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vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_antecedents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_antecedents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early antecedents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_antecedents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1850s_to_1880s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1850s_to_1880s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 1850s to 1880s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1850s_to_1880s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1890s_to_the_new_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1890s_to_the_new_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 1890s to the new century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1890s_to_the_new_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Show_Boat_and_the_Great_Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Show_Boat_and_the_Great_Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Show Boat and the Great Depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Show_Boat_and_the_Great_Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Golden_Age_(1940s_to_1960s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Golden_Age_(1940s_to_1960s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 The Golden Age (1940s to 1960s) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Golden_Age_(1940s_to_1960s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1940s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1940s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 1940s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1940s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.2 1950s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.3 1960s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Social themes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1970s_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 1970s to present </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1970s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.1 1970s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.2 1980s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.3 1990s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000s–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000s–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.4 2000s–present </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000s–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trends" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trends"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.4.1 Trends </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trends-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jukebox_musicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jukebox_musicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.4.2 Jukebox musicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jukebox_musicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Film_and_TV_musicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_and_TV_musicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.4.3 Film and TV musicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film_and_TV_musicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020–2021_theatre_shutdown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020–2021_theatre_shutdown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8.4.4 2020–2021 theatre shutdown </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020–2021_theatre_shutdown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_musicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_musicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 International musicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_musicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amateur_and_school_productions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amateur_and_school_productions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Amateur and school productions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amateur_and_school_productions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relevance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relevance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Relevance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relevance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes and references </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes and references subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cited_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Cited books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Musical theatre</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" > 73 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musiekteater" title="Musiekteater – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Musiekteater" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A" title="مسرح موسيقي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مسرح موسيقي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCzikl" title="Müzikl – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müzikl" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Im-ga%CC%8Dk-kio%CC%8Dk" title="Im-ga̍k-kio̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Im-ga̍k-kio̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзикл – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мюзикл" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзікл – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мюзікл" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%E2%80%99%D1%8E%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="М’юзыкал – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="М’юзыкал" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Музикален театър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Музикален театър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatre_musical" title="Teatre musical – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teatre musical" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzik%C3%A1l" title="Muzikál – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Muzikál" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sioe_gerdd" title="Sioe gerdd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sioe gerdd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muusikal" title="Muusikal – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Muusikal" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BB" title="Μιούζικαλ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μιούζικαλ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzikalo" title="Muzikalo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Muzikalo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musikal" title="Musikal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Musikal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84" title="تئاتر موزیکال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تئاتر موزیکال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com%C3%A9die_musicale" title="Comédie musicale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Comédie musicale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_musical" title="Teatro musical – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Teatro musical" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E6%A8%82%E5%8A%87" title="音樂劇 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="音樂劇" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AE%A4%EC%A7%80%EC%BB%AC" title="뮤지컬 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뮤지컬" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%AB%D6%84%D5%AC" title="Մյուզիքլ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մյուզիքլ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjuzikl" title="Mjuzikl – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mjuzikl" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater_musikal" title="Teater musikal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teater musikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6ngleikur" title="Söngleikur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Söngleikur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%A8" title="מחזמר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחזמר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзикл – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Мюзикл" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="მიუზიკლი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მიუზიკლი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзикл – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мюзикл" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kom%C3%A9di_mizikal" title="Komédi mizikal – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Komédi mizikal" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзикл – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мюзикл" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatrum_musicum" title="Theatrum musicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Theatrum musicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%ABzikls" title="Mūzikls – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mūzikls" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miuziklas" title="Miuziklas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Miuziklas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мјузикл – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мјузикл" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%95" title="संगीत नाटक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संगीत नाटक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="მიუზიკლი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მიუზიკლი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater_muzikal" title="Teater muzikal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Teater muzikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B8%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AB" title="ミュージカル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミュージカル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musikal" title="Musikal – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Musikal" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musikal" title="Musikal – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Musikal" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%B1%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Мӱзикыл – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Мӱзикыл" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myuzikl" title="Myuzikl – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Myuzikl" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical" title="Musical – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Musical" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_musical" title="Teatro musical – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teatro musical" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatru_muzical" title="Teatru muzical – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Teatru muzical" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзикл – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мюзикл" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%AD_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C_%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F" title="සංගීත ප්‍රසංග ශාලා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සංගීත ප්‍රසංග ශාලා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theater" title="Musical theater – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Musical theater" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzik%C3%A1l" title="Muzikál – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Muzikál" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muzikal" title="Muzikal – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Muzikal" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мјузикл – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мјузикл" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjuzikl" title="Mjuzikl – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mjuzikl" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musikaali" title="Musikaali – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Musikaali" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musikal" title="Musikal – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Musikal" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="இசை நாடகக்கொட்டகை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இசை நாடகக்கொட்டகை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87" title="ละครเพลง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ละครเพลง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCzikal_tiyatro" title="Müzikal tiyatro – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Müzikal tiyatro" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB" title="Мюзикл – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мюзикл" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%E1%BA%A1c_k%E1%BB%8Bch" title="Nhạc kịch – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhạc kịch" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9F%B3%E4%B9%90%E5%89%A7" title="音乐剧 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="音乐剧" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="מוזיקטעאטער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מוזיקטעאטער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Stage work that combines songs, music, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Music_theatre" title="Music theatre">Music theatre</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crookfinale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Crookfinale.jpg/330px-Crookfinale.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Crookfinale.jpg/495px-Crookfinale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Crookfinale.jpg/660px-Crookfinale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2800" data-file-height="1867" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Crook" title="The Black Crook">The Black Crook</a> was a long-running musical on <a href="/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway</a> in 1866.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Musical theatre is a form of <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatrical</a> performance that combines songs, spoken <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a>, acting and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, <a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">pathos</a>, love, anger – are communicated through words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals. Although music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the <a href="/wiki/Light_opera" class="mw-redirect" title="Light opera">light opera</a> works of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach" title="Jacques Offenbach">Jacques Offenbach</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a> in Britain and the works of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Harrigan" title="Edward Harrigan">Harrigan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Hart_(theater)" title="Tony Hart (theater)">Hart</a> in America. These were followed by <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwardian musical comedies">Edwardian musical comedies</a>, which emerged in Britain, and the musical theatre works of American creators like <a href="/wiki/George_M._Cohan" title="George M. Cohan">George M. Cohan</a> at the turn of the 20th century. The <a href="/wiki/Princess_Theatre,_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Theatre, New York City">Princess Theatre</a> musicals (1915–1918) were artistic steps forward beyond the <a href="/wiki/Revue" title="Revue">revues</a> and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as <a href="/wiki/Show_Boat" title="Show Boat">Show Boat</a> (1927), <a href="/wiki/Of_Thee_I_Sing" title="Of Thee I Sing">Of Thee I Sing</a> (1931) and <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma!" title="Oklahoma!">Oklahoma!</a> (1943). Some of the most famous musicals through the decades that followed include <a href="/wiki/My_Fair_Lady" title="My Fair Lady">My Fair Lady</a> (1956), <a href="/wiki/The_Fantasticks" title="The Fantasticks">The Fantasticks</a> (1960), <a href="/wiki/Hair_(musical)" title="Hair (musical)">Hair</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/A_Chorus_Line" title="A Chorus Line">A Chorus Line</a> (1975), <a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_(musical)" title="Les Misérables (musical)">Les Misérables</a> (1985), <a href="/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_(1986_musical)" title="The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)">The Phantom of the Opera</a> (1986), <a href="/wiki/Rent_(musical)" title="Rent (musical)">Rent</a> (1996), <a href="/wiki/Wicked_(musical)" title="Wicked (musical)">Wicked</a> (2003) and <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a> (2015). Musicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget <a href="/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway</a> or <a href="/wiki/West_End_theatre" title="West End theatre">West End</a> productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller venues, such as <a href="/wiki/Off-Broadway" title="Off-Broadway">off-Broadway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Off-off-Broadway" title="Off-off-Broadway">off-off-Broadway</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regional_theater_in_the_United_States" title="Regional theater in the United States">regional theatre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fringe_theatre" title="Fringe theatre">fringe theatre</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Community_theatre" title="Community theatre">community theatre</a> productions, or <a href="/wiki/Touring_theatre" title="Touring theatre">on tour</a>. Musicals are often presented by <a href="/wiki/Amateur_theatre" title="Amateur theatre">amateur and school groups</a> in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_scope">Definitions and scope</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions and scope">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_musicals">Book musicals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Book musicals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GaietyGirlDudleyHardy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/GaietyGirlDudleyHardy.jpg/220px-GaietyGirlDudleyHardy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/GaietyGirlDudleyHardy.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/A_Gaiety_Girl" title="A Gaiety Girl">A Gaiety Girl</a> (1893) was one of the first hit musicals.</figcaption></figure> Since the 20th century, the "book musical" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals and which is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rubin438-3">[3]</a> The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or <a href="/wiki/Script_(performing_arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Script (performing arts)">script</a> of a musical refers to the story, character development and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Libretto" title="Libretto">libretto</a> (Italian for "small book"). The music and lyrics together form the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">score</a> of a musical and include songs, <a href="/wiki/Incidental_music" title="Incidental music">incidental music</a> and musical scenes, which are "theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue."<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-4">[4]</a> The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an <a href="/wiki/Orchestrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchestrator">orchestrator</a>. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as <a href="/wiki/Set_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Set design">set design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costume" title="Costume">costumes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatrical_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatrical property">stage properties (props)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stage_lighting" title="Stage lighting">lighting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sound_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound reinforcement">sound</a>. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the original production, for example, <a href="/wiki/Bob_Fosse" title="Bob Fosse">Bob Fosse</a>'s choreography in <a href="/wiki/Chicago_(musical)" title="Chicago (musical)">Chicago</a>. There is no fixed length for a musical. While it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several <a href="/wiki/Act_(theatre)" class="mw-redirect" title="Act (theatre)">acts</a> and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation), most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one short <a href="/wiki/Intermission" title="Intermission">intermission</a>, and the first act is frequently longer than the second. The first act generally introduces nearly all of the characters and most of the music and often ends with the introduction of a dramatic conflict or plot complication while the second act may introduce a few new songs but usually contains reprises of important musical themes and resolves the conflict or complication. A book musical is usually built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show, although it sometimes consists of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although "sung dialogue" or <a href="/wiki/Recitative" title="Recitative">recitative</a> may be used, especially in so-called "<a href="/wiki/Sung-through" title="Sung-through">sung-through</a>" musicals such as <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Superstar" title="Jesus Christ Superstar">Jesus Christ Superstar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falsettos" title="Falsettos">Falsettos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_(musical)" title="Les Misérables (musical)">Les Misérables</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evita_(musical)" title="Evita (musical)">Evita</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a>. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End in the 21st century have been presented in one act. Moments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, "when the emotion becomes too strong for speech, you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> In a book musical, a song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. from the 1890s to the 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. As <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> critic <a href="/wiki/Ben_Brantley" title="Ben Brantley">Ben Brantley</a> described the ideal of song in theatre when reviewing the 2008 revival of <a href="/wiki/Gypsy_(musical)" title="Gypsy (musical)">Gypsy</a>: "There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be."<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is less time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot. The material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adapted from novels (<a href="/wiki/Wicked_(musical)" title="Wicked (musical)">Wicked</a> and <a href="/wiki/Man_of_La_Mancha" title="Man of La Mancha">Man of La Mancha</a>), plays (<a href="/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_(musical)" title="Hello, Dolly! (musical)">Hello, Dolly!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carousel_(musical)" title="Carousel (musical)">Carousel</a>), classic legends (<a href="/wiki/Camelot_(musical)" title="Camelot (musical)">Camelot</a>), historical events (Evita and Hamilton) or films (<a href="/wiki/The_Producers_(musical)" title="The Producers (musical)">The Producers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Billy_Elliot_the_Musical" title="Billy Elliot the Musical">Billy Elliot</a>). On the other hand, many successful musical theatre works have been adapted for <a href="/wiki/Musical_film" title="Musical film">musical films</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story_(1961_film)" title="West Side Story (1961 film)">West Side Story</a>, <a href="/wiki/My_Fair_Lady_(film)" title="My Fair Lady (film)">My Fair Lady</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music_(film)" title="The Sound of Music (film)">The Sound of Music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver!_(film)" title="Oliver! (film)">Oliver!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chicago_(2002_film)" title="Chicago (2002 film)">Chicago</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparisons_with_opera">Comparisons with opera</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Comparisons with opera">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Gershwin_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.jpg/170px-George_Gershwin_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.jpg/255px-George_Gershwin_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/George_Gershwin_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="398" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a></figcaption></figure> Musical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. First, musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen233-7">[7]</a> Some musicals, however, are entirely accompanied and sung-through, while some operas, such as <a href="/wiki/Die_Zauberfl%C3%B6te" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Zauberflöte">Die Zauberflöte</a>, and most <a href="/wiki/Operetta" title="Operetta">operettas</a>, have some unaccompanied dialogue.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen233-7">[7]</a> Second, musicals usually include more dancing as an essential part of the storytelling, particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus. Third, musicals often use various genres of <a href="/wiki/Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a> or at least popular singing and musical styles.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Finally, musicals usually avoid certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost always performed in the language of its audience. Musicals produced on Broadway or in the West End, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language. While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance), a musical theatre performer is often an actor first but must also be a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a "triple threat". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind. Today, large theatres that stage musicals generally use <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sound_reinforcement_system" title="Sound reinforcement system">amplification</a> of the actors' singing voices in a way that would generally be disapproved of in an operatic context.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Some works, including those by <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein" title="Leonard Bernstein">Leonard Bernstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim" title="Stephen Sondheim">Stephen Sondheim</a>, have been made into both musical theatre and operatic productions.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such as <a href="/wiki/The_Pirates_of_Penzance" title="The Pirates of Penzance">The Pirates of Penzance</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a>) have been produced in modern adaptations that treat them as musicals. For some works, production styles are almost as important as the work's musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Sondheim said, "I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another."<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> There remains an overlap in form between lighter operatic forms and more musically complex or ambitious musicals. In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of musical theatre, including "musical play", "musical comedy", "operetta" and "light opera".<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Like opera, the singing in musical theatre is generally accompanied by an instrumental ensemble called a <a href="/wiki/Pit_orchestra" title="Pit orchestra">pit orchestra</a>, located in a lowered area in front of the stage. While opera typically uses a conventional <a href="/wiki/Symphony_orchestra" class="mw-redirect" title="Symphony orchestra">symphony orchestra</a>, musicals are generally orchestrated for ensembles ranging from <a href="/wiki/Pit_orchestra#Size" title="Pit orchestra">27 players down to only a few players</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rock_musical" title="Rock musical">Rock musicals</a> usually employ a small group of mostly rock instruments,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> and some musicals may call for only a piano or two instruments.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The music in musicals uses a range of "styles and influences including <a href="/wiki/Operetta" title="Operetta">operetta</a>, classical techniques, <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> [and] local or historical styles [that] are appropriate to the setting."<a href="#cite_note-Continuum-4">[4]</a> Musicals may begin with an <a href="/wiki/Overture" title="Overture">overture</a> played by the orchestra that "weav[es] together excerpts of the score's famous melodies."<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_traditions_and_other_forms">Eastern traditions and other forms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Eastern traditions and other forms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg/220px-Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg/330px-Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg/440px-Sichuan_Opera_in_Chengdu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a> performers</figcaption></figure> There are various <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern</a> traditions of theatre that include music, such as <a href="/wiki/Chinese_opera" title="Chinese opera">Chinese opera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_opera" title="Taiwanese opera">Taiwanese opera</a>, Japanese <a href="/wiki/Noh" title="Noh">Noh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Indian_musical_theatre" title="Classical Indian musical theatre">Indian musical theatre</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Sanskrit drama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_dance" title="Indian classical dance">Indian classical dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parsi_theatre" title="Parsi theatre">Parsi theatre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yakshagana" title="Yakshagana">Yakshagana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gok-18">[18]</a> India has, since the 20th century, produced numerous musical films, referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Bollywood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bollywood">Bollywood</a>" musicals, and in Japan a series of <a href="/wiki/2.5D_musical" title="2.5D musical">2.5D musicals</a> based on popular <a href="/wiki/Anime" title="Anime">anime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manga" title="Manga">manga</a> comics has developed in recent decades. Shorter or simplified "junior" versions of many musicals are available for schools and youth groups, and very short works created or adapted for performance by children are sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Minimusical" title="Minimusical">minimusicals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_antecedents">Early antecedents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early antecedents">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Development_of_musical_theatre" title="Development of musical theatre">Development of musical theatre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opera_backdrop..gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Opera_backdrop..gif/220px-Opera_backdrop..gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Opera_backdrop..gif/330px-Opera_backdrop..gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Opera_backdrop..gif/440px-Opera_backdrop..gif 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>A view of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Webb_(architect)" title="John Webb (architect)">John Webb</a>, which was painted on a backshutter for the first performance of <a href="/wiki/The_Siege_of_Rhodes" title="The Siege of Rhodes">The Siege of Rhodes</a> (1656)</figcaption></figure> The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">theatre of ancient Greece</a>, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a> In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a>. Groups of actors would use outdoor <a href="/wiki/Pageant_wagon" title="Pageant wagon">Pageant wagons</a> (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, and liturgical chants gave way to new melodies.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre: <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">commedia dell'arte</a>, where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later, <a href="/wiki/Opera_buffa" title="Opera buffa">opera buffa</a>. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Court <a href="/wiki/Masque" title="Masque">masques</a> developed during the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex <a href="/wiki/Stage_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Stage design">stage design</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as <a href="/wiki/The_Siege_of_Rhodes" title="The Siege of Rhodes">The Siege of Rhodes</a> (1656).<a href="#cite_note-Buelow328-29">[29]</a> In France, meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a> turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully" title="Jean-Baptiste Lully">Jean-Baptiste Lully</a>) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period of <a href="/wiki/Opera_in_English" title="Opera in English">English opera</a><a href="#cite_note-Carter-30">[30]</a> by composers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Blow" title="John Blow">John Blow</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Purcell" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Buelow328-29">[29]</a> From the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain were <a href="/wiki/Ballad_opera" title="Ballad opera">ballad operas</a>, like <a href="/wiki/John_Gay" title="John Gay">John Gay</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Beggar%27s_Opera" title="The Beggar's Opera">The Beggar's Opera</a>, that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and later <a href="/wiki/Pantomime" title="Pantomime">pantomime</a>, which developed from commedia dell'arte, and <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic opera</a> with mostly romantic plot lines, like <a href="/wiki/Michael_Balfe" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Balfe">Michael Balfe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Bohemian_Girl" title="The Bohemian Girl">The Bohemian Girl</a> (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, <a href="/wiki/Singspiel" title="Singspiel">singspiel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Com%C3%A9die_en_vaudeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Comédie en vaudeville">comédie en vaudeville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_comique" title="Opéra comique">opéra comique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zarzuela" title="Zarzuela">zarzuela</a> and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. The Beggar's Opera was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s.<a href="#cite_note-dgillan.screaming.net-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parker1196-34">[34]</a> Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such as <a href="/wiki/Music_hall" title="Music hall">music hall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burletta" title="Burletta">burletta</a>, which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music. Colonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brother <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hallam" title="Lewis Hallam">Lewis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilmethp.182-35">[35]</a> In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such as The Beggar's Opera, and ballad-farces.<a href="#cite_note-Wilmethp.182-35">[35]</a> By the 1840s, <a href="/wiki/P._T._Barnum" title="P. T. Barnum">P. T. Barnum</a> was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime,<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a> but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 Broadway <a href="/wiki/Extravaganza" title="Extravaganza">extravaganza</a> The Magic Deer advertised itself as "A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment."<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-37">[37]</a> Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850 and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. New York runs lagged far behind those in London, but <a href="/wiki/Laura_Keene" title="Laura Keene">Laura Keene</a>'s "musical burletta" <a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sisters_(play)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Seven Sisters (play)">Seven Sisters</a> (1860) shattered previous New York musical theatre record, with a run of 253 performances.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1850s_to_1880s">1850s to 1880s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1850s to 1880s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg/170px-Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg/255px-Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg/340px-Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Poster, c. 1879</figcaption></figure> Around 1850, the French composer <a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_(composer)" title="Hervé (composer)">Hervé</a> was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called <a href="/wiki/Op%C3%A9rette" class="mw-redirect" title="Opérette">opérette</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lubbock-39">[39]</a> The best known composers of <a href="/wiki/Operetta" title="Operetta">operetta</a> were <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach" title="Jacques Offenbach">Jacques Offenbach</a> from the 1850s to the 1870s and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II" title="Johann Strauss II">Johann Strauss II</a> in the 1870s and 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a> Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed.<a href="#cite_note-Lubbock-39">[39]</a> Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), <a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">musical burlesques</a>, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical stage into the 1870s.<a href="#cite_note-Bond-40">[40]</a> In America, mid-19th century musical theatre entertainments included crude <a href="/wiki/Variety_show" title="Variety show">variety revue</a>, which eventually developed into <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">minstrel shows</a>, which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a> A hugely successful musical entertainment that premiered in New York in 1866, <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Crook" title="The Black Crook">The Black Crook</a>, combined dance and some original music that helped to tell the story. The spectacular production, famous for its skimpy costumes, ran for a record-breaking 474 performances.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The same year, The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy." In 1874, Evangeline or The Belle of Arcadia, by <a href="/wiki/Edward_E._Rice" title="Edward E. Rice">Edward E. Rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Cheever_Goodwin" title="J. Cheever Goodwin">J. Cheever Goodwin</a>, based loosely on <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow’s</a> <a href="/wiki/Evangeline" title="Evangeline">Evangeline</a>, with an original American story and music, opened successfully in New York and was revived in Boston, New York, and in repeated tours.<a href="#cite_note-Miller-42">[42]</a> Comedians <a href="/wiki/Edward_Harrigan" title="Edward Harrigan">Edward Harrigan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Hart_(theater)" title="Tony Hart (theater)">Tony Hart</a> produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes. They starred high quality singers (<a href="/wiki/Lillian_Russell" title="Lillian Russell">Lillian Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vivienne_Segal" title="Vivienne Segal">Vivienne Segal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fay_Templeton" title="Fay Templeton">Fay Templeton</a>) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms. In 1879, The Brook by Nate Salsbury was another national success with contemporary American dance styles and an American story about "members of an acting company taking a trip down a river ... with lots of obstacles and mishaps along the way".<a href="#cite_note-Miller-42">[42]</a> As transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operetta <a href="/wiki/The_Chimes_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Chimes of Normandy">The Chimes of Normandy</a> in 1878 (705 performances).<a href="#cite_note-dgillan.screaming.net-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> English <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic opera</a> adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-running <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a> comic operas, including <a href="/wiki/H.M.S._Pinafore" title="H.M.S. Pinafore">H.M.S. Pinafore</a> (1878) and <a href="/wiki/The_Mikado" title="The Mikado">The Mikado</a> (1885).<a href="#cite_note-Lubbock-39">[39]</a> These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.<a href="#cite_note-WeAll-44">[44]</a> These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-Bond-40">[40]</a> Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run of The Mikado, such as <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_(opera)" title="Dorothy (opera)">Dorothy</a>, which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to "integrate" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.<a href="#cite_note-Jones10-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Their works were <a href="/wiki/Cultural_influence_of_Gilbert_and_Sullivan#Musical_theatre_and_comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural influence of Gilbert and Sullivan">admired and copied</a> by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and America.<a href="#cite_note-WeAll-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1890s_to_the_new_century">1890s to the new century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1890s to the new century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy" title="Edwardian musical comedy">Edwardian musical comedy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg/170px-Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg/255px-Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg/340px-Cover_of_the_Vocal_Score_of_Sidney_Jones%27_The_Geisha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="822" data-file-height="1059" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the Vocal Score of <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Jones_(composer)" title="Sidney Jones (composer)">Sidney Jones</a>' The Geisha</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/A_Trip_to_Chinatown" title="A Trip to Chinatown">A Trip to Chinatown</a> (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until <a href="/wiki/Irene_(musical)" title="Irene (musical)">Irene</a> in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-dgillan.screaming.net-33">[33]</a> Gilbert and Sullivan were widely pirated and also were imitated in New York by productions such as <a href="/wiki/Reginald_De_Koven" title="Reginald De Koven">Reginald De Koven</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Robin_Hood_(De_Koven_opera)" title="Robin Hood (De Koven opera)">Robin Hood</a> (1891) and <a href="/wiki/John_Philip_Sousa" title="John Philip Sousa">John Philip Sousa</a>'s <a href="/wiki/El_Capitan_(operetta)" title="El Capitan (operetta)">El Capitan</a> (1896). A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the <a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">minstrel shows</a>), followed by <a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">ragtime</a>-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's <a href="/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley" title="Tin Pan Alley">Tin Pan Alley</a>, including those by <a href="/wiki/George_M._Cohan" title="George M. Cohan">George M. Cohan</a>, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Meanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the <a href="/wiki/Gay_Nineties" title="Gay Nineties">Gay Nineties</a>, led by producer <a href="/wiki/George_Edwardes" title="George Edwardes">George Edwardes</a>, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Savoy_opera" title="Savoy opera">Savoy</a>-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at the <a href="/wiki/Gaiety_Theatre,_London" title="Gaiety Theatre, London">Gaiety</a> and his other theatres. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his "respectable" corps of <a href="/wiki/Gaiety_Girls" title="Gaiety Girls">Gaiety Girls</a> to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these, <a href="/wiki/In_Town_(musical)" class="mw-redirect" title="In Town (musical)">In Town</a> (1892) and <a href="/wiki/A_Gaiety_Girl" title="A Gaiety Girl">A Gaiety Girl</a> (1893) set the style for the next three decades. The plots were generally light, romantic "poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds" shows, with music by <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Caryll" title="Ivan Caryll">Ivan Caryll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Jones_(composer)" title="Sidney Jones (composer)">Sidney Jones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Monckton" title="Lionel Monckton">Lionel Monckton</a>. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, and <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy" title="Edwardian musical comedy">Edwardian musical comedy</a> swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta. <a href="/wiki/The_Geisha" title="The Geisha">The Geisha</a> (1896) was one of the most successful in the 1890s, running for more than two years and achieving great international success. <a href="/wiki/The_Belle_of_New_York_(musical)" title="The Belle of New York (musical)">The Belle of New York</a> (1898) became the first American musical to run for over a year in London. The British musical comedy <a href="/wiki/Florodora" title="Florodora">Florodora</a> (1899) was a popular success on both sides of the Atlantic, as was <a href="/wiki/A_Chinese_Honeymoon" title="A Chinese Honeymoon">A Chinese Honeymoon</a> (1901), which ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York.<a href="#cite_note-Parker1196-34">[34]</a> After the turn of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Hicks" title="Seymour Hicks">Seymour Hicks</a> joined forces with Edwardes and American producer <a href="/wiki/Charles_Frohman" title="Charles Frohman">Charles Frohman</a> to create another decade of popular shows. Other enduring Edwardian musical comedy hits included <a href="/wiki/The_Arcadians_(musical)" title="The Arcadians (musical)">The Arcadians</a> (1909) and <a href="/wiki/The_Quaker_Girl" title="The Quaker Girl">The Quaker Girl</a> (1910).<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_herbert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Victor_herbert.jpg/170px-Victor_herbert.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Victor_herbert.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="309" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Victor_Herbert" title="Victor Herbert">Victor Herbert</a></figcaption></figure> Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with <a href="/wiki/The_Merry_Widow" title="The Merry Widow">The Merry Widow</a>, and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. <a href="/wiki/Franz_Leh%C3%A1r" title="Franz Lehár">Franz Lehár</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Straus_(composer)" title="Oscar Straus (composer)">Oscar Straus</a> composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In America, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Herbert" title="Victor Herbert">Victor Herbert</a> produced a string of enduring operettas including <a href="/wiki/The_Fortune_Teller_(operetta)" title="The Fortune Teller (operetta)">The Fortune Teller</a> (1898), <a href="/wiki/Babes_in_Toyland_(operetta)" title="Babes in Toyland (operetta)">Babes in Toyland</a> (1903), <a href="/wiki/Mlle._Modiste" title="Mlle. Modiste">Mlle. Modiste</a> (1905), <a href="/wiki/The_Red_Mill" title="The Red Mill">The Red Mill</a> (1906) and <a href="/wiki/Naughty_Marietta_(operetta)" title="Naughty Marietta (operetta)">Naughty Marietta</a> (1910). In the 1910s, the team of <a href="/wiki/P._G._Wodehouse" title="P. G. Wodehouse">P. G. Wodehouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guy_Bolton" title="Guy Bolton">Guy Bolton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kern" title="Jerome Kern">Jerome Kern</a>, following in the footsteps of <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a>, created the "<a href="/wiki/Princess_Theatre,_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Theatre, New York City">Princess Theatre</a> shows" and paved the way for Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs.<a href="#cite_note-Jones10-45">[45]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Bordman" title="Gerald Bordman">Gerald Bordman</a> wrote: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">These shows built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved. ... The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters. Kern's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization. ... [Edwardian] musical comedy was often guilty of inserting songs in a hit-or-miss fashion. The Princess Theatre musicals brought about a change in approach. P. G. Wodehouse, the most observant, literate and witty lyricist of his day, and the team of Bolton, Wodehouse and Kern had an influence felt to this day.<a href="#cite_note-Quarterly-53">[53]</a></blockquote> The theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and they flocked to the theatre. The 1919 hit musical <a href="/wiki/Irene_(musical)" title="Irene (musical)">Irene</a> ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938.<a href="#cite_note-Hellz-54">[54]</a> The British theatre public supported far longer runs like that of <a href="/wiki/The_Maid_of_the_Mountains" title="The Maid of the Mountains">The Maid of the Mountains</a> (1,352 performances) and especially <a href="/wiki/Chu_Chin_Chow" title="Chu Chin Chow">Chu Chin Chow</a>. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as long as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years.<a href="#cite_note-Salad-55">[55]</a> Even a revival of The Beggar's Opera held the stage for 1,463 performances.<a href="#cite_note-h1598-56">[56]</a> Revues like <a href="/wiki/The_Bing_Boys_Are_Here" title="The Bing Boys Are Here">The Bing Boys Are Here</a> in Britain, and those of <a href="/wiki/Florenz_Ziegfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Florenz Ziegfeld">Florenz Ziegfeld</a> and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-37">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sallysm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sallysm.jpg/170px-Sallysm.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sallysm.jpg/255px-Sallysm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Sallysm.jpg/340px-Sallysm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="475" /></a><figcaption>Sheet music from <a href="/wiki/Sally_(musical)" title="Sally (musical)">Sally</a>, 1920</figcaption></figure> The musicals of the <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a>, borrowing from vaudeville, <a href="/wiki/Music_hall" title="Music hall">music hall</a> and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize big dance routines and popular songs at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like <a href="/wiki/Sally_(musical)" title="Sally (musical)">Sally</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lady,_Be_Good_(musical)" title="Lady, Be Good (musical)">Lady, Be Good</a>; <a href="/wiki/No,_No,_Nanette" title="No, No, Nanette">No, No, Nanette</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oh,_Kay!" title="Oh, Kay!">Oh, Kay!</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Funny_Face_(musical)" title="Funny Face (musical)">Funny Face</a>. Despite forgettable stories, these musicals featured stars such as <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Miller" title="Marilyn Miller">Marilyn Miller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Astaire" title="Fred Astaire">Fred Astaire</a> and produced dozens of enduring popular songs by Kern, <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ira_Gershwin" title="Ira Gershwin">Ira Gershwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irving_Berlin" title="Irving Berlin">Irving Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cole_Porter" title="Cole Porter">Cole Porter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hart" title="Rodgers and Hart">Rodgers and Hart</a>. Popular music was dominated by musical theatre standards, such as "<a href="/wiki/Fascinating_Rhythm" title="Fascinating Rhythm">Fascinating Rhythm</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Tea_for_Two_(song)" title="Tea for Two (song)">Tea for Two</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Someone_to_Watch_Over_Me_(song)" title="Someone to Watch Over Me (song)">Someone to Watch Over Me</a>". Many shows were <a href="/wiki/Revue" title="Revue">revues</a>, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual <a href="/wiki/Ziegfeld_Follies" title="Ziegfeld Follies">Ziegfeld Follies</a>, spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes and beautiful chorus girls.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a> These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuffle_Along" title="Shuffle Along">Shuffle Along</a> (1921), an all-African American show, was a hit on Broadway.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> A new generation of composers of operettas also emerged in the 1920s, such as <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Friml" title="Rudolf Friml">Rudolf Friml</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Romberg" title="Sigmund Romberg">Sigmund Romberg</a>, to create a series of popular Broadway hits.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In London, writer-stars such as <a href="/wiki/Ivor_Novello" title="Ivor Novello">Ivor Novello</a> and <a href="/wiki/No%C3%ABl_Coward" title="Noël Coward">Noël Coward</a> became popular, but the primacy of British musical theatre from the 19th century through 1920 was gradually replaced by American innovation, especially after World War I, as Kern and other <a href="/wiki/Tin_Pan_Alley" title="Tin Pan Alley">Tin Pan Alley</a> composers began to bring new musical styles such as <a href="/wiki/Ragtime" title="Ragtime">ragtime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> to the theatres, and the <a href="/wiki/Shubert_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Shubert Brothers">Shubert Brothers</a> took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lamb_(writer)" title="Andrew Lamb (writer)">Andrew Lamb</a> notes, "The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition."<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In France, comédie musicale was written between in the early decades of the century for such stars as <a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Printemps" title="Yvonne Printemps">Yvonne Printemps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Show_Boat_and_the_Great_Depression">Show Boat and the Great Depression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Show Boat and the Great Depression">edit</a>]</div> Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's <a href="/wiki/Show_Boat" title="Show Boat">Show Boat</a> (1927) represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Hammerstein_II" title="Oscar Hammerstein II">Oscar Hammerstein II</a>. One historian wrote, "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity."<a href="#cite_note-history-61">[61]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg/220px-Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg/330px-Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg/440px-Rodgers_and_Hart_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2797" data-file-height="2178" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hart" title="Rodgers and Hart">Rodgers and Hart</a></figcaption></figure> As the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> set in during the post-Broadway national tour of Show Boat, the public turned back to mostly light, escapist song-and-dance entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-Quarterly-53">[53]</a> Audiences on both sides of the Atlantic had little money to spend on entertainment, and only a few stage shows anywhere exceeded a run of 500 performances during the decade. The revue <a href="/wiki/The_Band_Wagon_(musical)" title="The Band Wagon (musical)">The Band Wagon</a> (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister <a href="/wiki/Adele_Astaire" title="Adele Astaire">Adele</a>, while Porter's <a href="/wiki/Anything_Goes" title="Anything Goes">Anything Goes</a> (1934) confirmed <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Merman" title="Ethel Merman">Ethel Merman</a>'s position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Dancing_Years" title="The Dancing Years">The Dancing Years</a>, while Rodgers and Hart returned from Hollywood to create a series of successful Broadway shows, including <a href="/wiki/On_Your_Toes" title="On Your Toes">On Your Toes</a> (1936, with <a href="/wiki/Ray_Bolger" title="Ray Bolger">Ray Bolger</a>, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), <a href="/wiki/Babes_in_Arms" title="Babes in Arms">Babes in Arms</a> (1937) and <a href="/wiki/The_Boys_from_Syracuse" title="The Boys from Syracuse">The Boys from Syracuse</a> (1938). Porter added <a href="/wiki/Du_Barry_Was_a_Lady" title="Du Barry Was a Lady">Du Barry Was a Lady</a> (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s in the US was <a href="/wiki/Hellzapoppin_(musical)" title="Hellzapoppin (musical)">Hellzapoppin</a> (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.<a href="#cite_note-Hellz-54">[54]</a> In Britain, <a href="/wiki/Me_and_My_Girl" title="Me and My Girl">Me and My Girl</a> ran for 1,646 performances.<a href="#cite_note-h1598-56">[56]</a> Still, a few creative teams began to build on Show Boat's innovations. <a href="/wiki/Of_Thee_I_Sing" title="Of Thee I Sing">Of Thee I Sing</a> (1931), a political satire by the Gershwins, was the first musical awarded the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/As_Thousands_Cheer" title="As Thousands Cheer">As Thousands Cheer</a> (1933), a revue by <a href="/wiki/Irving_Berlin" title="Irving Berlin">Irving Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moss_Hart" title="Moss Hart">Moss Hart</a> in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American, <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Waters" title="Ethel Waters">Ethel Waters</a>, starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included "<a href="/wiki/Supper_Time" title="Supper Time">Supper Time</a>", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The Gershwins' <a href="/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess" title="Porgy and Bess">Porgy and Bess</a> (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk and jazz idioms. <a href="/wiki/The_Cradle_Will_Rock" title="The Cradle Will Rock">The Cradle Will Rock</a> (1937), directed by <a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Orson Welles</a>, was a highly political pro-<a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">union</a> piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, ran for 108 performances.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-37">[37]</a> Rodgers and Hart's <a href="/wiki/I%27d_Rather_Be_Right" title="I'd Rather Be Right">I'd Rather Be Right</a> (1937) was a political satire with <a href="/wiki/George_M._Cohan" title="George M. Cohan">George M. Cohan</a> as President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weill" title="Kurt Weill">Kurt Weill</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Knickerbocker_Holiday" title="Knickerbocker Holiday">Knickerbocker Holiday</a> depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing Roosevelt's good intentions. The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. Silent films had presented only limited competition, but by the end of the 1920s, films like <a href="/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer" title="The Jazz Singer">The Jazz Singer</a> could be presented with synchronized sound. <a href="/wiki/Sound_film" title="Sound film">"Talkie"</a> films at low prices effectively killed off <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a> by the early 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Despite the economic woes of the 1930s and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, it continued to evolve thematically beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the Gay Nineties and Roaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta, adding technical expertise and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style led by director <a href="/wiki/George_Abbott" title="George Abbott">George Abbott</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickShort-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Golden_Age_(1940s_to_1960s)">The Golden Age (1940s to 1960s)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Golden Age (1940s to 1960s)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg/300px-Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg/450px-Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg/600px-Rodgers_and_Hammerstein_and_Berlin_and_Tamiris_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2756" data-file-height="2129" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein" title="Rodgers and Hammerstein">Rodgers and Hammerstein</a> (left and right) and <a href="/wiki/Irving_Berlin" title="Irving Berlin">Irving Berlin</a> (center) at the <a href="/wiki/St._James_Theatre" title="St. James Theatre">St. James Theatre</a> in 1948</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1940s">1940s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1940s">edit</a>]</div> The 1940s began with more hits from Porter, <a href="/wiki/Irving_Berlin" title="Irving Berlin">Irving Berlin</a>, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air. <a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein" title="Rodgers and Hammerstein">Rodgers and Hammerstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma!" title="Oklahoma!">Oklahoma!</a> (1943) completed the revolution begun by <a href="/wiki/Show_Boat" title="Show Boat">Show Boat</a>, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin438-3">[3]</a> Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer <a href="/wiki/Agnes_de_Mille" title="Agnes de Mille">Agnes de Mille</a>, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines of <a href="/wiki/Oh,_What_a_Beautiful_Mornin%27" title="Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin'">Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin'</a> unaccompanied. It drew rave reviews, set off a box-office frenzy and received a <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brooks_Atkinson" title="Brooks Atkinson">Brooks Atkinson</a> wrote in The New York Times that the show's opening number changed the history of musical theatre: "After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable."<a href="#cite_note-Heritage-66">[66]</a> It was the first "blockbuster" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett and <a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Laird" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul R. Laird">Paul R. Laird</a> wrote that this was a "show, that, like Show Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma!".<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Martin_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of a woman in her mid-thirties, with long curly hair and wearing an old-fashioned blouse with string tie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Mary_Martin_1.jpg/170px-Mary_Martin_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Mary_Martin_1.jpg/255px-Mary_Martin_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Mary_Martin_1.jpg/340px-Mary_Martin_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1943" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Martin" title="Mary Martin">Mary Martin</a> starred in several Broadway hits of this era</figcaption></figure> "After Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own".<a href="#cite_note-history-61">[61]</a> The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, including <a href="/wiki/Carousel_(musical)" title="Carousel (musical)">Carousel</a> (1945), <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_(musical)" title="South Pacific (musical)">South Pacific</a> (1949), <a href="/wiki/The_King_and_I" title="The King and I">The King and I</a> (1951) and <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music" title="The Sound of Music">The Sound of Music</a> (1959). Some of these musicals treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain in Oklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath; Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife; South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly than Show Boat; the hero of The King and I dies onstage; and the backdrop of The Sound of Music is the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938</a>. The show's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein's contemporaries and ushered in the "Golden Age" of American musical theatre.<a href="#cite_note-Heritage-66">[66]</a> Americana was displayed on Broadway during the "Golden Age", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this is <a href="/wiki/On_the_Town_(musical)" title="On the Town (musical)">On the Town</a> (1944), written by <a href="/wiki/Betty_Comden" title="Betty Comden">Betty Comden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adolph_Green" title="Adolph Green">Adolph Green</a>, composed by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein" title="Leonard Bernstein">Leonard Bernstein</a> and choreographed by <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Robbins" title="Jerome Robbins">Jerome Robbins</a>. The story is set during wartime and concerns three sailors who are on a 24-hour shore leave in New York City, during which each falls in love. The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors and their women also have. <a href="/wiki/Irving_Berlin" title="Irving Berlin">Irving Berlin</a> used sharpshooter <a href="/wiki/Annie_Oakley" title="Annie Oakley">Annie Oakley</a>'s career as a basis for his <a href="/wiki/Annie_Get_Your_Gun_(musical)" title="Annie Get Your Gun (musical)">Annie Get Your Gun</a> (1946, 1,147 performances); <a href="/wiki/Burton_Lane" title="Burton Lane">Burton Lane</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._Y._Harburg" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Y. Harburg">E. Y. Harburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Saidy" title="Fred Saidy">Fred Saidy</a> combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasy <a href="/wiki/Finian%27s_Rainbow" title="Finian's Rainbow">Finian's Rainbow</a> (1947, 725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration in <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Taming_of_the_Shrew" title="The Taming of the Shrew">The Taming of the Shrew</a> for <a href="/wiki/Kiss_Me,_Kate" title="Kiss Me, Kate">Kiss Me, Kate</a> (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello's <a href="/wiki/Perchance_to_Dream_(musical)" title="Perchance to Dream (musical)">Perchance to Dream</a> (1945, 1,021 performances).<a href="#cite_note-h1598-56">[56]</a> The formula for the Golden Age musicals reflected one or more of four widely held perceptions of the "American dream": That stability and worth derives from a love relationship sanctioned and restricted by Protestant ideals of marriage; that a married couple should make a moral home with children away from the city in a suburb or small town; that the woman's function was as homemaker and mother; and that Americans incorporate an independent and pioneering spirit or that their success is self-made.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1950s">1950s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1950s">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Musical_film" title="Musical film">Musical film</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG/170px-Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG/255px-Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG/340px-Richard_Burton_and_Julie_Andrews_Camelot.JPG 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1227" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julie_Andrews" title="Julie Andrews">Julie Andrews</a> with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Burton" title="Richard Burton">Richard Burton</a> in Camelot (1960)</figcaption></figure> The 1950s were crucial to the development of the American musical.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Damon_Runyon" title="Damon Runyon">Damon Runyon</a>'s eclectic characters were at the core of <a href="/wiki/Frank_Loesser" title="Frank Loesser">Frank Loesser</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Abe_Burrows" title="Abe Burrows">Abe Burrows</a>' <a href="/wiki/Guys_and_Dolls" title="Guys and Dolls">Guys and Dolls</a>, (1950, 1,200 performances); and the <a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">Gold Rush</a> was the setting for <a href="/wiki/Alan_Jay_Lerner" title="Alan Jay Lerner">Alan Jay Lerner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Loewe" title="Frederick Loewe">Frederick Loewe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Paint_Your_Wagon_(musical)" title="Paint Your Wagon (musical)">Paint Your Wagon</a> (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show did not discourage <a href="/wiki/Lerner_and_Loewe" title="Lerner and Loewe">Lerner and Loewe</a> from collaborating again, this time on <a href="/wiki/My_Fair_Lady" title="My Fair Lady">My Fair Lady</a> (1956), an adaptation of <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pygmalion_(play)" title="Pygmalion (play)">Pygmalion</a> starring <a href="/wiki/Rex_Harrison" title="Rex Harrison">Rex Harrison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julie_Andrews" title="Julie Andrews">Julie Andrews</a>, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. Two hits by British creators in this decade were <a href="/wiki/The_Boy_Friend_(musical)" title="The Boy Friend (musical)">The Boy Friend</a> (1954), which ran for 2,078 performances in London and marked Andrews' American debut, and <a href="/wiki/Salad_Days_(musical)" title="Salad Days (musical)">Salad Days</a> (1954), which broke the British long-run record with a run of 2,283 performances.<a href="#cite_note-h1598-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Salad-55">[55]</a> Another record was set by <a href="/wiki/The_Threepenny_Opera" title="The Threepenny Opera">The Threepenny Opera</a>, which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until <a href="/wiki/The_Fantasticks" title="The Fantasticks">The Fantasticks</a>. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Kern" title="Jerome Kern">Jerome Kern</a> and <a href="/wiki/P._G._Wodehouse" title="P. G. Wodehouse">P. G. Wodehouse</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Leave_It_to_Jane" title="Leave It to Jane">Leave It to Jane</a> ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 <a href="/wiki/Off-Broadway" title="Off-Broadway">off-Broadway</a> season included a dozen musicals and revues including <a href="/wiki/Little_Mary_Sunshine" title="Little Mary Sunshine">Little Mary Sunshine</a>, The Fantasticks and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_in_Love" title="Ernest in Love">Ernest in Love</a>, a musical adaptation of <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a>'s 1895 hit <a href="/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest" title="The Importance of Being Earnest">The Importance of Being Earnest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg/170px-Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg/255px-Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg/340px-Leonard_Bernstein_1971.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2475" data-file-height="3743" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein" title="Leonard Bernstein">Leonard Bernstein</a>, 1971</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story" title="West Side Story">West Side Story</a> (1957) transported Romeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Laurents" title="Arthur Laurents">Arthur Laurents</a>, with music by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein" title="Leonard Bernstein">Leonard Bernstein</a> and lyrics by newcomer <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim" title="Stephen Sondheim">Stephen Sondheim</a>. It was praised by critics for its innovations in music and choreography<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> but was less commercially successful than the same year's <a href="/wiki/The_Music_Man" title="The Music Man">The Music Man</a>, written and composed by <a href="/wiki/Meredith_Willson" title="Meredith Willson">Meredith Willson</a>, which won the <a href="/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Musical" title="Tony Award for Best Musical">Tony Award for Best Musical</a> that year.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> West Side Story would get a <a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story_(1961_film)" title="West Side Story (1961 film)">film adaptation</a> in 1961, which proved successful both critically and commercially.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again for <a href="/wiki/Gypsy_(musical)" title="Gypsy (musical)">Gypsy</a> (1959), with <a href="/wiki/Jule_Styne" title="Jule Styne">Jule Styne</a> providing the music for a story about <a href="/wiki/Rose_Thompson_Hovick" title="Rose Thompson Hovick">Rose Thompson Hovick</a>, the mother of the titular stripper <a href="/wiki/Gypsy_Rose_Lee" title="Gypsy Rose Lee">Gypsy Rose Lee</a>. Although directors and choreographers have had a major influence on musical theatre style since at least the 19th century,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> George Abbott and his collaborators and successors took a central role in integrating movement and dance fully into musical theatre productions in the Golden Age.<a href="#cite_note-KenrickDance-77">[77]</a> Abbott introduced ballet as a story-telling device in On Your Toes in 1936, which was followed by <a href="/wiki/Agnes_de_Mille" title="Agnes de Mille">Agnes de Mille</a>'s ballet and choreography in Oklahoma!.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> After Abbott collaborated with Jerome Robbins in On the Town and other shows, Robbins combined the roles of director and choreographer, emphasizing the story-telling power of dance in West Side Story, <a href="/wiki/A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum" title="A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum">A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum</a> (1962) and <a href="/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof" title="Fiddler on the Roof">Fiddler on the Roof</a> (1964). <a href="/wiki/Bob_Fosse" title="Bob Fosse">Bob Fosse</a> choreographed for Abbott in <a href="/wiki/The_Pajama_Game" title="The Pajama Game">The Pajama Game</a> (1956) and <a href="/wiki/Damn_Yankees" title="Damn Yankees">Damn Yankees</a> (1957), injecting playful sexuality into those hits. He was later the director-choreographer for Sweet Charity (1968), Pippin (1972) and Chicago (1975). Other notable director-choreographers have included <a href="/wiki/Gower_Champion" title="Gower Champion">Gower Champion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Tune" title="Tommy Tune">Tommy Tune</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bennett_(theater)" title="Michael Bennett (theater)">Michael Bennett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gillian_Lynne" title="Gillian Lynne">Gillian Lynne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Stroman" title="Susan Stroman">Susan Stroman</a>. Prominent directors have included <a href="/wiki/Hal_Prince" class="mw-redirect" title="Hal Prince">Hal Prince</a>, who also got his start with Abbott,<a href="#cite_note-KenrickDance-77">[77]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trevor_Nunn" title="Trevor Nunn">Trevor Nunn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> During the Golden Age, automotive companies and other large corporations began to hire Broadway talent to write <a href="/wiki/Industrial_musical" title="Industrial musical">corporate musicals</a>, private shows only seen by their employees or customers.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The 1950s ended with <a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein" title="Rodgers and Hammerstein">Rodgers and Hammerstein</a>'s last hit, The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music_(film)" title="The Sound of Music (film)">1965 film version</a>, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1960s">1960s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1960s">edit</a>]</div> In 1960, The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village" title="Greenwich Village">Greenwich Village</a>, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as <a href="/wiki/Celebration_(musical)" title="Celebration (musical)">Celebration</a> and <a href="/wiki/I_Do!_I_Do!" class="mw-redirect" title="I Do! I Do!">I Do! I Do!</a>, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like <a href="/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof" title="Fiddler on the Roof">Fiddler on the Roof</a> (1964; 3,242 performances), <a href="/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_(musical)" title="Hello, Dolly! (musical)">Hello, Dolly!</a> (1964; 2,844 performances), <a href="/wiki/Funny_Girl_(musical)" title="Funny Girl (musical)">Funny Girl</a> (1964; 1,348 performances) and <a href="/wiki/Man_of_La_Mancha" title="Man of La Mancha">Man of La Mancha</a> (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like <a href="/wiki/Cabaret_(musical)" title="Cabaret (musical)">Cabaret</a>, before ending with the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Rock_musical" title="Rock musical">rock musical</a>. In Britain, <a href="/wiki/Oliver!" title="Oliver!">Oliver!</a> (1960) ran for 2,618 performances, but the long-run champion of the decade was <a href="/wiki/The_Black_and_White_Minstrel_Show" title="The Black and White Minstrel Show">The Black and White Minstrel Show</a> (1962), which played for 4,344 performances.<a href="#cite_note-h1598-56">[56]</a> Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim" title="Stephen Sondheim">Stephen Sondheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Herman" title="Jerry Herman">Jerry Herman</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peters_in_08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Peters_in_08.jpg/170px-Peters_in_08.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Peters_in_08.jpg/255px-Peters_in_08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Peters_in_08.jpg/340px-Peters_in_08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="876" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bernadette_Peters" title="Bernadette Peters">Bernadette Peters</a> (shown in 2008) has starred in five Sondheim musicals</figcaption></figure> The first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was <a href="/wiki/A_Funny_Thing_Happened_on_the_Way_to_the_Forum" title="A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum">A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum</a> (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Burt_Shevelove" title="Burt Shevelove">Burt Shevelove</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larry_Gelbart" title="Larry Gelbart">Larry Gelbart</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Zero_Mostel" title="Zero Mostel">Zero Mostel</a>. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include <a href="/wiki/Anyone_Can_Whistle" title="Anyone Can Whistle">Anyone Can Whistle</a> (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars <a href="/wiki/Lee_Remick" title="Lee Remick">Lee Remick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angela_Lansbury" title="Angela Lansbury">Angela Lansbury</a>), and the successful <a href="/wiki/Company_(musical)" title="Company (musical)">Company</a> (1970), <a href="/wiki/Follies" title="Follies">Follies</a> (1971) and <a href="/wiki/A_Little_Night_Music" title="A Little Night Music">A Little Night Music</a> (1973). Later, Sondheim found inspiration in unlikely sources: the opening of Japan to Western trade for <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Overtures" title="Pacific Overtures">Pacific Overtures</a> (1976), a legendary murderous barber seeking revenge in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Age</a> of London for <a href="/wiki/Sweeney_Todd_(musical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweeney Todd (musical)">Sweeney Todd</a> (1979), the paintings of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Georges Seurat</a> for <a href="/wiki/Sunday_in_the_Park_with_George" title="Sunday in the Park with George">Sunday in the Park with George</a> (1984), fairy tales for <a href="/wiki/Into_the_Woods" title="Into the Woods">Into the Woods</a> (1987), and a collection of presidential assassins in <a href="/wiki/Assassins_(musical)" title="Assassins (musical)">Assassins</a> (1990). While some critics have argued that some of Sondheim's musicals lack commercial appeal, others have praised their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (<a href="/wiki/Merrily_We_Roll_Along_(musical)" title="Merrily We Roll Along (musical)">Merrily We Roll Along</a>) and the above-mentioned Anyone Can Whistle, in which the first act ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad. Jerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production, <a href="/wiki/Milk_and_Honey_(musical)" title="Milk and Honey (musical)">Milk and Honey</a> (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the blockbuster hits <a href="/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_(musical)" title="Hello, Dolly! (musical)">Hello, Dolly!</a> (1964, 2,844 performances), <a href="/wiki/Mame_(musical)" title="Mame (musical)">Mame</a> (1966, 1,508 performances), and <a href="/wiki/La_Cage_aux_Folles_(musical)" title="La Cage aux Folles (musical)">La Cage aux Folles</a> (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows like <a href="/wiki/Dear_World" title="Dear World">Dear World</a> (1969) and <a href="/wiki/Mack_and_Mabel" title="Mack and Mabel">Mack and Mabel</a> (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack and Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman's <a href="/wiki/Show_tune" title="Show tune">show tunes</a> have become popular standards, including "<a href="/wiki/Hello,_Dolly!_(song)" title="Hello, Dolly! (song)">Hello, Dolly!</a>", "We Need a Little Christmas", "I Am What I Am", "Mame", "The Best of Times", "Before the Parade Passes By", "Put On Your Sunday Clothes", "It Only Takes a Moment", "Bosom Buddies" and "I Won't Send Roses", recorded by such artists as <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eydie_Gorm%C3%A9" title="Eydie Gormé">Eydie Gormé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbra_Streisand" title="Barbra Streisand">Barbra Streisand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petula_Clark" title="Petula Clark">Petula Clark</a> and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues, <a href="/wiki/Jerry%27s_Girls" title="Jerry's Girls">Jerry's Girls</a> (Broadway, 1985) and <a href="/wiki/Showtune_(musical)" title="Showtune (musical)">Showtune</a> (off-Broadway, 2003). The musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Hair_(musical)" title="Hair (musical)">Hair</a>, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, race relations and other social issues.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_themes">Social themes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Social themes">edit</a>]</div> After Show Boat and <a href="/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess" title="Porgy and Bess">Porgy and Bess</a>, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> progressed, Hammerstein, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Arlen" title="Harold Arlen">Harold Arlen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yip_Harburg" title="Yip Harburg">Yip Harburg</a> and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included <a href="/wiki/Finian%27s_Rainbow" title="Finian's Rainbow">Finian's Rainbow</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_(musical)" title="South Pacific (musical)">South Pacific</a>. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as <a href="/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof" title="Fiddler on the Roof">Fiddler on the Roof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milk_and_Honey_(musical)" title="Milk and Honey (musical)">Milk and Honey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blitz!" title="Blitz!">Blitz!</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Rags_(musical)" title="Rags (musical)">Rags</a>. The original concept that became <a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story" title="West Side Story">West Side Story</a> was set in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_East_Side" title="Lower East Side">Lower East Side</a> during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and <a href="/wiki/Italian-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian-American">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a>. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs. <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican people">Puerto Rican</a> conflict was fresher.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Tolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression of West Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the 1960s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each other's roles, as they did in Hair.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Homosexuality has also been explored in musicals, starting with Hair, and even more overtly in <a href="/wiki/La_Cage_aux_Folles_(musical)" title="La Cage aux Folles (musical)">La Cage aux Folles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falsettos" title="Falsettos">Falsettos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rent_(musical)" title="Rent (musical)">Rent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hedwig_and_the_Angry_Inch_(musical)" title="Hedwig and the Angry Inch (musical)">Hedwig and the Angry Inch</a> and other shows in recent decades. <a href="/wiki/Parade_(musical)" title="Parade (musical)">Parade</a> is a sensitive exploration of both <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semitism">anti-Semitism</a> and historical American racism, and <a href="/wiki/Ragtime_(musical)" title="Ragtime (musical)">Ragtime</a> similarly explores the experience of immigrants and minorities in America. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s_to_present">1970s to present</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1970s to present">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1970s">1970s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1970s">edit</a>]</div> After the success of Hair, <a href="/wiki/Rock_musical" title="Rock musical">rock musicals</a> flourished in the 1970s, with <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Superstar" title="Jesus Christ Superstar">Jesus Christ Superstar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Godspell" title="Godspell">Godspell</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Rocky_Horror_Show" title="The Rocky Horror Show">The Rocky Horror Show</a>, Evita and <a href="/wiki/Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona_(musical)" title="Two Gentlemen of Verona (musical)">Two Gentlemen of Verona</a>. Some of those began as "<a href="/wiki/Concept_album" title="Concept album">concept albums</a>" which were then adapted to the stage, most notably Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as <a href="/wiki/Rock_opera" title="Rock opera">rock operas</a>. Shows like <a href="/wiki/Raisin_(musical)" title="Raisin (musical)">Raisin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dreamgirls_(musical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dreamgirls (musical)">Dreamgirls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purlie" title="Purlie">Purlie</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Wiz" title="The Wiz">The Wiz</a> brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg/220px-Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg/330px-Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg/440px-Public_Theatre_Astor_Library_Building_from_south.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2038" data-file-height="1691" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/A_Chorus_Line" title="A Chorus Line">A Chorus Line</a> was one of 55 productions that <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Papp" title="Joseph Papp">Joseph Papp</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Public_Theater" title="The Public Theater">Public Theatre</a> has brought to Broadway</figcaption></figure> In 1975, the dance musical <a href="/wiki/A_Chorus_Line" title="A Chorus Line">A Chorus Line</a> emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bennett_(theater)" title="Michael Bennett (theater)">Michael Bennett</a> conducted with "gypsies" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, <a href="/wiki/James_Kirkwood_Jr." title="James Kirkwood Jr.">James Kirkwood Jr.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nick_Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Nick Dante">Nick Dante</a> fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating many real-life stories from the sessions; some who attended the sessions eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music by <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Hamlisch" title="Marvin Hamlisch">Marvin Hamlisch</a> and lyrics by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Kleban" title="Edward Kleban">Edward Kleban</a>, A Chorus Line first opened at <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Papp" title="Joseph Papp">Joseph Papp</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Public_Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Theater">Public Theater</a> in lower Manhattan. What initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the <a href="/wiki/Shubert_Theatre_(Broadway)" title="Shubert Theatre (Broadway)">Shubert Theatre</a> on Broadway<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> for a run of 6,137 performances, becoming the longest-running production in Broadway history up to that time. The show swept the Tony Awards and won the <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>, and its hit song, <a href="/wiki/What_I_Did_for_Love_(A_Chorus_Line)" class="mw-redirect" title="What I Did for Love (A Chorus Line)">What I Did for Love</a>, became a standard.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Broadway audiences welcomed musicals that varied from the golden age style and substance. <a href="/wiki/John_Kander" title="John Kander">John Kander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Ebb" title="Fred Ebb">Fred Ebb</a> explored the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> in Germany in <a href="/wiki/Cabaret_(musical)" title="Cabaret (musical)">Cabaret</a>, and murder and the media in <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">Prohibition</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Chicago_(musical)" title="Chicago (musical)">Chicago</a>, which relied on old <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a> techniques. <a href="/wiki/Pippin_(musical)" title="Pippin (musical)">Pippin</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Schwartz_(composer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Schwartz (composer)">Stephen Schwartz</a>, was set in the days of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. <a href="/wiki/Federico_Fellini" title="Federico Fellini">Federico Fellini</a>'s autobiographical film <a href="/wiki/8%C2%BD" title="8½">8½</a> became <a href="/wiki/Maury_Yeston" title="Maury Yeston">Maury Yeston</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nine_(musical)" title="Nine (musical)">Nine</a>. At the end of the decade, Evita and Sweeney Todd were precursors of the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. At the same time, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits as <a href="/wiki/Annie_(musical)" title="Annie (musical)">Annie</a>, <a href="/wiki/42nd_Street_(musical)" title="42nd Street (musical)">42nd Street</a>, <a href="/wiki/My_One_and_Only_(musical)" title="My One and Only (musical)">My One and Only</a>, and popular revivals of No, No, Nanette and Irene. Although many film versions of musicals were made in the 1970s, few were critical or box office successes, with the notable exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof_(film)" title="Fiddler on the Roof (film)">Fiddler on the Roof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cabaret_(1972_film)" title="Cabaret (1972 film)">Cabaret</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grease_(film)" title="Grease (film)">Grease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1980s">1980s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 1980s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg/170px-Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg/255px-Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg/340px-Sir_Cameron_Mackintosh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cameron_Mackintosh" title="Cameron Mackintosh">Cameron Mackintosh</a></figcaption></figure> The 1980s saw the influence of European "<a href="/wiki/Megamusical" title="Megamusical">megamusicals</a>" on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically feature a pop-influenced score, large casts and spectacular sets and special effects – a falling <a href="/wiki/Chandelier" title="Chandelier">chandelier</a> (in <a href="/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_(1986_musical)" title="The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)">The Phantom of the Opera</a>); a helicopter landing on stage (in <a href="/wiki/Miss_Saigon" title="Miss Saigon">Miss Saigon</a>) – and big budgets. Some were based on novels or other works of literature. The British team of composer <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lloyd_Webber" title="Andrew Lloyd Webber">Andrew Lloyd Webber</a> and producer <a href="/wiki/Cameron_Mackintosh" title="Cameron Mackintosh">Cameron Mackintosh</a> started the megamusical phenomenon with their 1981 musical <a href="/wiki/Cats_(musical)" title="Cats (musical)">Cats</a>, based on the poems of <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>, which overtook A Chorus Line to become the longest-running Broadway show. Lloyd Webber followed up with <a href="/wiki/Starlight_Express" title="Starlight Express">Starlight Express</a> (1984), performed on roller skates; The Phantom of the Opera (1986; also with Mackintosh), derived from the <a href="/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_(novel)" title="The Phantom of the Opera (novel)">novel of the same name</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_(musical)" title="Sunset Boulevard (musical)">Sunset Boulevard</a> (1993), from the 1950 <a href="/wiki/Sunset_Boulevard_(film)" title="Sunset Boulevard (film)">film of the same name</a>. Phantom would surpass Cats to become the longest-running show in Broadway history, a record it still holds.<a href="#cite_note-EL250-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-AH206-89">[89]</a> The French team of <a href="/wiki/Claude-Michel_Sch%C3%B6nberg" title="Claude-Michel Schönberg">Claude-Michel Schönberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alain_Boublil" title="Alain Boublil">Alain Boublil</a> wrote Les Misérables, based on the <a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables" title="Les Misérables">novel of the same name</a>, whose 1985 London production was produced by Mackintosh and became, and still is, the <a href="/wiki/Long-running_musical_theatre_productions" title="Long-running musical theatre productions">longest-running musical in West End and Broadway history</a>. The team produced another hit with Miss Saigon (1989), which was inspired by the Puccini opera <a href="/wiki/Madama_Butterfly" title="Madama Butterfly">Madama Butterfly</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EL250-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-AH206-89">[89]</a> The megamusicals' huge budgets redefined expectations for financial success on Broadway and in the West End. In earlier years, it was possible for a show to be considered a hit after a run of several hundred performances, but with multimillion-dollar production costs, a show must run for years simply to turn a profit. Megamusicals were also reproduced in productions around the world, multiplying their profit potential while expanding the global audience for musical theatre.<a href="#cite_note-AH206-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1990s">1990s</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1990s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Audra_McDonald_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Audra_McDonald_%281%29.jpg/170px-Audra_McDonald_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Audra_McDonald_%281%29.jpg/255px-Audra_McDonald_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Audra_McDonald_%281%29.jpg/340px-Audra_McDonald_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1424" data-file-height="2256" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Audra_McDonald" title="Audra McDonald">Audra McDonald</a></figcaption></figure> In the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including <a href="/wiki/Jason_Robert_Brown" title="Jason Robert Brown">Jason Robert Brown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_John_LaChiusa" title="Michael John LaChiusa">Michael John LaChiusa</a>, who began with productions off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Larson" title="Jonathan Larson">Jonathan Larson</a>'s show <a href="/wiki/Rent_(musical)" title="Rent (musical)">Rent</a> (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera <a href="/wiki/La_boh%C3%A8me" title="La bohème">La bohème</a>) about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, Rent was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads], camped out at the <a href="/wiki/Nederlander_Theatre" title="Nederlander Theatre">Nederlander Theatre</a> in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of times. Other shows on Broadway followed Rent's lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The 1990s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has been <a href="/wiki/Disney_Theatrical_Productions" title="Disney Theatrical Productions">Disney Theatrical Productions</a>, which began adapting some of <a href="/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company" title="The Walt Disney Company">Disney's</a> animated film musicals for the stage, starting with <a href="/wiki/Beauty_and_the_Beast_(musical)" title="Beauty and the Beast (musical)">Beauty and the Beast</a> (1994), <a href="/wiki/The_Lion_King_(musical)" title="The Lion King (musical)">The Lion King</a> (1997) and <a href="/wiki/Aida_(musical)" title="Aida (musical)">Aida</a> (2000), the latter two with music by <a href="/wiki/Elton_John" title="Elton John">Elton John</a>. The Lion King is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_highest-grossing_musicals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of highest-grossing musicals">highest-grossing musical</a> in Broadway history.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Who%27s_Tommy" title="The Who's Tommy">The Who's Tommy</a> (1993), a theatrical adaptation of the rock opera <a href="/wiki/Tommy_(The_Who_album)" title="Tommy (The Who album)">Tommy</a>, achieved a healthy run of 899 performances but was criticized for sanitizing the story and "musical theatre-izing" the rock music.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Despite the growing number of large-scale musicals in the 1980s and 1990s, a number of lower-budget, smaller-scale musicals managed to find critical and financial success, such as <a href="/wiki/Falsettoland" title="Falsettoland">Falsettoland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Little_Shop_of_Horrors_(musical)" title="Little Shop of Horrors (musical)">Little Shop of Horrors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bat_Boy:_The_Musical" title="Bat Boy: The Musical">Bat Boy: The Musical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blood_Brothers_(musical)" title="Blood Brothers (musical)">Blood Brothers</a>, which ran for 10,013 performances.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The topics of these pieces vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway, or for smaller London theatres, and some of these stagings have been regarded as imaginative and innovative.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2000s–present">2000s–present</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 2000s–present">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Trends">Trends</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Trends">edit</a>]</div> In the new century, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on new and creative material, such as <a href="/wiki/Urinetown" title="Urinetown">Urinetown</a> (2001), <a href="/wiki/Avenue_Q" title="Avenue Q">Avenue Q</a> (2003), <a href="/wiki/The_Light_in_the_Piazza_(musical)" title="The Light in the Piazza (musical)">The Light in the Piazza</a> (2005), <a href="/wiki/Spring_Awakening_(musical)" title="Spring Awakening (musical)">Spring Awakening</a> (2006), <a href="/wiki/In_the_Heights" title="In the Heights">In the Heights</a> (2008), <a href="/wiki/Next_to_Normal" title="Next to Normal">Next to Normal</a> (2009), <a href="/wiki/American_Idiot_(musical)" title="American Idiot (musical)">American Idiot</a> (2010) and <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)" title="The Book of Mormon (musical)">The Book of Mormon</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a> (2015), transformed "under-dramatized American history" into an unusual hip-hop inflected hit.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In 2011, Sondheim argued that of all forms of "contemporary pop music", <a href="/wiki/Rapping" title="Rapping">rap</a> was "the closest to traditional musical theatre" and was "one pathway to the future."<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> However, most major-market 21st-century productions have taken a safe route, with revivals of familiar fare, such as <a href="/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof" title="Fiddler on the Roof">Fiddler on the Roof</a>, <a href="/wiki/A_Chorus_Line" title="A Chorus Line">A Chorus Line</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_(musical)" title="South Pacific (musical)">South Pacific</a>, Gypsy, Hair, West Side Story and <a href="/wiki/Grease_(musical)" title="Grease (musical)">Grease</a>, or with adaptations of other proven material, such as literature (<a href="/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel" title="The Scarlet Pimpernel">The Scarlet Pimpernel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wicked_(musical)" title="Wicked (musical)">Wicked</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fun_Home_(musical)" title="Fun Home (musical)">Fun Home</a>), hoping that the shows would have a built-in audience as a result. This trend is especially persistent with film adaptations, including <a href="/wiki/The_Producers_(musical)" title="The Producers (musical)">The Producers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spamalot" title="Spamalot">Spamalot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hairspray_(musical)" title="Hairspray (musical)">Hairspray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde_(musical)" title="Legally Blonde (musical)">Legally Blonde</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Color_Purple_(musical)" title="The Color Purple (musical)">The Color Purple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xanadu_(musical)" title="Xanadu (musical)">Xanadu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Billy_Elliot_the_Musical" title="Billy Elliot the Musical">Billy Elliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrek_(musical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrek (musical)">Shrek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waitress_(musical)" title="Waitress (musical)">Waitress</a> and <a href="/wiki/Groundhog_Day_(musical)" title="Groundhog Day (musical)">Groundhog Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Some critics have argued that the reuse of film plots, especially those from Disney (such as <a href="/wiki/Mary_Poppins_(musical)" title="Mary Poppins (musical)">Mary Poppins</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Little_Mermaid_(musical)" title="The Little Mermaid (musical)">The Little Mermaid</a>), equate the Broadway and West End musical to a tourist attraction, rather than a creative outlet.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-37">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical,_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical%2C_2015.jpg/300px-Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical%2C_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical%2C_2015.jpg/450px-Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical%2C_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical%2C_2015.jpg/600px-Obama_greets_the_cast_and_crew_of_Hamilton_musical%2C_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>The cast of <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a> meets <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">President Obama</a> in 2015</figcaption></figure> Today, it is less likely that a sole producer, such as <a href="/wiki/David_Merrick" title="David Merrick">David Merrick</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cameron_Mackintosh" title="Cameron Mackintosh">Cameron Mackintosh</a>, backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals, which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits for <a href="/wiki/Thoroughly_Modern_Millie" title="Thoroughly Modern Millie">Thoroughly Modern Millie</a> listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example, Spring Awakening, Fun Home and Hamilton were developed off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway. Several musicals returned to the spectacle format that was so successful in the 1980s, recalling <a href="/wiki/Extravaganza" title="Extravaganza">extravaganzas</a> that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples include the musical adaptations of <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_Rings_(musical)" title="Lord of the Rings (musical)">Lord of the Rings</a> (2007), <a href="/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(musical)" title="Gone with the Wind (musical)">Gone with the Wind</a> (2008) and <a href="/wiki/Spider-Man:_Turn_Off_the_Dark" title="Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark">Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark</a> (2011). These musicals involved songwriters with little theatrical experience, and the expensive productions generally lost money. Conversely, The Drowsy Chaperone, Avenue Q, <a href="/wiki/The_25th_Annual_Putnam_County_Spelling_Bee" title="The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee">The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee</a>, Xanadu and Fun Home, among others, have been presented in smaller-scale productions, mostly uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running times, and enjoyed financial success. In 2013, Time magazine reported that a trend off-Broadway has been "immersive" theatre, citing shows such as <a href="/wiki/Natasha,_Pierre_%26_The_Great_Comet_of_1812" title="Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812">Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812</a> (2012) and <a href="/wiki/Here_Lies_Love" title="Here Lies Love">Here Lies Love</a> (2013) in which the staging takes place around and within the audience.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> The shows set a joint record, each receiving 11 nominations for <a href="/wiki/Lucille_Lortel_Awards" title="Lucille Lortel Awards">Lucille Lortel Awards</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> and feature contemporary scores.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In 2013, <a href="/wiki/Cyndi_Lauper" title="Cyndi Lauper">Cyndi Lauper</a> was the "first female composer to win the [Tony for] Best Score without a male collaborator" for writing the music and lyrics for <a href="/wiki/Kinky_Boots_(musical)" title="Kinky Boots (musical)">Kinky Boots</a>. In 2015, for the first time, an <a href="/wiki/Women_in_music" title="Women in music">all-female writing team</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Kron" title="Lisa Kron">Lisa Kron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeanine_Tesori" title="Jeanine Tesori">Jeanine Tesori</a>, won the <a href="/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Original_Score" title="Tony Award for Best Original Score">Tony Award for Best Original Score</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="Tony Award for Best Book">Best Book</a> for Kron) for Fun Home,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> although work by male songwriters continues to be produced more often.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Jukebox_musicals">Jukebox musicals</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Jukebox musicals">edit</a>]</div> Another trend has been to create a minimal plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits. Following the earlier success of <a href="/wiki/Buddy_%E2%80%93_The_Buddy_Holly_Story" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddy – The Buddy Holly Story">Buddy – The Buddy Holly Story</a>, these have included <a href="/wiki/Movin%27_Out_(musical)" title="Movin' Out (musical)">Movin' Out</a> (2002, based on the tunes of <a href="/wiki/Billy_Joel" title="Billy Joel">Billy Joel</a>), <a href="/wiki/Jersey_Boys" title="Jersey Boys">Jersey Boys</a> (2006, <a href="/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_(band)" title="The Four Seasons (band)">The Four Seasons</a>), <a href="/wiki/Rock_of_Ages_(musical)" title="Rock of Ages (musical)">Rock of Ages</a> (2009, featuring classic rock of the 1980s), <a href="/wiki/Thriller_%E2%80%93_Live" title="Thriller – Live">Thriller – Live</a> (2009, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a>), and many others. This style is often referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Jukebox_musical" title="Jukebox musical">jukebox musical</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Trends-105">[105]</a> Similar but more plot-driven musicals have been built around the canon of a particular pop group including <a href="/wiki/Mamma_Mia!_(musical)" title="Mamma Mia! (musical)">Mamma Mia!</a> (1999, based on the songs of <a href="/wiki/ABBA" title="ABBA">ABBA</a>), <a href="/wiki/Our_House_(musical)" title="Our House (musical)">Our House</a> (2002, based on the songs of <a href="/wiki/Madness_(band)" title="Madness (band)">Madness</a>) and <a href="/wiki/We_Will_Rock_You_(musical)" title="We Will Rock You (musical)">We Will Rock You</a> (2002, based on the songs of <a href="/wiki/Queen_(band)" title="Queen (band)">Queen</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Film_and_TV_musicals">Film and TV musicals</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Film and TV musicals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Musical_film" title="Musical film">Musical film</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg/220px-Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg/330px-Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg/440px-Zac_Efron_and_Zendaya_Coleman_in_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zac_Efron" title="Zac Efron">Zac Efron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zendaya" title="Zendaya">Zendaya</a> starred with <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Jackman" title="Hugh Jackman">Hugh Jackman</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Greatest_Showman" title="The Greatest Showman">The Greatest Showman</a></figcaption></figure> Live-action film musicals were nearly dead in the 1980s and early 1990s, with exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Victor/Victoria" title="Victor/Victoria">Victor/Victoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Little_Shop_of_Horrors_(1986_film)" title="Little Shop of Horrors (1986 film)">Little Shop of Horrors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evita_(1996_film)" title="Evita (1996 film)">the 1996 film of Evita</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick80s90s-106">[106]</a> In the new century, <a href="/wiki/Baz_Luhrmann" title="Baz Luhrmann">Baz Luhrmann</a> began a revival of the film musical with <a href="/wiki/Moulin_Rouge!" title="Moulin Rouge!">Moulin Rouge!</a> (2001). This was followed by <a href="/wiki/Chicago_(2002_film)" title="Chicago (2002 film)">Chicago</a> (2002); <a href="/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_(2004_film)" title="The Phantom of the Opera (2004 film)">Phantom of the Opera</a> (2004); <a href="/wiki/Rent_(film)" title="Rent (film)">Rent</a> (2005); <a href="/wiki/Dreamgirls_(film)" title="Dreamgirls (film)">Dreamgirls</a> (2006); <a href="/wiki/Hairspray_(2007_film)" title="Hairspray (2007 film)">Hairspray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enchanted_(film)" title="Enchanted (film)">Enchanted</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweeney_Todd:_The_Demon_Barber_of_Fleet_Street_(2007_film)" title="Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film)">Sweeney Todd</a> (all in 2007); <a href="/wiki/Mamma_Mia!_(film)" title="Mamma Mia! (film)">Mamma Mia!</a> (2008); <a href="/wiki/Nine_(2009_live-action_film)" title="Nine (2009 live-action film)">Nine</a> (2009); <a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_(2012_film)" title="Les Misérables (2012 film)">Les Misérables</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_Perfect" title="Pitch Perfect">Pitch Perfect</a> (both in 2012), <a href="/wiki/Into_the_Woods_(film)" title="Into the Woods (film)">Into The Woods</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Five_Years_(film)" title="The Last Five Years (film)">The Last Five Years</a> (2014), <a href="/wiki/La_La_Land" title="La La Land">La La Land</a> (2016), <a href="/wiki/The_Greatest_Showman" title="The Greatest Showman">The Greatest Showman</a> (2017), <a href="/wiki/A_Star_Is_Born_(2018_film)" title="A Star Is Born (2018 film)">A Star Is Born</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Poppins_Returns" title="Mary Poppins Returns">Mary Poppins Returns</a> (both 2018), <a href="/wiki/Rocketman_(film)" title="Rocketman (film)">Rocketman</a> (2019) and <a href="/wiki/In_the_Heights_(film)" title="In the Heights (film)">In the Heights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a>'s version of <a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story_(2021_film)" title="West Side Story (2021 film)">West Side Story</a> (both in 2021), among others. <a href="/wiki/Dr._Seuss" title="Dr. Seuss">Dr. Seuss</a>'s <a href="/wiki/How_the_Grinch_Stole_Christmas!_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (film)">How the Grinch Stole Christmas!</a> (2000) and <a href="/wiki/The_Cat_in_the_Hat_(film)" title="The Cat in the Hat (film)">The Cat in the Hat</a> (2003), turned children's books into live-action film musicals. After the immense success of Disney and other houses with animated film musicals beginning with <a href="/wiki/The_Little_Mermaid_(1989_film)" title="The Little Mermaid (1989 film)">The Little Mermaid</a> in 1989 and running throughout the 1990s (including some more adult-themed films, like <a href="/wiki/South_Park:_Bigger,_Longer_%26_Uncut" title="South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut">South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut</a> (1999)), fewer animated film musicals were released in the first decade of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick80s90s-106">[106]</a> The genre made a comeback beginning in 2010 with <a href="/wiki/Tangled" title="Tangled">Tangled</a> (2010), <a href="/wiki/Rio_(2011_film)" title="Rio (2011 film)">Rio</a> (2011) and <a href="/wiki/Frozen_(2013_film)" title="Frozen (2013 film)">Frozen</a> (2013). In Asia, India continues to produce numerous "Bollywood" film musicals, and Japan produces "Anime" and "Manga" film musicals. Made for TV musical films were popular in the 1990s, such as <a href="/wiki/Gypsy_(1993_film)" title="Gypsy (1993 film)">Gypsy</a> (1993), <a href="/wiki/Cinderella_(1997_film)" title="Cinderella (1997 film)">Cinderella</a> (1997) and <a href="/wiki/Annie_(1999_film)" title="Annie (1999 film)">Annie</a> (1999). Several made for TV musicals in the first decade of the 21st century were adaptations of the stage version, such as <a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_(2001_film)" title="South Pacific (2001 film)">South Pacific</a> (2001), <a href="/wiki/The_Music_Man_(2003_film)" title="The Music Man (2003 film)">The Music Man</a> (2003) and <a href="/wiki/Once_Upon_a_Mattress" title="Once Upon a Mattress">Once Upon a Mattress</a> (2005), and a televised version of the stage musical <a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde_(musical)" title="Legally Blonde (musical)">Legally Blonde</a> in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for example <a href="/wiki/Contact_(musical)" title="Contact (musical)">Contact</a> in 2002 and <a href="/wiki/Kiss_Me,_Kate" title="Kiss Me, Kate">Kiss Me, Kate</a> and Oklahoma! in 2003. The made-for-TV musical <a href="/wiki/High_School_Musical" title="High School Musical">High School Musical</a> (2006), and its several sequels, enjoyed particular success and were adapted for stage musicals and other media. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg/170px-Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg/255px-Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg/340px-Dove_Cameron_in_October_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="611" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dove_Cameron" title="Dove Cameron">Dove Cameron</a> has starred in such TV musicals as <a href="/wiki/Descendants_(2015_film)" title="Descendants (2015 film)">Descendants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hairspray_Live!" title="Hairspray Live!">Hairspray Live!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schmigadoon!" title="Schmigadoon!">Schmigadoon!</a></figcaption></figure> In 2013, <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> began a series of live television broadcasts of musicals with <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music_Live!" title="The Sound of Music Live!">The Sound of Music Live!</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Although the production received mixed reviews, it was a ratings success.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Further broadcasts have included <a href="/wiki/Peter_Pan_Live!" title="Peter Pan Live!">Peter Pan Live!</a> (NBC 2014), <a href="/wiki/The_Wiz_Live!" title="The Wiz Live!">The Wiz Live!</a> (NBC 2015),<a href="#cite_note-variety-ratings-109">[109]</a> a UK broadcast, <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_of_Music_Live_(2015)" title="The Sound of Music Live (2015)">The Sound of Music Live</a> (<a href="/wiki/ITV_(TV_network)" title="ITV (TV network)">ITV</a> 2015)<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Grease:_Live" class="mw-redirect" title="Grease: Live">Grease: Live</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company" title="Fox Broadcasting Company">Fox</a> 2016),<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hairspray_Live!" title="Hairspray Live!">Hairspray Live!</a> (NBC, 2016), <a href="/wiki/A_Christmas_Story_Live!" title="A Christmas Story Live!">A Christmas Story Live!</a> (Fox, 2017),<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rent:_Live" title="Rent: Live">Rent: Live</a> (Fox 2019).<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Some television shows have set episodes as a musical. Examples include episodes of <a href="/wiki/Ally_McBeal" title="Ally McBeal">Ally McBeal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xena:_Warrior_Princess" title="Xena: Warrior Princess">Xena: Warrior Princess</a> ("The Bitter Suite" and "Lyre, Lyre, Heart's On Fire"), <a href="/wiki/Psych" title="Psych">Psych</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Psych:_The_Musical" title="Psych: The Musical">Psych: The Musical</a>"), <a href="/wiki/Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer" title="Buffy the Vampire Slayer">Buffy the Vampire Slayer</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Once_More,_with_Feeling_(Buffy_episode)" class="mw-redirect" title="Once More, with Feeling (Buffy episode)">Once More, with Feeling</a>"), <a href="/wiki/That%27s_So_Raven" title="That's So Raven">That's So Raven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daria" title="Daria">Daria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dexter%27s_Laboratory" title="Dexter's Laboratory">Dexter's Laboratory</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Powerpuff_Girls" title="The Powerpuff Girls">The Powerpuff Girls</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Flash_(2014_TV_series)" title="The Flash (2014 TV series)">The Flash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Once_Upon_a_Time_(TV_series)" title="Once Upon a Time (TV series)">Once Upon a Time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oz_(TV_series)" title="Oz (TV series)">Oz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scrubs_(TV_series)" title="Scrubs (TV series)">Scrubs</a> (one episode was written by the creators of Avenue Q), <a href="/wiki/Batman:_The_Brave_and_the_Bold" title="Batman: The Brave and the Bold">Batman: The Brave and the Bold</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Batman:_The_Brave_and_the_Bold_episodes" title="List of Batman: The Brave and the Bold episodes">"Mayhem of the Music Meister"</a>) and <a href="/wiki/That_%2770s_Show" title="That '70s Show">That '70s Show</a> (the 100th episode, "<a href="/wiki/That_%2770s_Musical" class="mw-redirect" title="That '70s Musical">That '70s Musical</a>"). Others have included scenes where characters suddenly begin singing and dancing in a musical-theatre style during an episode, such as in several episodes of <a href="/wiki/The_Simpsons" title="The Simpsons">The Simpsons</a>, <a href="/wiki/30_Rock" title="30 Rock">30 Rock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Montana" title="Hannah Montana">Hannah Montana</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Park" title="South Park">South Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bob%27s_Burgers" title="Bob's Burgers">Bob's Burgers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Family_Guy" title="Family Guy">Family Guy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Television series that have extensively used the musical format have included <a href="/wiki/Cop_Rock" title="Cop Rock">Cop Rock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Conchords_(TV_series)" title="Flight of the Conchords (TV series)">Flight of the Conchords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glee_(TV_series)" title="Glee (TV series)">Glee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smash_(TV_series)" title="Smash (TV series)">Smash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crazy_Ex-Girlfriend" title="Crazy Ex-Girlfriend">Crazy Ex-Girlfriend</a>. There have also been musicals made for the internet, including <a href="/wiki/Dr._Horrible%27s_Sing-Along_Blog" title="Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog">Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog</a>, about a low-rent super-villain played by <a href="/wiki/Neil_Patrick_Harris" title="Neil Patrick Harris">Neil Patrick Harris</a>. It was written during the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_Writers_Guild_of_America_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike">WGA writer's strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Since 2006, reality TV shows have been used to help market musical revivals by holding a talent competition to cast (usually female) leads. Examples of these are <a href="/wiki/How_Do_You_Solve_a_Problem_like_Maria%3F" title="How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?">How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grease:_You%27re_the_One_That_I_Want!" title="Grease: You're the One That I Want!">Grease: You're the One That I Want!</a>, <a href="/wiki/Any_Dream_Will_Do_(TV_series)" title="Any Dream Will Do (TV series)">Any Dream Will Do</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde:_The_Musical_%E2%80%93_The_Search_for_Elle_Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Legally Blonde: The Musical – The Search for Elle Woods">Legally Blonde: The Musical – The Search for Elle Woods</a>, <a href="/wiki/I%27d_Do_Anything_(2008_TV_series)" title="I'd Do Anything (2008 TV series)">I'd Do Anything</a> and <a href="/wiki/Over_the_Rainbow_(2010_TV_series)" title="Over the Rainbow (2010 TV series)">Over the Rainbow</a>. In 2021, <a href="/wiki/Schmigadoon!" title="Schmigadoon!">Schmigadoon!</a> was a parody of, and homage to, Golden Age musicals of the 1940s and 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="2020–2021_theatre_shutdown">2020–2021 theatre shutdown</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: 2020–2021 theatre shutdown">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis,_Minnesota.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis%2C_Minnesota.jpg/220px-In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis%2C_Minnesota.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis%2C_Minnesota.jpg/330px-In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis%2C_Minnesota.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis%2C_Minnesota.jpg/440px-In_The_Heart_Of_The_Beast_Theatre_in_Minneapolis%2C_Minnesota.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5721" data-file-height="3814" /></a><figcaption>Marquee of the <a href="/wiki/In_the_Heart_of_the_Beast_Theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="In the Heart of the Beast Theatre">In the Heart of the Beast Theatre</a> in Minneapolis, Minnesota, during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> caused the <a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_performing_arts" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performing arts">closure of theatres and theatre festivals around the world</a> in early 2020, including all Broadway<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> and West End theatres.<a href="#cite_note-west_end-119">[119]</a> Many performing arts institutions attempted to adapt, or reduce their losses, by offering new (or expanded) digital services. In particular this resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Online_streaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Online streaming">online streaming</a> of previously recorded performances of many companies,<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> as well as bespoke crowdsourcing projects.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> For example, The <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Theatre_Company" title="Sydney Theatre Company">Sydney Theatre Company</a> commissioned actors to film themselves at home discussing, then performing, a monologue from one of the characters they had previously played on stage.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The casts of musicals, such as Hamilton and Mamma Mia! united on Zoom calls to entertain individuals and the public.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Some performances were streamed live, or presented outdoors or in other "socially distanced" ways, sometimes allowing audience members to interact with the cast.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Radio theatre festivals were broadcast.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Virtual, and even crowd-sourced musicals were created, such as <a href="/wiki/Ratatouille_the_Musical" title="Ratatouille the Musical">Ratatouille the Musical</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Filmed versions of major musicals, like <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(2020_film)" title="Hamilton (2020 film)">Hamilton</a>, were released on streaming platforms.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Andrew Lloyd Webber released recordings of his musicals on YouTube.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Due to the closures and loss of ticket sales, many theatre companies were placed in financial peril. Some governments offered emergency aid to the arts.<a href="#cite_note-:2-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Some musical theatre markets began to reopen in fits and starts by early 2021,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> with West End theatres postponing their reopening from June to July,<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> and Broadway starting in September.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Throughout 2021, however, spikes in the pandemic have caused some closures even after markets reopened.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_musicals">International musicals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: International musicals">edit</a>]</div> The U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular <a href="/wiki/Light_opera" class="mw-redirect" title="Light opera">light opera</a> and operetta, for example Spanish <a href="/wiki/Zarzuela" title="Zarzuela">Zarzuela</a>, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades. Musicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., <a href="/wiki/The_Boy_from_Oz" title="The Boy from Oz">The Boy from Oz</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Drowsy_Chaperone" title="The Drowsy Chaperone">The Drowsy Chaperone</a>). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like African Footprint and Umoja and book musicals, such as <a href="/wiki/Kat_and_the_Kings" title="Kat and the Kings">Kat and the Kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarafina!_(musical)" title="Sarafina! (musical)">Sarafina!</a> touring internationally. Locally, musicals like Vere, Love and Green Onions, Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza and Bangbroek Mountain and In Briefs – a queer little Musical have been produced successfully. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg/250px-Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg/375px-Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg/500px-Paris_Sette-Takarazuka1930.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1188" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption>Japan's all-female <a href="/wiki/Takarazuka_Revue" title="Takarazuka Revue">Takarazuka Revue</a> in a 1930 performance of "Parisette"</figcaption></figure> Successful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other countries) Germany (<a href="/wiki/Elixier" title="Elixier">Elixier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_II_(musical)" title="Ludwig II (musical)">Ludwig II</a>), Austria (<a href="/wiki/Tanz_der_Vampire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanz der Vampire">Tanz der Vampire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_(musical)" title="Elisabeth (musical)">Elisabeth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozart!" title="Mozart!">Mozart!</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_(musical)" title="Rebecca (musical)">Rebecca</a>), Czech Republic (<a href="/wiki/Dracula_(Czech_musical)" title="Dracula (Czech musical)">Dracula</a>), France (<a href="/wiki/Starmania_(musical)" title="Starmania (musical)">Starmania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_(musical)" title="Notre-Dame de Paris (musical)">Notre-Dame de Paris</a>, Les Misérables, <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_et_Juliette_(musical)" title="Roméo et Juliette (musical)">Roméo et Juliette</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozart,_l%27op%C3%A9ra_rock" title="Mozart, l'opéra rock">Mozart, l'opéra rock</a>) and Spain (<a href="/wiki/Hoy_no_me_puedo_levantar" title="Hoy no me puedo levantar">Hoy no me puedo levantar</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Musical_Sancho_Panza" title="The Musical Sancho Panza">The Musical Sancho Panza</a>). Japan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based on <a href="/wiki/Anime" title="Anime">Anime</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manga" title="Manga">Manga</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Kiki%27s_Delivery_Service" title="Kiki's Delivery Service">Kiki's Delivery Service</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tenimyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenimyu">Tenimyu</a>. The popular <a href="/wiki/Sailor_Moon" title="Sailor Moon">Sailor Moon</a> metaseries has had twenty-nine <a href="/wiki/Sailor_Moon_musicals" title="Sailor Moon musicals">Sailor Moon musicals</a>, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popular <a href="/wiki/Revue" title="Revue">revues</a> have been performed by the all-female <a href="/wiki/Takarazuka_Revue" title="Takarazuka Revue">Takarazuka Revue</a>, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the Indian <a href="/wiki/Bollywood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bollywood">Bollywood</a> musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Beginning with a 2002 tour of Les Misérables, various Western musicals have been imported to mainland China and staged in English.<a href="#cite_note-Zhou-143">[143]</a> Attempts at localizing Western productions in China began in 2008 when <a href="/wiki/Fame_(musical)" title="Fame (musical)">Fame</a> was produced in Mandarin with a full Chinese cast at the <a href="/wiki/Central_Academy_of_Drama" title="Central Academy of Drama">Central Academy of Drama</a> in Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Since then, other western productions have been staged in China in Mandarin with a Chinese cast. The first Chinese production in the style of Western musical theatre was The Gold Sand in 2005.<a href="#cite_note-Zhou-143">[143]</a> In addition, Li Dun, a well-known Chinese producer, produced Butterflies, based on a classic Chinese love tragedy, in 2007 as well as Love U Teresa in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-Zhou-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Amateur_and_school_productions">Amateur and school productions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Amateur and school productions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg/220px-TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg/330px-TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg/440px-TNPKidzAct_Speedtest2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Naples_Players" title="Naples Players">Naples Players</a>' teen <a href="/wiki/Thoroughly_Modern_Millie" title="Thoroughly Modern Millie">Thoroughly Modern Millie</a>, 2009</figcaption></figure> Musicals are often presented by <a href="/wiki/Amateur_theatre" title="Amateur theatre">amateur</a> and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World,<a href="#cite_note-Lynch-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Cellier" title="François Cellier">François Cellier</a> and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a> companies licensed to perform the <a href="/wiki/Savoy_opera" title="Savoy opera">Savoy operas</a>, professionals recognized that the amateur societies "support the culture of music and the drama. They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites."<a href="#cite_note-Cellier_and_Bridgeman-148">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Operatic_and_Dramatic_Association" title="National Operatic and Dramatic Association">National Operatic and Dramatic Association</a> was founded in the UK in 1899. It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 amateur dramatic societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan works in Britain that year.<a href="#cite_note-Cellier_and_Bridgeman-148">[148]</a> Similarly, more than 100 amateur theatres were founded in the US in the early 20th century. This number has grown to an estimated 18,000 in the US.<a href="#cite_note-Lynch-147">[147]</a> The Educational Theater Association in the US has nearly 5,000 member schools.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relevance">Relevance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Relevance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg/170px-New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg/255px-New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg/340px-New_York_New_Amsterdam_Theatre_2003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="449" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Lion_King_(musical)" title="The Lion King (musical)">The Lion King</a> on Broadway</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/The_Broadway_League" title="The Broadway League">The Broadway League</a> announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The international musicals scene has been increasingly active in recent decades. Nevertheless, Stephen Sondheim commented in the year 2000: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">You have two kinds of shows on Broadway – revivals and the same kind of musicals over and over again, all spectacles. You get your tickets for The Lion King a year in advance, and essentially a family ... pass on to their children the idea that that's what the theater is – a spectacular musical you see once a year, a stage version of a movie. It has nothing to do with theater at all. It has to do with seeing what is familiar. ... I don't think the theatre will die per se, but it's never going to be what it was. ... It's a tourist attraction."<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></blockquote> However, noting the success in recent decades of original material, and creative re-imaginings of film, plays and literature, theatre historian <a href="/wiki/John_Kenrick_(theatre_writer)" title="John Kenrick (theatre writer)">John Kenrick</a> countered: <blockquote>Is the Musical dead? ... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Offenbach" title="Jacques Offenbach">Offenbach</a> did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age', with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.<a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-37">[37]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/10px-GClef.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/15px-GClef.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/GClef.svg/20px-GClef.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="15" data-file-height="41" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:P_culture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/31px-P_culture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/47px-P_culture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/62px-P_culture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Theatre" title="Portal:Theatre">Theatre portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cast_recording" title="Cast recording">Cast recording</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_musicals" title="Lists of musicals">Lists of musicals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_musicals_filmed_live_on_stage" title="List of musicals filmed live on stage">List of musicals filmed live on stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-running_musical_theatre_productions" title="Long-running musical theatre productions">Long-running musical theatre productions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_theatre" title="Music theatre">Music theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_theatre" title="Parsi theatre">Parsi theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2.5D_musical" title="2.5D musical">2.5D musical</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Morley, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Everett and Laird, p. 137 </li> <li id="cite_note-Rubin438-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin438_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rubin438_3-1">b</a> Rubin and Solórzano, p. 438 </li> <li id="cite_note-Continuum-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Continuum_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Continuum_4-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShepherdHorn2012" class="citation book cs1">Shepherd, John; Horn, David (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=__DTvryrBZkC&pg=PA104">Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Volume 8: Genres: North America</a>. A&C Black. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4874-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4874-2"><bdi>978-1-4411-4874-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Continuum+Encyclopedia+of+Popular+Music+of+the+World+Volume+8%3A+Genres%3A+North+America&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-4874-2&rft.aulast=Shepherd&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Horn%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D__DTvryrBZkC%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Wattenberg, Ben. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/thinktank/transcript1261.html">The American Musical, Part 2</a>, PBS.org, May 24, 2007, accessed February 7, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ben_Brantley" title="Ben Brantley">Brantley, Ben</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theater2.nytimes.com/2008/03/28/theater/reviews/28gyps.html?pagewanted=all">"Curtain Up! It's Patti's Turn at Gypsy"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, March 28, 2008, accessed May 26, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-Cohen233-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen233_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cohen233_7-1">b</a> Cohen and Sherman, p. 233 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Tommasini" title="Anthony Tommasini">Tommasini, Anthony</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/theater/musical-or-opera-the-fine-line-that-divides-them.html">"Opera? Musical? Please Respect the Difference"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, July 7, 2011, accessed December 13, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Gamerman, Ellen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704597704574487153079350302">"Broadway Turns Up the Volume"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>, Ellen, October 23, 2009, accessed December 13, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/porgy-and-bess-that-old-black-magic-421690.html">"Porgy and Bess: That old black magic"</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>, October 27, 2006, accessed December 27, 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Lister, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/columnists/david-lister/the-royal-opera-opens-a-window-on-sondheim-113798.html">"The Royal Opera opens a window on Sondheim"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>, April 5, 2003, accessed December 27, 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Terry_Teachout" title="Terry Teachout">Teachout, Terry</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nea.gov/national/gav/sweenytodd.html">"Sweeney Todd"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080418002225/http://www.nea.gov/national/gav/sweenytodd.html">Archived</a> 2008-04-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts" title="National Endowment for the Arts">National Endowment for the Arts</a>, accessed November 1, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> White, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/something-for-the-weekend-sir-576691.html">"Something for the weekend, sir?"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>, London, December 15, 2003, accessed May 26, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Kowalke, Kim H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1093&context=gamut">"Theorizing the Golden Age Musical: Genre, Structure, Syntax"</a> in A MusicTheoretical Matrix: Essays in Honor of Allen Forte (Part V), ed. 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href="#cite_ref-Lubbock_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lubbock_39-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lubbock" title="Mark Lubbock">Lubbock, Mark</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/937354">"The Music of 'Musicals'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Musical_Times" title="The Musical Times">The Musical Times</a>, vol. 98, no. 1375 (September 1957), pp. 483–485, accessed 17 August 2010 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bond-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bond_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bond_40-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Jessie_Bond" title="Jessie Bond">Bond, Jessie</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gsarchive.net/books/bond/intro.html">Introduction to The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120421204843/https://www.gsarchive.net/books/bond/intro.html">Archived</a> 2012-04-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, reprinted 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href="#cite_ref-WeAll_44-1">b</a> Kenrick, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.musicals101.com/usafter.htm">"G&S in the USA" at the musicals101 website</a> The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones10-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones10_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones10_45-1">b</a> Jones, 2003, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WqQH31qkYNoC&pg=PA9">pp. 10–11</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Bargainnier, Earl F. "W. S. Gilbert and American Musical Theatre", pp. 120–133, American Popular Music: Readings from the Popular Press by Timothy E. Scheurer, Popular Press, 1989 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87972-466-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-87972-466-8">0-87972-466-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,,-248,00.html">PG Wodehouse (1881–1975)</a>, guardian.co.uk, Retrieved on 21 May 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.lagrange.edu/arobinson/wodehousegilbert.htm">"List of allusions to G&S in Wodehouse"</a>, Home.lagrange.edu, accessed May 27, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> Meyerson, Harold and Ernest Harburg Who Put the Rainbow in the Wizard of Oz?: Yip Harburg, Lyricist, pp. 15–17 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); and Bradley, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Mark Evan Swartz's <a href="/wiki/Oz_Before_the_Rainbow" title="Oz Before the Rainbow">Oz Before the Rainbow</a> describes the enormous train trips required of the cast of the 1903 smash hit, <a href="/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_(1902_musical)" title="The Wizard of Oz (1902 musical)">The Wizard of Oz</a>, which tour ran for nine years, including on the road. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X_7VbOGM8iMC&q=%22Oz+before+the+rainbow%22">"Oz Before the Rainbow: L. 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A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910–1927, Palgrave MacMillan, 2002, pp. 263–267 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Anne_Midgette" title="Anne Midgette">Midgette, Anne</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/29/theater/operetta-review-much-silliness-in-a-gilt-frame.html">"Operetta Review: Much Silliness In a Gilt Frame"</a>, The New York Times, March 29, 2003, accessed December 1, 2012 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamb1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lamb_(writer)" title="Andrew Lamb (writer)">Lamb, Andrew</a> (Spring 1986). 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London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons. pp. 393–394.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gilbert+and+Sullivan+and+Their+Operas&rft.place=London&rft.pages=393-394&rft.pub=Sir+Isaac+Pitman+%26+Sons&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Cellier&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Bridgeman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Nadworny, Elissa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2015/07/30/427138970/the-most-popular-high-school-plays-and-musicals">"The Most Popular High School Plays and Musicals"</a>, NPR.org, November 13, 2015, accessed March 14, 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100222053219/http://www.broadwayleague.com/index.php?url_identifier=press-releases">"The Broadway League Announces 2007–2008 Broadway Theatre Season Results"</a> (Press release). Broadway League. May 28, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.broadwayleague.com/index.php?url_identifier=press-releases&news=the-broadway-league-announces-2007-2008-broadway-theatre-season&type=news">the original</a> on February 22, 2010. Retrieved May 26, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Broadway+League+Announces+2007%E2%80%932008+Broadway+Theatre+Season+Results&rft.pub=Broadway+League&rft.date=2008-05-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.broadwayleague.com%2Findex.php%3Furl_identifier%3Dpress-releases%26news%3Dthe-broadway-league-announces-2007-2008-broadway-theatre-season%26type%3Dnews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100222053219/http://www.broadwayleague.com/index.php?url_identifier=press-releases">"League Releases Annual "Demographics of the Broadway Audience Report" for 06-07"</a> (Press release). Broadway League. November 5, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.broadwayleague.com/index.php?url_identifier=press-releases&news=league-releases-annual-demographics-of-the-broadway-audience-report&type=news">the original</a> on February 22, 2010. Retrieved May 26, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=League+Releases+Annual+%22Demographics+of+the+Broadway+Audience+Report%22+for+06-07&rft.pub=Broadway+League&rft.date=2007-11-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.broadwayleague.com%2Findex.php%3Furl_identifier%3Dpress-releases%26news%3Dleague-releases-annual-demographics-of-the-broadway-audience-report%26type%3Dnews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081029180320/http://www.solt.co.uk/downloads/pdfs/pressroom/SOLT_180108.pdf">"Record Attendances as Theatreland celebrates 100 Years"</a> (PDF) (Press release). Society of London Theatre. January 18, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.solt.co.uk/downloads/pdfs/pressroom/SOLT_180108.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on October 29, 2008. Retrieved May 26, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Record+Attendances+as+Theatreland+celebrates+100+Years&rft.pub=Society+of+London+Theatre&rft.date=2008-01-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.solt.co.uk%2Fdownloads%2Fpdfs%2Fpressroom%2FSOLT_180108.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Rich, Frank. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/library/magazine/home/20000312mag-sondheim.html">"Conversations with Sondheim"</a>. New York Times Magazine, March 12, 2000 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cited_books">Cited books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cited books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllainHarvie2014" class="citation book cs1">Allain, Paul; Harvie, Jen (2014). The Routledge Companion to Theatre and Performance. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4156-3631-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4156-3631-5"><bdi>978-0-4156-3631-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+Theatre+and+Performance&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-4156-3631-5&rft.aulast=Allain&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Harvie%2C+Jen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1991" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Robert C. (c. 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4IoXcZyKKJoC">Horrible Prettiness: Burlesque and American Culture</a>. University of North Carolina. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1960-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-1960-9"><bdi>978-0-8078-1960-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Horrible+Prettiness%3A+Burlesque+and+American+Culture&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-1960-9&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4IoXcZyKKJoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Bradley" title="Ian Bradley">Bradley, Ian</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ohjoyohraptureen00brad">Oh Joy! Oh Rapture! The Enduring Phenomenon of Gilbert and Sullivan</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516700-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516700-7"><bdi>0-19-516700-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oh+Joy%21+Oh+Rapture%21+The+Enduring+Phenomenon+of+Gilbert+and+Sullivan&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-516700-7&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fohjoyohraptureen00brad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuelow2004" class="citation book cs1">Buelow, George J. (2004). A History of Baroque Music. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34365-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34365-9"><bdi>978-0-253-34365-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Baroque+Music&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34365-9&rft.aulast=Buelow&rft.aufirst=George+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarterButt2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tim_Carter_(musicologist)" title="Tim Carter (musicologist)">Carter, Tim</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Butt_(musician)" title="John Butt (musician)">Butt, John</a>, eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130112113729/http://histories.cambridge.org/uid=12021/extract?id=chol9780521792738_CHOL9780521792738_root">The Cambridge History of Seventeenth-Century Music</a>. The Cambridge History of Music. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 591. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79273-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79273-8"><bdi>978-0-521-79273-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histories.cambridge.org/uid=12021/extract?id=chol9780521792738_CHOL9780521792738_root">the original</a> on 2013-01-12. Retrieved 2009-05-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Seventeenth-Century+Music&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+Music&rft.pages=591&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79273-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistories.cambridge.org%2Fuid%3D12021%2Fextract%3Fid%3Dchol9780521792738_CHOL9780521792738_root&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenSherman2020" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Robert; Sherman, Donovan (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1073038874">Theatre: Brief</a> (Twelfth ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-260-05738-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-260-05738-6"><bdi>978-1-260-05738-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1073038874">1073038874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theatre%3A+Brief&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.edition=Twelfth&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1073038874&rft.isbn=978-1-260-05738-6&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Sherman%2C+Donovan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1073038874&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverettLaird2002" class="citation book cs1">Everett, William A.; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Laird" title="Paul Laird">Laird, Paul R.</a>, eds. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_w4b7">The Cambridge Companion to the Musical</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Companions_to_Music" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Companions to Music">Cambridge Companions to Music</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79189-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79189-2"><bdi>978-0-521-79189-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Musical&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Music&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79189-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani0000unse_w4b7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGänzlAndrew_Lamb1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%A4nzl" title="Kurt Gänzl">Gänzl, Kurt</a>; <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lamb_(musician)" title="Andrew Lamb (musician)">Andrew Lamb</a> (1988). Gänzl's Book of the Musical Theatre. London: The Bodley Head. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/966051934">966051934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=G%C3%A4nzl%27s+Book+of+the+Musical+Theatre&rft.place=London&rft.pub=The+Bodley+Head&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F966051934&rft.aulast=G%C3%A4nzl&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft.au=Andrew+Lamb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGokulsingDissanayake2004" class="citation book cs1">Gokulsing, K. Moti; Dissanayake, Wimal (2004) [1998]. Indian popular cinema : a narrative of cultural change (Revised and updated ed.). Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85856-329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85856-329-9"><bdi>978-1-85856-329-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+popular+cinema+%3A+a+narrative+of+cultural+change&rft.place=Stoke-on-Trent&rft.pages=161&rft.edition=Revised+and+updated&rft.pub=Trentham&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85856-329-9&rft.aulast=Gokulsing&rft.aufirst=K.+Moti&rft.au=Dissanayake%2C+Wimal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert1972" class="citation book cs1">Herbert, Ian, ed. (1972). Who's Who in the Theatre (fifteenth ed.). London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-273-31528-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-273-31528-5"><bdi>978-0-273-31528-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who%27s+Who+in+the+Theatre&rft.place=London&rft.edition=fifteenth&rft.pub=Sir+Isaac+Pitman+and+Sons&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-273-31528-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoppin1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hoppin" title="Richard Hoppin">Hoppin, Richard H.</a>, ed. (1978). Anthology of Medieval Music. Norton introduction to music history. New York: Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-09080-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-09080-2"><bdi>978-0-393-09080-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthology+of+Medieval+Music&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Norton+introduction+to+music+history&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-393-09080-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorn1991" class="citation book cs1">Horn, Barbara Lee (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofhairevoluti0000horn">The Age of Hair: Evolution and Impact of Broadway's First Rock Musical</a>. New York: Greenwood Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofhairevoluti0000horn/page/166">166</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27564-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27564-7"><bdi>978-0-313-27564-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Hair%3A+Evolution+and+Impact+of+Broadway%27s+First+Rock+Musical&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-313-27564-7&rft.aulast=Horn&rft.aufirst=Barbara+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofhairevoluti0000horn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJha2005" class="citation book cs1">Jha, Subhash K. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essentialguideto00jhas">The Essential Guide to Bollywood</a>. Roli Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7436-378-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-7436-378-5"><bdi>81-7436-378-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Essential+Guide+to+Bollywood&rft.pub=Roli+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=81-7436-378-5&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=Subhash+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessentialguideto00jhas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation book cs1">Jones, John B. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourmusicalsourse00jone">Our Musicals, Ourselves</a>. Hanover: University Press of New England. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-904-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87451-904-4"><bdi>978-0-87451-904-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Musicals%2C+Ourselves&rft.place=Hanover&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-904-4&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fourmusicalsourse00jone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord2003" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Suzanne (2003). Brinkman, David (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JLCJLjHoQ2gC">Music from the Age of Shakespeare : A Cultural History</a>. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31713-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-31713-2"><bdi>978-0-313-31713-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+from+the+Age+of+Shakespeare+%3A+A+Cultural+History&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31713-2&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJLCJLjHoQ2gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubbock2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Lubbock" title="Mark Lubbock">Lubbock, Mark</a> (2002) [1962]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theatrehistory.com/american/musical030.html">"American musical theatre: an introduction"</a>. The Complete Book of Light Opera (1st ed.). London: Putnam. pp. 753–756.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+musical+theatre%3A+an+introduction&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Book+of+Light+Opera&rft.place=London&rft.pages=753-756&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Putnam&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Lubbock&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatrehistory.com%2Famerican%2Fmusical030.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorley1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sheridan_Morley" title="Sheridan Morley">Morley, Sheridan</a> (1987). Spread a little happiness: the first hundred years of the British musical. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-01398-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-01398-4"><bdi>978-0-500-01398-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spread+a+little+happiness%3A+the+first+hundred+years+of+the+British+musical&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-500-01398-4&rft.aulast=Morley&rft.aufirst=Sheridan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1925" class="citation book cs1">Parker, John, ed. (1925). Who's Who in the Theatre (fifth ed.). London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10013159">10013159</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who%27s+Who+in+the+Theatre&rft.place=London&rft.edition=fifth&rft.pub=Sir+Isaac+Pitman+and+Sons&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10013159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Parker" title="Roger Parker">Parker, Roger</a>, ed. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffXPHfhaWksC">The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera</a>. Oxford Illustrated Histories (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 541. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285445-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285445-2"><bdi>978-0-19-285445-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+Opera&rft.series=Oxford+Illustrated+Histories&rft.pages=541&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285445-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DffXPHfhaWksC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinSolórzano2000" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Don; <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Sol%C3%B3rzano" title="Carlos Solórzano">Solórzano, Carlos</a>, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi0002unse_j6c2">The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: The Americas</a>. New York City: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05929-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-05929-1"><bdi>0-415-05929-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Encyclopedia+of+Contemporary+Theatre%3A+The+Americas&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-05929-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldencyclopedi0002unse_j6c2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShakespeare1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespeare, William</a> (1998) [1623]. <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Orgel" title="Stephen Orgel">Orgel, Stephen</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/The_Tempest" title="The Tempest">The Tempest</a>. The Oxford Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tempestoxfordwor00will/page/248">248</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283414-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283414-0"><bdi>978-0-19-283414-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tempest&rft.series=The+Oxford+Shakespeare&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-283414-0&rft.aulast=Shakespeare&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilmethMiller1996" class="citation book cs1">Wilmeth, Don B.; Miller, Tice L., eds. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00wilm">Cambridge Guide to American Theatre</a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56444-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56444-1"><bdi>978-0-521-56444-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+Guide+to+American+Theatre&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56444-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeguideto00wilm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWollman2006" class="citation book cs1">Wollman, E. L. (2006). The Theater Will Rock: a History of the Rock Musical: From Hair to Hedwig. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-11576-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-11576-6"><bdi>0-472-11576-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theater+Will+Rock%3A+a+History+of+the+Rock+Musical%3A+From+Hair+to+Hedwig&rft.place=Michigan&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-472-11576-6&rft.aulast=Wollman&rft.aufirst=E.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bauch, Marc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UeaHSVd7jQAC">The American Musical</a>. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8288-8458-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-8288-8458-X">3-8288-8458-X</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ken_Bloom_(writer)" title="Ken Bloom (writer)">Bloom, Ken</a>; <a href="/wiki/Frank_Vlastnik" title="Frank Vlastnik">Vlastnik, Frank</a> (2004-10-01). Broadway Musicals : The 101 Greatest Shows of All Time. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57912-390-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-57912-390-2"><bdi>1-57912-390-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broadway+Musicals+%3A+The+101+Greatest+Shows+of+All+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Black+Dog+%26+Leventhal+Publishers&rft.date=2004-10-01&rft.isbn=1-57912-390-2&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft.au=Vlastnik%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Bordman" title="Gerald Bordman">Bordman, Gerald</a> (1978). American Musical Theatre: a Chronicle. New York: Oxford University Press. viii, 749 p.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502356-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502356-0">0-19-502356-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Botto, Louis; Mitchell, Brian Stokes (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atthistheatre10000bott">At This Theatre: 100 Years of Broadway Shows, Stories and Stars</a>. New York; Milwaukee, WI: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books/Playbill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55783-566-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55783-566-6"><bdi>978-1-55783-566-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+This+Theatre%3A+100+Years+of+Broadway+Shows%2C+Stories+and+Stars&rft.place=New+York%3B+Milwaukee%2C+WI&rft.pub=Applause+Theatre+%26+Cinema+Books%2FPlaybill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-55783-566-6&rft.aulast=Botto&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Brian+Stokes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatthistheatre10000bott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bryant, Jye (2018). Writing & Staging A New Musical: A Handbook. <a href="/wiki/Kindle_Direct_Publishing" title="Kindle Direct Publishing">Kindle Direct Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781730897412" title="Special:BookSources/9781730897412"><bdi>9781730897412</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+%26+Staging+A+New+Musical%3A+A+Handbook&rft.pub=Kindle+Direct+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781730897412&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Jye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Citron" title="Stephen Citron">Citron, Stephen</a> (1991). The Musical, from the Inside Out. Chicago, Illinois: I.R. Dee. 336 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-929587-79-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-929587-79-0">0-929587-79-0</a></li> <li>Ewen, David (1961). The Story of American Musical Theater. First ed. Philadelphia: Chilton. v, 208 p.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%A4nzl" title="Kurt Gänzl">Gänzl, Kurt</a>. The Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre (3 Volumes). New York: Schirmer Books, 2001.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Kantor, Michael; <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Maslon" title="Laurence Maslon">Maslon, Laurence</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/broadwayamerican00kant">Broadway: The American Musical</a>. New York: Bulfinch Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8212-2905-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8212-2905-2"><bdi>0-8212-2905-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broadway%3A+The+American+Musical&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bulfinch+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8212-2905-2&rft.aulast=Kantor&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Maslon%2C+Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbroadwayamerican00kant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ethan_Mordden" title="Ethan Mordden">Mordden, Ethan</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beautifulmorninb00mord">Beautiful Mornin': The Broadway Musical in the 1940s</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512851-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512851-6"><bdi>0-19-512851-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beautiful+Mornin%27%3A+The+Broadway+Musical+in+the+1940s&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-19-512851-6&rft.aulast=Mordden&rft.aufirst=Ethan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeautifulmorninb00mord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusical+theatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Stempel, Larry. Showtime: A History of the Broadway Musical Theater (W. W. Norton, 2010) 826 pages; comprehensive history since the mid-19th century.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Traubner" title="Richard Traubner">Traubner, Richard</a>. Operetta: A Theatrical History. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1983</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Musical_theatre&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Musical theatre <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=musical+theatre">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=musical+theatre&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Musical_theatre" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Musical theatre">Musical theatre</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibdb.com">Internet Broadway Database – Cast and production lists, song lists and award lists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com">Guidetomusicaltheatre.com</a> – synopses, cast lists, song lists, etc.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.broadwaymusicalhome.com">The Broadway Musical Home</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110412001249/http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/theatre_performance/features/history_of_musicals/index.html">History of musicals</a> (V&A museum website) (archived 12 April 2011)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.castalbumdb.com">Castalbumdb – Musical Cast Album Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stageagent.com/browse/showtype/musical">Synopses and character descriptions of most major musicals</a> (StageAgent.com)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theatre" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theatre"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theatre" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">Commedia dell'arte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age#Lope_de_Vega_and_Spanish_drama" title="Spanish Golden Age">Spanish Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">French Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_comedy" title="Restoration comedy">Restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustan_drama" title="Augustan drama">Augustan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Classicism" title="Weimar Classicism">Weimar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">Melodrama</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)" title="Naturalism (theatre)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(theatre)" title="Realism (theatre)">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">Postmodern</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth-century_theatre" title="Nineteenth-century theatre">19th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatre" title="Twentieth-century theatre">20th century</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_twentieth-century_theatre" title="Timeline of twentieth-century theatre">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">Play</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Musical theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Improvisational_theatre" title="Improvisational theatre">Improvisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">Ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circus" title="Circus">Circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_drama" title="Radio drama">Radio drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_show" title="Variety show">Variety show</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Indonesia" title="Theatre of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Japan" title="Theatre of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_theatre" title="Persian theatre">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Poland" title="Theatre of Poland">Poland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft">Stagecraft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Scenography" title="Scenography">Scenography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cue_(theatrical)" title="Cue (theatrical)">Cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtain_Call" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtain Call">Curtain Call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehearsal" title="Rehearsal">Rehearsal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_(theatre)" title="Stage (theatre)">Stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(structure)" title="Theater (structure)">Theater (structure)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_constraints" title="Theatrical constraints">Theatrical constraints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_superstitions" title="Theatrical superstitions">Theatrical superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_rehearsal" title="Technical rehearsal">Technical rehearsal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_week" title="Technical week">Technical week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">Performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_design" title="Lighting design">Lighting design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_design" title="Sound design">Sound design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_construction" title="Set construction">Set construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatrical property">Theatrical property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costume_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Costume construction">Costume construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatre_personnel" title="List of theatre personnel">Personnel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stage_management" title="Stage management">Stage management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_management_(theater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Production management (theater)">Production management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Company management">Company management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_(theatre)" title="Carpenter (theatre)">Carpenter (theatre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrician_(theatre)" title="Electrician (theatre)">Electrician (theatre)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_crew" title="Fly crew">Fly crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make-up_artist" title="Make-up artist">Make-up artist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_master" title="Property master">Property master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrotechnician" title="Pyrotechnician">Pyrotechnician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Running_crew" title="Running crew">Running crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_operator" title="Spotlight operator">Spotlight operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagehand" title="Stagehand">Stagehand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatrical Technician">Theatrical Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_crew" title="Technical crew">Technical crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardrobe_supervisor" title="Wardrobe supervisor">Wardrobe supervisor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costume_designer" title="Costume designer">Costume designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighting designer">Lighting designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scenic_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Scenic designer">Scenic designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound designer">Sound designer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Sound engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_design" title="Video design">Video design</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Running_crew" title="Running crew">Running crew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Call_boy_(theatre)" title="Call boy (theatre)">Call boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_management_(theater)" class="mw-redirect" title="Production management (theater)">Production manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_management" title="Stage management">Stage manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stagehand" title="Stagehand">Stagehand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_technician" title="Theatrical technician">Theatrical technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_(theatre)" title="Carpenter (theatre)">Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_crew" title="Fly crew">Fly crew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrician_(theatre)" title="Electrician (theatre)">Electrician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_board_operator" title="Light board operator">Light board operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_technician" title="Lighting technician">Lighting technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_operator" title="Spotlight operator">Spotlight operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A2_(theater)" title="A2 (theater)">A2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound operator">Sound operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_master" title="Property master">Property master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dresser_(theatre)" title="Dresser (theatre)">Dresser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardrobe_supervisor" title="Wardrobe supervisor">Wardrobe supervisor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Musicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">Musical ensemble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchestra" title="Orchestra">Orchestra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_orchestra" title="Pit orchestra">Pit orchestra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_theater_terms" title="Glossary of theater terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_troupe" title="Theatrical troupe">Theatrical troupe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Theatre" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Theatre">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Theatre" class="extiw" title="wikt:Theatre">Wiktionary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Theatre" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Theatre">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_theatre" title="Outline of theatre">Outline of theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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