%E5%B4%99" title="拿破崙 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="拿破崙" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B2%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AA%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F" title="નેપોલિયન બોનાપાર્ટ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="નેપોલિયન બોનાપાર્ટ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_1-s%E1%B9%B3" title="Napoleon 1-sṳ – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Napoleon 1-sṳ" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%ED%8F%B4%EB%A0%88%EC%98%B9_%EB%B3%B4%EB%82%98%ED%8C%8C%EB%A5%B4%ED%8A%B8" title="나폴레옹 보나파르트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나폴레옹 보나파르트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%B8%D5%B6_%D4%B2%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF" title="Նապոլեոն Բոնապարտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նապոլեոն Բոնապարտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_la_1ma" title="Napoléon la 1ma – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Napoléon la 1ma" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nap%C3%B3leon_B%C3%B3naparte" title="Napóleon Bónaparte – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Napóleon Bónaparte" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleone_Bonaparte" title="Napoleone Bonaparte – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Napoleone Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%94" title="נפוליאון בונפרטה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נפוליאון בונפרטה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D" title="ನೆಪೋಲಿಯನ್ ಬೋನಪಾರ್ತ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನೆಪೋಲಿಯನ್ ಬೋನಪಾರ್ತ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ნაპოლეონ ბონაპარტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნაპოლეონ ბონაპარტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Ia_a_Bow_Frynk" title="Napoleon Ia a Bow Frynk – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Napoleon Ia a Bow Frynk" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_I%C3%A9" title="Napoléon Ié – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Napoléon Ié" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Наполеон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Наполеон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%9B%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B5_1" title="ຈັກກະພັດນາໂປເລອົງທີ 1 – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈັກກະພັດນາໂປເລອົງທີ 1" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ltg mw-list-item"><a href="https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napo%C4%BCeons_Bonaparts" title="Napoļeons Bonaparts – Latgalian" lang="ltg" hreflang="ltg" data-title="Napoļeons Bonaparts" data-language-autonym="Latgaļu" data-language-local-name="Latgalian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latgaļu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleo_I_(imperator_Francogallorum)" title="Napoleo I (imperator Francogallorum) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Napoleo I (imperator Francogallorum)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleons_Bonaparts" title="Napoleons Bonaparts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Napoleons Bonaparts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="I Наполеон Бонапарт – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="I Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonas_Bonapartas" title="Napoleonas Bonapartas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Napoleonas Bonapartas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napolion_Bonaparte" title="Napolion Bonaparte – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Napolion Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_van_Frankriek" title="Napoleon I van Frankriek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Napoleon I van Frankriek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/.napole%27on." title=".napole'on. – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title=".napole'on." data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napooleon_Bonapat" title="Napooleon Bonapat – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Napooleon Bonapat" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonapart" title="Napoleon Bonapart – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Napoleon Bonapart" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._Nap%C3%B3leon_francia_cs%C3%A1sz%C3%A1r" title="I. Napóleon francia császár – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="I. Napóleon francia császár" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_I" title="Napoléon I – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Napoléon I" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D" title="നെപ്പോളിയൻ ബോണപ്പാർട്ട് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നെപ്പോളിയൻ ബോണപ്പാർട്ട്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napuljun_I_ta%27_Franza" title="Napuljun I ta' Franza – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Napuljun I ta' Franza" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="ნაპოლეონ ბონაპარტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ნაპოლეონ ბონაპარტი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="نابوليون بونابارت – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="نابوليون بونابارت" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%86" title="ناپلئون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ناپلئون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Наполеон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Наполеон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%95%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="နပိုလီယန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နပိုလီယန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%83%9D%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9C%E3%83%8A%E3%83%91%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88" title="ナポレオン・ボナパルト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナポレオン・ボナパルト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleone_Bonaparte" title="Napoleone Bonaparte – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Napoleone Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A3%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%94%DF%8F%DF%9F%DF%8C%DF%A6%DF%8F%DF%B2%DF%AB_%DF%9D%DF%9F%DF%90%DF%A1%DF%8A" title="ߣߊ߲ߔߏߟߌߦߏ߲߫ ߝߟߐߡߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߣߊ߲ߔߏߟߌߦߏ߲߫ ߝߟߐߡߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I" title="Наполеон I – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Наполеон I" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BF%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9F" title="ନେପୋଲିୟନ ବୋନାପାର୍ଟ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ନେପୋଲିୟନ ବୋନାପାର୍ଟ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4" title="ਨਪੋਲੀਅਨ ਬੋਨਾਪਾਰਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਪੋਲੀਅਨ ਬੋਨਾਪਾਰਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="نیپولین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نیپولین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ناپليون بوناپارت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ناپليون بوناپارت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napuolian_I_a_Frans" title="Napuolian I a Frans – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Napuolian I a Frans" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8D" title="ណាប៉ូលេអុងបូណាប៉ារត៍ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ណាប៉ូលេអុងបូណាប៉ារត៍" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Ier" title="Napoléon Ier – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Napoléon Ier" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bon-a-part" title="Napoleon Bon-a-part – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Napoleon Bon-a-part" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C3%A3o_Bonaparte" title="Napoleão Bonaparte – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Napoleão Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_Bonapart" title="Napoleon I Bonapart – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Napoleon I Bonapart" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleun_Bonaparte" title="Napoleun Bonaparte – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Napoleun Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I" title="Наполеон I – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Наполеон I" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na-pu-lun-sakacacay" title="Na-pu-lun-sakacacay – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Na-pu-lun-sakacacay" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoelon" title="Napoelon – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Napoelon" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%B4" title="ᱱᱮᱯᱳᱞᱤᱭᱚᱱ ᱵᱳᱱᱟᱯᱟᱨᱴ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱱᱮᱯᱳᱞᱤᱭᱚᱱ ᱵᱳᱱᱟᱯᱟᱨᱴ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleone_Bonaparte" title="Napoleone Bonaparte – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Napoleone Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparti" title="Napoleon Bonaparti – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparti" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napuliuni_Bonaparti" title="Napuliuni Bonaparti – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Napuliuni Bonaparti" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%90%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A" title="නැපෝලියන් බොනපාට් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නැපෝලියන් බොනපාට්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A6%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BD" title="نئپولين بوناپارٽ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="نئپولين بوناپارٽ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napole%C5%AFn_B%C5%AFnaparte" title="Napoleůn Bůnaparte – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Napoleůn Bůnaparte" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%86%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%86_%D8%A8%DB%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="ناپۆلیۆن بۆناپارت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ناپۆلیۆن بۆناپارت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Наполеон I Бонапарта – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Наполеон I Бонапарта" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon I Bonaparte – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Napoleon I Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_ng_Pransiya" title="Napoleon I ng Pransiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Napoleon I ng Pransiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="பிரான்சின் முதலாம் நெப்போலியன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பிரான்சின் முதலாம் நெப்போலியன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82" title="Наполеон Бонапарт – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Наполеон Бонапарт" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%81%BC%E1%80%95%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%81%BC%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="ၼပူဝ်းလီးယၼ်း – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="ၼပူဝ်းလီးယၼ်း" data-language-autonym="တႆး" data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">တႆး</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="నెపోలియన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నెపోలియన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88_1" title="จักรพรรดินโปเลียนที่ 1 – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรพรรดินโปเลียนที่ 1" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napolyon_Bonapart" title="Napolyon Bonapart – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Napolyon Bonapart" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD_I" title="Наполеон I – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Наполеон I" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Наполеон – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Наполеон" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Наполеон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Наполеон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86" title="نپولین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نپولین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EF%BB%A7%EF%BA%8E%EF%AD%98%EF%BB%AE%EF%BB%9F%EF%AF%A7%EF%BA%8C%EF%BB%AE%EF%BB%A5_%EF%BA%91%EF%BB%AE%EF%BB%A7%EF%BA%8E%EF%AD%98%EF%BA%8E%EF%BA%AD%EF%BA%95" title="ﻧﺎﭘﻮﻟﯧﺌﻮﻥ ﺑﻮﻧﺎﭘﺎﺭﺕ – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ﻧﺎﭘﻮﻟﯧﺌﻮﻥ ﺑﻮﻧﺎﭘﺎﺭﺕ" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazbolunz" title="Nazbolunz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Nazbolunz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_Bonapart" title="Napoleon I Bonapart – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Napoleon I Bonapart" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleyon_Bonap%C3%A5re" title="Napoleyon Bonapåre – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Napoleyon Bonapåre" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%BF%E7%A0%B4%E5%B4%99%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%96" title="拿破崙一世 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="拿破崙一世" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleong" title="Napoleong – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Napoleong" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%BF%E7%A0%B4%E4%BB%91" title="拿破仑 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="拿破仑" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%A2" title="נאפאלעאן באנאפארטע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="נאפאלעאן באנאפארטע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%BF%E7%A0%B4%E5%B4%99" title="拿破崙 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="拿破崙" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napolyon_Bonapart" title="Napolyon Bonapart – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Napolyon Bonapart" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napaleuons" title="Napaleuons – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Napaleuons" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%BF%E7%A0%B4%E4%BB%91%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%96" title="拿破仑一世 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="拿破仑一世" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napol%C3%A9on_Bonaparte" title="Napoléon Bonaparte – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Napoléon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Napoleon Bonaparte – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Napoleon Bonaparte" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Napoleon" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I" title="Napoleon I – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Napoleon I" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-d8647bfd6-gr47h","wgBackendResponseTime":591,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.410","walltime":"5.095","ppvisitednodes":{"value":79544,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1397814,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":373687,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":26,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":60,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":736707,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4339.836 1 -total"," 23.16% 1005.047 1 Template:OSM_Location_map"," 22.30% 967.978 1 Template:OSM_Location_map/core"," 16.70% 724.556 265 Template:Sfnp"," 16.29% 706.750 2 Template:Reflist"," 15.47% 671.371 22 Template:OSM_Location_map/cssmapping"," 11.09% 481.474 1 Template:Infobox_royalty"," 10.96% 475.746 3 Template:Infobox"," 10.22% 443.445 91 Template:Cite_book"," 7.00% 303.838 15 Template:Military_navigation"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.320","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":28264140,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdrian_Gilbert2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlter2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmini2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArcherFerrisHerwigTravers2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAstarita2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAston2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAston2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlaufarb2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBordes2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoureau1985\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBroers2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroers2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroersHicksGuimera2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCases1855\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamberlain1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChesney2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClive_Emsley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCobban1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnelly2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConner2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCordingly2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCronin1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCullen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDatta2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_Nicholls1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDodman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2008a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2008b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2015a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2015b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDwyer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1997a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis1997b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmsley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnglund2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsdaile2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForrest2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFremont-BarnesFisher2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuret1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGates2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeyl1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGill2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlover1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrab2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrab2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGueniffey2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallockWade1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanson,_Victor_Davis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastings2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHazareesingh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbert1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHibbert2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHicks\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHindmarshSavory2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopeBaird1809\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorne1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJack_Coggins1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJirí_Louda_\u0026amp;_Michael_MacLagan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarshKarsh2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKircheisen1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnapton1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKubben2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangerPois2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLefebvre1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLobingier1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucotteMacéHrechdakian2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLugliCarneiro2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyons1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLynn1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_V._Leggiere2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNieuwazny\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNormand1804\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorRobertson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOttfried_Neubecker_\u0026amp;_J_P_Brooke-Little1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1971\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPrice2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrutsch2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPérez2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRegent2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRepa2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoret1854\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenberg2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRothenbergKeegan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheck2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchom1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeward1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSicker2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalleyrand1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVial2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoussef2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZamoyski2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZelazko2023\"] = 1,\n [\"Custody_of_Napoleon_Buonaparte_Act_1816\"] = 1,\n [\"Esdaile\"] = 1,\n [\"Intercourse_with_Saint_Helena_Act_1816\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\",\"] = 7,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 2,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Bonaparte family\"] = 1,\n [\"Br entries\"] = 8,\n [\"Circa\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 91,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 19,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 6,\n [\"Coord\"] = 20,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 8,\n [\"En dash\"] = 2,\n [\"French Consulate\"] = 1,\n [\"French Pretenders\"] = 1,\n [\"French Revolution navbox\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 5,\n [\"German Confederations 1806–1871\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"HMS\"] = 1,\n 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[\"S-start\"] = 2,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 17,\n [\"S-tul\"] = 1,\n [\"S-vac\"] = 7,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 265,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 5,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","19.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","500","18.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","10.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","220","8.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","140","5.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","5.3"],["(for 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