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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christian_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Christian Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vulgar_Latin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vulgar_Latin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Vulgar Latin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vulgar_Latin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changes_in_vocabulary,_syntax,_and_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_in_vocabulary,_syntax,_and_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Changes_in_vocabulary,_syntax,_and_grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Changes_in_vocabulary,_syntax,_and_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Latin_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Latin_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Medieval Latin literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Latin_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_Latin_and_everyday_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Latin_and_everyday_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medieval Latin and everyday life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Latin_and_everyday_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_Medieval_Latin_authors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_Medieval_Latin_authors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Important Medieval Latin authors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Important_Medieval_Latin_authors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Important Medieval Latin authors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Important_Medieval_Latin_authors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-6th–8th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#6th–8th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>6th–8th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-6th–8th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-9th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#9th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>9th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-9th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-10th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#10th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>10th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-10th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-11th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#11th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>11th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-11th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-12th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#12th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>12th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-12th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-13th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#13th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>13th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-13th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-14th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#14th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>14th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-14th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_movements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_movements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Literary movements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_movements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="لاتينية العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لاتينية العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_medieval" title="Latín medieval – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Latín medieval" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llat%C3%ADn_medieval" title="Llatín medieval – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llatín medieval" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llat%C3%AD_medieval" title="Llatí medieval – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llatí medieval" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderlatin" title="Middelalderlatin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Middelalderlatin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittellatein" title="Mittellatein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittellatein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_medieval" title="Latín medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Latín medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoka_latino" title="Mezepoka latino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoka latino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="لاتین قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لاتین قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9val" title="Latin médiéval – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Latin médiéval" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%EB%9D%BC%ED%8B%B4%EC%96%B4" title="중세 라틴어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 라틴어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovni_latinski_jezik" title="Srednjovjekovni latinski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednjovjekovni latinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguo_Latina_mezepokal" title="Linguo Latina mezepokal – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Linguo Latina mezepokal" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Latin_Abad_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Latin Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Latin Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_medieval" title="Latino medieval – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Latino medieval" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_medievale" title="Latino medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Latino medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinitas_medii_aevi" title="Latinitas medii aevi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Latinitas medii aevi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_medieval" title="Latin medieval – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Latin medieval" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuws_Latijn" title="Middeleeuws Latijn – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middeleeuws Latijn" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E3%83%A9%E3%83%86%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="中世ラテン語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世ラテン語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderlatin" title="Middelalderlatin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Middelalderlatin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latim_medieval" title="Latim medieval – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Latim medieval" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latina_medieval%C4%83" title="Latina medievală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Latina medievală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Средневековая латынь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средневековая латынь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medieval Latin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredovek%C3%A1_latin%C4%8Dina" title="Stredoveká latinčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredoveká latinčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovni_latinski_jezik" title="Srednjovjekovni latinski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednjovjekovni latinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Середньовічна латина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Середньовічна латина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="中世纪拉丁语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中世纪拉丁语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1163234#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Medieval+Latin%22">"Medieval Latin"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Medieval+Latin%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Medieval+Latin%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Medieval+Latin%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Medieval+Latin%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Medieval+Latin%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Medieval Latin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg/280px-Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="418" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg/420px-Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg/560px-Carmina_Cantabrigiensia_Manuscr-C-fol436v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="932" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Carmina_Cantabrigiensia" class="mw-redirect" title="Carmina Cantabrigiensia">Carmina Cantabrigiensia</a>, Medieval Latin manuscript</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Numerous small states</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Mediaeval</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Latin/Western Christendom</a><br />(Most of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Developed from <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> between 4th and 10th centuries; replaced by <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> from the 14th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Medieval Latin</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages#Phonology" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Proto-Latino-Faliscan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i>De facto</i> in most <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>-speaking states during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/lat-med">lat-med</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/medi1250">medi1250</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_1000.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Europe_1000.jpg/320px-Europe_1000.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Europe_1000.jpg/480px-Europe_1000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Europe_1000.jpg/640px-Europe_1000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1932" data-file-height="1544" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Europe, AD 1000</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Medieval Latin</b> was the form of Literary Latin used in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned as the main medium of scholarly exchange, as the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Church</a>, and as the working language of science, literature, law, and administration. </p><p>Medieval Latin represented a continuation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>, with enhancements for new concepts as well as for the increasing integration of Christianity. Despite some meaningful differences from Classical Latin, its writers did not regard it as a fundamentally different language. There is no real consensus on the exact boundary where <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> ends and Medieval Latin begins. Some scholarly surveys begin with the rise of early <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a> in the middle of the 4th century, others around 500,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and still others with the replacement of written Late Latin by written <a href="/wiki/Romance_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance language">Romance languages</a> starting around the year 900. </p><p>The terms <i>Medieval Latin</i> and <i>Ecclesiastical Latin</i> are sometimes used synonymously, though some scholars draw distinctions. <i>Ecclesiastical Latin</i> refers specifically to the form that has been used by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> (even before the Middle Ages in Antiquity), whereas <i>Medieval Latin</i> refers to all of the (written) forms of Latin used in the Middle Ages. The <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> spoken in the Middle Ages were often referred to as <i>Latin</i>, since the Romance languages were all descended from <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> itself.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval Latin would be replaced by educated humanist <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a>, otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences">Influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_Latin">Christian Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Christian Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval Latin had an enlarged vocabulary, which freely borrowed from other sources. It was heavily influenced by the language of the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, which contained many peculiarities alien to Classical Latin that resulted from a more or less direct translation from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>; the peculiarities mirrored the original not only in its vocabulary but also in its grammar and syntax. <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> provided much of the technical vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. The various <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> spoken by the Germanic tribes, who invaded southern Europe, were also major sources of new words. Germanic leaders became the rulers of parts of the Roman Empire that they conquered, and words from their languages were freely imported into the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> or Germanic sources because the classical words had fallen into disuse. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg/290px-MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg/435px-MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg/580px-MilanBTCod470BookOfHours2FoliosAnnuncShepherdsDecortatedInit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Hours_(Milan,_Biblioteca_Trivulziana,_Cod._470)" title="Book of Hours (Milan, Biblioteca Trivulziana, Cod. 470)">Book of Hours</a> contains prayers in Medieval Latin.</figcaption></figure> <p>Latin was also spread to areas such as <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> were not spoken, and which had never known <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> rule. Works written in those lands where Latin was a learned language, having no relation to the local vernacular, also influenced the vocabulary and syntax of Medieval Latin. </p><p>Since subjects like science and philosophy, including <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a>, were communicated in Latin, the Latin vocabulary that developed for them became the source of a great many technical words in modern languages. English words like <i>abstract</i>, <i>subject</i>, <i>communicate</i>, <i>matter</i>, <i>probable</i> and their <a href="/wiki/Cognates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognates">cognates</a> in other European languages generally have the meanings given to them in Medieval Latin, often terms for abstract concepts not available in English.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vulgar_Latin">Vulgar Latin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vulgar Latin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The influence of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> was also apparent in the <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> of some Medieval Latin writers, although Classical Latin continued to be held in high esteem and studied as models for literary compositions. The high point of the development of Medieval Latin as a literary language came with the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, a rebirth of learning kindled under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, king of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>. <a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> was Charlemagne's Latin secretary and an important writer in his own right; his influence led to a rebirth of Latin literature and learning after the depressed period following the final disintegration of the authority of the Western Roman Empire. </p><p>Although it was simultaneously developing into the Romance languages, Latin itself remained very conservative, as it was no longer a native language and there were many ancient and medieval grammar books to give one standard form. On the other hand, strictly speaking there was no single form of "Medieval Latin". Every Latin author in the medieval period spoke Latin as a second language, with varying degrees of fluency and syntax. Grammar and vocabulary, however, were often influenced by an author's native language. This was especially true beginning around the 12th century, after which the language became increasingly adulterated: late Medieval Latin documents written by French speakers tend to show similarities to medieval French grammar and vocabulary; those written by Germans tend to show similarities to German, etc. For instance, rather than following the classical Latin practice of generally placing the verb at the end, medieval writers would often follow the conventions of their own native language instead. Whereas Latin had no definite or indefinite articles, medieval writers sometimes used forms of <i>unus</i> as an indefinite article, and forms of <i>ille</i> (reflecting usage in the Romance languages) as a definite article or even <i>quidam</i> (meaning "a certain one/thing" in Classical Latin) as something like an article. Unlike classical Latin, where <i>esse</i> ("to be") was the only auxiliary verb, Medieval Latin writers might use <i>habere</i> ("to have") as an auxiliary, similar to constructions in Germanic and Romance languages. The <a href="/wiki/Accusative_and_infinitive" title="Accusative and infinitive">accusative and infinitive</a> construction in classical Latin was often replaced by a subordinate clause introduced by <i>quod</i> or <i>quia</i>. This is almost identical, for example, to the use of <i>que</i> in similar constructions in French. Many of these developments are similar to <a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a> and the use of medieval Latin among the learned elites of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> may have played a role in the spread of those features. </p><p>In every age from the late 8th century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who were familiar enough with classical <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> to be aware that these forms and usages were "wrong" and resisted their use. Thus the Latin of a theologian like St <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> or of an erudite clerical historian such as <a href="/wiki/William_of_Tyre" title="William of Tyre">William of Tyre</a> tends to avoid most of the characteristics described above, showing its period in vocabulary and spelling alone; the features listed are much more prominent in the language of lawyers (e.g. the 11th-century English <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>), physicians, technical writers and secular chroniclers. However the use of <i>quod</i> to introduce subordinate clauses was especially pervasive and is found at all levels.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Changes_in_vocabulary,_syntax,_and_grammar"><span id="Changes_in_vocabulary.2C_syntax.2C_and_grammar"></span>Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Changes in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval Latin had ceased to be a living language and was instead a scholarly language of the minority of educated men (and a tiny number of women) in medieval Europe, used in official documents more than for everyday communication. This resulted in two major features of Medieval Latin compared with Classical Latin, though when it is compared to the other vernacular languages, Medieval Latin developed very few changes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many prose constructions written by authors of this period that can be considered "showing off" a knowledge of Classical or Old Latin by the use of rare or archaic forms and sequences. Though they had not existed together historically, it is common that an author would use grammatical ideas of the two periods Republican and archaic, placing them equally in the same sentence. Also, many undistinguished scholars had limited education in "proper" Latin, or had been influenced in their writings by Vulgar Latin. </p> <ul><li>Word order usually tended towards that of the vernacular language of the author, not the word order of Classical Latin. Conversely, an erudite scholar might attempt to "show off" by intentionally constructing a very complicated sentence. Because Latin is an inflected language, it is technically possible to place related words at opposite ends of a paragraph-long sentence, and owing to the complexity of doing so, it was seen by some as a sign of great skill. The preferred word order in Latin is <a href="/wiki/Subject-Object-Verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-Object-Verb">Subject-Object-Verb</a>; most vernaculars of medieval Latin authors tend to or mandate <a href="/wiki/Subject-Verb-Object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-Verb-Object">Subject-Verb-Object</a> which thus is more prevalent in medieval than in classical Latin.</li> <li>Typically, prepositions are used much more frequently (as in modern Romance languages) for greater clarity, instead of using the ablative case alone. Furthermore, in Classical Latin the subject of a verb was often left implied, unless it was being stressed: <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">videt</i></span> = "he sees". For clarity, Medieval Latin more frequently includes an explicit subject: <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">is videt</i></span> = "he sees" without necessarily stressing the subject. Classical Latin is a <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">pro-drop language</a> whereas most Germanic (including standard English) and some Romance languages are not.</li> <li>Various changes occurred in vocabulary, and certain words were mixed into different declensions or conjugations. Many new compound verbs were formed. Some words retained their original structure but drastically changed in meaning: <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">animositas</i></span> specifically means "wrath" in Medieval Latin while in Classical Latin, it generally referred to "high spirits, excited spirits" of any kind.</li> <li>Owing to heavy use of biblical terms, there was a large influx of new words borrowed from Greek and Hebrew and even some grammatical influences. That obviously largely occurred among priests and scholars, not the laity. In general, it is difficult to express abstract concepts in Latin, as many scholars admitted. For example, Plato's abstract concept of "the Truth" had to be expressed in Latin as "what is always true". Medieval scholars and theologians, translating both the Bible and Greek philosophers into Latin out of the Koine and Classical Greek, cobbled together many new abstract concept words in Latin.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Indirect discourse, which in Classical Latin was achieved by using a subject accusative and infinitive, was now often simply replaced by new conjunctions serving the function of English "that" such as <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quod</i></span>, <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quia</i></span>, or <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quoniam</i></span>. There was a high level of overlap between the old and new constructions, even within the same author's work, and it was often a matter of preference. A particularly famous and often cited example is from the <a href="/wiki/Venerable_Bede" class="mw-redirect" title="Venerable Bede">Venerable Bede</a>, using both constructions within the same sentence: "<span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dico me scire et quod sum ignobilis</i></span>" = "I say that I know [accusative and infinitive] and that I am unknown [new construction]". The resulting subordinate clause often used the subjunctive mood instead of the indicative. This new syntax for indirect discourse is among the most prominent features of Medieval Latin, the largest syntactical change. However, such use of <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quod</i></span> or <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quia</i></span> also occurred in <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">the Latin of the late Roman Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>'s <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/la:Vulgata_Clementina/Evangelium_Secundum_Matthaeum#Caput_2" class="extiw" title="s:la:Vulgata Clementina/Evangelium Secundum Matthaeum">Matthew 2:22</a>: "<i>Audiens autem quod Archelaus regnaret in Judaea pro Herode...</i>" = "But hearing that Archelaus reigned in Judaea in Herod's place..."</li> <li>Several substitutions were often used instead of subjunctive clause constructions. They did not break the rules of Classical Latin but were an alternative way to express the same meaning, avoiding the use of a subjunctive clause. <ul><li>The present participle was frequently used adverbially in place of <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">qui</i></span> or <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cum</i></span> clauses, such as clauses of time, cause, concession, and purpose. That was loosely similar to the use of the present participle in an ablative absolute phrase, but the participle did not need to be in the ablative case.</li> <li><span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Habeo</i></span> (I have [to]) and <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Debeo</i></span> (I must) would be used to express obligation more often than the gerundive. <ul><li>Given that obligation inherently carries a sense of futurity ("Carthage must be destroyed" at some point in the future), this parallels the Romance languages' use of <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">habeo</i></span> as the basis of their <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future tenses</a> (abandoning the Latin forms of the future tense). While in Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">amare habeo</i></span>is the indirect discourse "I have to love", in the French equivalent, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">aimerai</i></span> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">habeo</i></span> > <span title="Romance languages collective text"><i lang="roa-FR">ayyo</i></span> > <span title="Romance languages collective text"><i lang="roa-FR">ai</i></span>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">aimer+ai</i></span>), it has become the future tense, "I shall love", losing the sense of obligation. In Medieval Latin, however, it was only indirect discourse and not used as simply a future tense.</li></ul></li> <li>Instead of a clause introduced by <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ut</i></span> or <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ne</i></span>, an infinitive was often used with a verb of hoping, fearing, promising, etc.</li></ul></li> <li>Conversely, some authors might haphazardly switch between the subjunctive and indicative forms of verbs, with no intended difference in meaning.</li> <li>The usage of <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sum</i></span> changed significantly: it was frequently omitted or implied. Further, many medieval authors did not feel that it made sense for the perfect passive construction "<span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">laudatus sum</i></span>" to use the present tense of <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">esse</i></span> in a past tense construction so they began using <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">fui</i></span>, the past perfect of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sum</i></span>, interchangeably with <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sum</i></span>.</li> <li>Chaos in the usage of demonstrative pronouns. <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Hic</i></span>, <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ille</i></span>, <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">iste</i></span>, and even the intensive <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ipse</i></span> are often used virtually interchangeably. As in the Romance languages, <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">hic</i></span> and <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ille</i></span> were also frequently used simply to express the definite article "the", which Classical Latin did not possess. <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Unus</i></span> was also used for the indefinite article "a, an".</li> <li>Use of reflexives became much looser. A reflexive pronoun in a subordinate clause might refer to the subject of the main clause. The reflexive possessive <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">suus</i></span> might be used in place of a possessive genitive such as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">eius</i></span>.</li> <li>Comparison of adjectives changed somewhat. The comparative form was sometimes used with positive or superlative meaning. Also, the adverb <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">magis</i></span> was often used with a positive adjective to indicate a comparative meaning, and <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">multum</i></span> and <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">nimis</i></span> could be used with a positive form of adjective to give a superlative meaning.</li> <li>Classical Latin used the ablative absolute, but as stated above, in Medieval Latin examples of nominative absolute or accusative absolute may be found. This was a point of difference between the ecclesiastical Latin of the clergy and the "Vulgar Latin" of the laity, which existed alongside it. The educated clergy mostly knew that traditional Latin did not use the nominative or accusative case in such constructions, but only the ablative case. These constructions are observed in the medieval era, but they are changes that developed among the uneducated commoners.</li> <li>Classical Latin does not distinguish progressive action in the present tense, thus <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">laudo</i></span> can mean either "I praise" or "I am praising". In imitation of Greek, Medieval Latin could use a present participle with <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sum</i></span> to form a <a href="/wiki/Periphrastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Periphrastic">periphrastic</a> tense equivalent to the English progressive. This "Greek Periphrastic Tense" formation could also be done in the past and future tenses: <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">laudans sum</i></span> ("I am praising"), <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">laudans eram</i></span> ("I was praising"), <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">laudans ero</i></span> ("I shall be praising").</li> <li>Classical Latin verbs had at most two voices, active and passive, but Greek (the original language of the New Testament) had an additional "middle voice" (or reflexive voice). One use was to express when the subject is acting upon itself: "Achilles put the armor onto himself" or "Jesus clothed himself in the robe" would use the middle voice. Because Latin had no middle voice, Medieval Latin expresses such sentences by putting the verb in the passive voice form, but the conceptual meaning is active (similar to Latin <a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">deponent verbs</a>). For example, the Medieval Latin translation of Genesis states literally, "the Spirit of God was moved over the waters" (<span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">spiritus Dei ferebatur super aquas</i></span>, Genesis 1:2), but it is just expressing a Greek middle-voice verb: "God moved <i>[himself]</i> over the waters".</li> <li>Overlapping with orthography differences (see below), certain diphthongs were sometimes shortened: "oe" to "e", and "ae" to "e". Thus, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">oecumenicus</i></span> becomes the more familiar <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ecumenicus</i></span> (more familiar in this later form because religious terms such as "ecumenical" were more common in Medieval Latin). The "oe" diphthong is not particularly frequent in Latin, but the shift from "ae" to "e" affects many common words, such as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">caelum</i></span> (heaven) being shortened to <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">celum</i></span>; even <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">puellae</i></span> (girls) was shortened to <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">puelle</i></span>.</li> <li>Often, a town would lose its name to that of the tribe which was either accusative or ablative plural; two forms that were then used for all cases, or in other words, considered "indeclinable".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="meaning unclear (October 2019&nbsp;)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg/250px-Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="392" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg/375px-Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg/500px-Pr%C3%BCfeninger_Weiheinschrift._Pic_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2823" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%BCfening_dedicatory_inscription" title="Prüfening dedicatory inscription">Prüfening dedicatory inscription</a> from <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, dated to 1119, composed in Medieval Latin. It was printed rather than carved.</figcaption></figure> <p>Many striking differences between classical and Medieval Latin are found in <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>. Perhaps the most striking difference is that medieval manuscripts used a wide range of abbreviations by means of superscripts, special characters etc.: for instance the letters "n" and "s" were often omitted and replaced by a diacritical mark above the preceding or following letter. Apart from this, some of the most frequently occurring differences are as follows. Clearly many of these would have been influenced by the spelling, and indeed pronunciation,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the vernacular language, and thus varied between different European countries. </p> <ul><li>Following the Carolingian reforms of the 9th century, <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a> was widely adopted, leading to a clear differentiation between capital and lowercase letters.</li> <li>A partial or full differentiation between <i>v</i> and <i>u</i>, and between <i>j</i> and <i>i</i>.</li> <li>The diphthong <i>ae</i> is usually collapsed and simply written as <i>e</i> (or <i><a href="/wiki/E_caudata" title="E caudata">e caudata</a></i>, <i>ę</i>); for example, <i>puellae</i> might be written <i>puelle</i> (or <i>puellę</i>). The same happens with the diphthong <i>oe</i>, for example in <i>pena</i>, <i>Edipus</i>, from <i>poena</i>, <i>Oedipus</i>. This feature is already found on coin inscriptions of the 4th century (e.g. <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">reipublice</i></span></i> for <i>reipublicae</i>). Conversely, an original <i>e</i> in Classical Latin was often represented by <i>ae</i> or <i>oe</i> (e.g. <i>aecclesia</i> and <i>coena</i>), also reflected in English spellings such as <i>foetus</i>.</li> <li>Because of a severe decline in the knowledge of Greek, in loanwords and foreign names from or transmitted through Greek, <i>y</i> and <i>i</i> might be used more or less interchangeably: <i>Ysidorus</i>, <i>Egiptus</i>, from <i>Isidorus</i>, <i>Aegyptus</i>. This is also found in pure Latin words: <i>ocius</i> ("more swiftly") appears as <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ocyus</i></span></i> and <i>silva</i> as <i>sylva</i>, this last being a form which survived into the 18th century and so became embedded in modern <a href="/wiki/Botanical_Latin" title="Botanical Latin">botanical Latin</a> (also cf. <i>Pennsylvania</i>).</li> <li><i>h</i> might be lost, so that <i>habere</i> becomes <i>abere</i>, or <i>mihi</i> becomes <i>mi</i> (the latter also occurred in Classical Latin); or <i>mihi</i> may be written <i>michi</i>, indicating that the <i>h</i> had come to be pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> or perhaps <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span>. This pronunciation is not found in Classical Latin, but had existed very early in vulgar speech.</li> <li>The loss of <i>h</i> in pronunciation also led to the addition of <i>h</i> in writing where it did not previously belong, especially in the vicinity of <i>r</i>, such as <i>chorona</i> for <i>corona</i>, a tendency also sometimes seen in Classical Latin.</li> <li><i>-ti-</i> before a vowel is often written as <i>-ci-</i> [tsi], so that <i>divitiae</i> becomes <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">diviciae</i></span></i> (or <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">divicie</i></span></i>), <i>tertius</i> becomes <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tercius</i></span></i>, <i>vitium</i> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">vicium</i></span></i>.</li> <li>The combination <i>mn</i> might have another plosive inserted, so that <i>alumnus</i> becomes <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alumpnus</i></span></i>, <i>somnus</i> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sompnus</i></span></i>.</li> <li>Single consonants were often doubled, or vice versa, so that <i>tranquillitas</i> becomes <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">tranquilitas</i></span></i> and <i>Africa</i> becomes <i>Affrica</i>.</li> <li>Syncopation became more frequent: <i>vi</i>, especially in verbs in the perfect tense, might be lost, so that <i>novisse</i> becomes <i>nosse</i> (this occurred in Classical Latin as well but was much more frequent in Medieval Latin).</li></ul> <p>These orthographical differences were often due to changes in pronunciation or, as in the previous example, morphology, which authors reflected in their writing. By the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> complained that speakers from different countries were unable to understand each other's form of Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gradual changes in Latin did not escape the notice of contemporaries. <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>, writing in the 14th century, complained about this linguistic "decline", which helped fuel his general dissatisfaction with his own era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_Latin_literature">Medieval Latin literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval Latin literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The corpus of Medieval Latin literature encompasses a wide range of texts, including such diverse works as <a href="/wiki/Sermons" class="mw-redirect" title="Sermons">sermons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hymns" class="mw-redirect" title="Hymns">hymns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographical</a> texts, <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">travel literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">histories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric poetry</a>. </p><p>The first half of the 5th century saw the literary activities of the great Christian authors <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 347</span>–420) and <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430), whose texts had an enormous influence on theological thought of the Middle Ages, and of the latter's disciple <a href="/wiki/Prosper_of_Aquitaine" title="Prosper of Aquitaine">Prosper of Aquitaine</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 390</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 455</span>). Of the later 5th century and early 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 430</span> – after 489) and <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Felix_Ennodius" title="Magnus Felix Ennodius">Ennodius</a> (474–521), both from Gaul, are well known for their poems, as is <a href="/wiki/Venantius_Fortunatus" title="Venantius Fortunatus">Venantius Fortunatus</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 530</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>). This was also a period of transmission: the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> patrician <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 480</span>–524) translated part of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Logical" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical">logical</a> corpus, thus preserving it for the <a href="/wiki/Latin_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin West">Latin West</a>, and wrote the influential literary and philosophical treatise <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Consolation_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Consolation of Philosophy">De consolatione Philosophiae</a></i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 485</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 585</span>) founded an important library at the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Vivarium_(monastery)" title="Vivarium (monastery)">Vivarium</a> near <a href="/wiki/Squillace" title="Squillace">Squillace</a> where many texts from Antiquity were to be preserved. <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560</span>–636) collected all scientific knowledge still available in his time into what might be called the first <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedia</a>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Etymologiae" title="Etymologiae">Etymologiae</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 538</span>–594) wrote a lengthy history of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> kings. Gregory came from a Gallo-Roman aristocratic family, and his Latin, which shows many aberrations from the classical forms, testifies to the declining significance of classical education in Gaul. At the same time, good knowledge of Latin and even of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> was being preserved in <a href="/wiki/Monastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monastic">monastic</a> culture in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and was brought to <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and the European mainland by <a href="/wiki/Missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Missionaries">missionaries</a> in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, such as <a href="/wiki/Columbanus" title="Columbanus">Columbanus</a> (543–615), who founded the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Bobbio" title="Bobbio">Bobbio</a> in Northern Italy. Ireland was also the birthplace of a strange poetic style known as <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Latin" title="Hiberno-Latin">Hisperic Latin</a>. Other important Insular authors include the historian <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span>) and the poet <a href="/wiki/Aldhelm" title="Aldhelm">Aldhelm</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 640</span>–709). <a href="/wiki/Benedict_Biscop" title="Benedict Biscop">Benedict Biscop</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 628</span>–690) founded the monastery of <a href="/wiki/Monkwearmouth-Jarrow_Priory" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory">Wearmouth-Jarrow</a> and furnished it with books which he had taken home from a journey to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and which were later used by <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 672</span>–735) to write his <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_ecclesiastica_gentis_Anglorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</a></i>. </p><p>Many Medieval Latin works have been published in the series <a href="/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">Patrologia Latina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Scriptorum_Ecclesiasticorum_Latinorum" title="Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum">Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Christianorum" title="Corpus Christianorum">Corpus Christianorum</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_Latin_and_everyday_life">Medieval Latin and everyday life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Medieval Latin and everyday life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval Latin was separated from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> around 800 and at this time was no longer considered part of the everyday language. The speaking of Latin became a practice used mostly by the educated high class population. Even then it was not frequently used in casual conversation. An example of these men includes the churchmen who could read Latin, but could not effectively speak it. Latin's use in universities was structured in lectures and debates, however, it was highly recommended that students use it in conversation. This practice was kept up only due to rules.<sup id="cite_ref-:315_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:315-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of Latin's purposes, writing, was still in practice; the main uses being charters for property transactions and to keep track of the pleadings given in court. Even then, those of the church still used Latin more than the rest of the population. At this time, Latin served little purpose to the regular population but was still used regularly in ecclesiastical culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:315_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:315-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latin also served as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> among the educated elites of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> — long distance written communication, while rarer than in Antiquity, took place mostly in Latin. Most literate people wrote Latin and most rich people had access to <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a> who knew Latin for use when the need for long distance correspondence arose. Long distance communication in the vernacular was rare, but Hebrew, Arabic and Greek served a similar purpose among Jews, Muslims and Eastern Orthodox respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_Medieval_Latin_authors">Important Medieval Latin authors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Important Medieval Latin authors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="6th–8th_centuries"><span id="6th.E2.80.938th_centuries"></span>6th–8th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 6th–8th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bo%C3%ABthius" class="mw-redirect" title="Boëthius">Boëthius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 480</span> – 525)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 485</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 585</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corippus" title="Corippus">Flavius Cresconius Corippus</a> (d. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venantius_Fortunatus" title="Venantius Fortunatus">Venantius Fortunatus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 530</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 538</span>–594)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 540</span> – 604)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560</span>–636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 672</span>–735)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Boniface" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Boniface">St. Boniface</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 672</span> - 754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrodegang_of_Metz" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrodegang of Metz">Chrodegang of Metz</a> (d. 766)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Deacon" title="Paul the Deacon">Paul the Deacon</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 720s</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 799</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beatus_of_Li%C3%A9bana" title="Beatus of Liébana">Beatus of Liébana</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 730</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Pisa" title="Peter of Pisa">Peter of Pisa</a> (d. 799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulinus_of_Aquileia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulinus of Aquileia">Paulinus of Aquileia</a> (730s - 802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 735</span>–804)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="9th_century">9th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 9th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einhard" title="Einhard">Einhard</a> (775–840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabanus_Maurus" title="Rabanus Maurus">Rabanus Maurus</a> (780–856)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paschasius_Radbertus" title="Paschasius Radbertus">Paschasius Radbertus</a> (790–865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_of_Fulda" title="Rudolf of Fulda">Rudolf of Fulda</a> (d. 865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhuoda" title="Dhuoda">Dhuoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_of_Ferrieres" class="mw-redirect" title="Lupus of Ferrieres">Lupus of Ferrieres</a> (805–862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Agnellus" title="Andreas Agnellus">Andreas Agnellus</a> (Agnellus of Ravenna) (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 805</span>–846?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hincmar" title="Hincmar">Hincmar</a> (806–882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walafrid_Strabo" title="Walafrid Strabo">Walafrid Strabo</a> (808–849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florus_of_Lyon" title="Florus of Lyon">Florus of Lyon</a> (d. 860?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottschalk_(theologian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottschalk (theologian)">Gottschalk (theologian)</a> (808–867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedulius_Scottus" title="Sedulius Scottus">Sedulius Scottus</a> (fl. 840–860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_Bibliothecarius" title="Anastasius Bibliothecarius">Anastasius Bibliothecarius</a> (810–878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Scotus_Eriugena" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Scotus Eriugena">Johannes Scotus Eriugena</a> (815–877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asser" title="Asser">Asser</a> (d. 909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notker_Balbulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Notker Balbulus">Notker Balbulus</a> (840–912)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="10th_century">10th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 10th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratherius" title="Ratherius">Ratherius</a> (890–974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrotsvitha_of_Gandersheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim">Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim</a> (935–973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thietmar_of_Merseburg" title="Thietmar of Merseburg">Thietmar of Merseburg</a> (975–1018)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="11th_century">11th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 11th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marianus_Scotus" title="Marianus Scotus">Marianus Scotus</a> (1028–1082)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_of_Bremen" title="Adam of Bremen">Adam of Bremen</a> (fl. 1060–1080)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> (1033/4–1109)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marbodius_of_Rennes" title="Marbodius of Rennes">Marbodius of Rennes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1035</span>–1123)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="12th_century">12th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 12th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Ab%C3%A9lard" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Abélard">Pierre Abélard</a> (1079–1142)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbot_Suger" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbot Suger">Suger of St Denis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1081</span>–1151)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1155</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ailred_of_Rievaulx" class="mw-redirect" title="Ailred of Rievaulx">Ailred of Rievaulx</a> (1110–1167)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_of_Freising" title="Otto of Freising">Otto of Freising</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1114</span>–1158)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archpoet" title="Archpoet">Archpoet</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1130</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1165</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Tyre" title="William of Tyre">William of Tyre</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1130</span>–1185)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Blois" title="Peter of Blois">Peter of Blois</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1135</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1203</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_of_Ch%C3%A2tillon" title="Walter of Châtillon">Walter of Châtillon</a> (fl. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_of_St._Victor" class="mw-redirect" title="Adam of St. Victor">Adam of St. Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Capellanus" title="Andreas Capellanus">Andreas Capellanus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="13th_century">13th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 13th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giraldus_Cambrensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giraldus Cambrensis">Giraldus Cambrensis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1146</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1223</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxo_Grammaticus" title="Saxo Grammaticus">Saxo Grammaticus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1150</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1220</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymus_(notary_of_B%C3%A9la_III)" title="Anonymus (notary of Béla III)">Anonymus (notary of Béla III)</a> (<abbr title="floruit ('flourished' – known to have been active at a particular time or during a particular period)">fl.</abbr> late 12th century – early 13th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Celano" title="Thomas of Celano">Thomas of Celano</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1265</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200</span>–1280)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1214</span>–1294)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1225</span>–1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a> (1232–1315)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1240</span>–1280s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1266</span>–1308)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="14th_century">14th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 14th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ranulf_Higdon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ranulf Higdon">Ranulf Higdon</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1280</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1363</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1288</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1347</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a> (1300–1358)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Suso" title="Henry Suso">Henry Suso</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1295</span> – 1366)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gower" title="John Gower">John Gower</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1330</span> – 1408)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_movements">Literary movements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Literary movements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goliard" class="mw-redirect" title="Goliard">Goliards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Latin" title="Hiberno-Latin">Hiberno-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Roman_law" title="Medieval Roman law">Medieval Roman law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_riddles" title="Anglo-Saxon riddles">Riddle poems</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Carmina_Burana" title="Carmina Burana">Carmina Burana</a></i> (11th–12th century)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pange_Lingua_Gloriosi_Corporis_Mysterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Pange Lingua Gloriosi Corporis Mysterium">Pange Lingua</a></i> (c. 1250)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologiae</a></i> (c. 1270)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etymologiae" title="Etymologiae">Etymologiae</a></i> (c. 600)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dies_Irae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dies Irae">Dies Irae</a></i> (c. 1260)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decretum_Gratiani" title="Decretum Gratiani">Decretum Gratiani</a></i> (c. 1150)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Ortu_Waluuanii" title="De Ortu Waluuanii">De Ortu Waluuanii Nepotis Arturi</a></i> (c. 1180)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> (c. 1215)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Exceptions include the <a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Romanian Lands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZiolkowski1996" class="citation cs2">Ziolkowski, Jan M. (1996), "Towards a History of Medieval Latin Literature", in Mantello, F. A. C.; <a href="/wiki/A._G._Rigg" title="A. G. Rigg">Rigg, A. G.</a> (eds.), <i>Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide</i>, Washington, D.C., pp. 505-536 (pp. 510-511)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Towards+a+History+of+Medieval+Latin+Literature&rft.btitle=Medieval+Latin%3A+An+Introduction+and+Bibliographical+Guide&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=505-536+%28pp.+510-511%29&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Ziolkowski&rft.aufirst=Jan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Romance-languages">"Romance languages"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Romance+languages&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FRomance-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranklin1983" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Franklin_(philosopher)" title="James Franklin (philosopher)">Franklin, James</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/mental.pdf">"Mental furniture from the philosophers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Et Cetera</i>. <b>40</b>: 177–191<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Et+Cetera&rft.atitle=Mental+furniture+from+the+philosophers&rft.volume=40&rft.pages=177-191&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Franklin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maths.unsw.edu.au%2F~jim%2Fmental.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMantello,_F._A._C.1996" class="citation book cs1">Mantello, F. A. C., Rigg, A. G. (1996). <i>Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide</i>. United States of America: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813208416" title="Special:BookSources/0813208416"><bdi>0813208416</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Latin%3A+An+Introduction+and+Bibliographical+Guide&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=The+Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0813208416&rft.aulast=Mantello%2C+F.+A.+C.&rft.aufirst=Rigg%2C+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman1999" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Coleman, Robert G. (1999). "Latin language". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Classical_Dictionary" title="Oxford Classical Dictionary">Oxford Classical Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 820. <q>Latin shares exclusively with Greek the development of the accusative + infinitive construction to render indirect speech. There were not enough infinitives or subjunctives to represent the distinctions required in principal and subordinate clauses respectively, and the whole inefficient construction gave way to clauses with <span title="Medieval Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quod, quia</i></span> (perhaps modelled on Gk. <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hōs, hóti</i></span> 'that'), to a larger extent in the later written language and totally in V[ulgar ]L[atin].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Latin+language&rft.btitle=Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.pages=820&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeeson1986" class="citation book cs1">Beeson, Charles Henry (1986). <i>A Primer of Medieval Latin: an anthology of prose and poetry</i>. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813206359" title="Special:BookSources/0813206359"><bdi>0813206359</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+of+Medieval+Latin%3A+an+anthology+of+prose+and+poetry&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0813206359&rft.aulast=Beeson&rft.aufirst=Charles+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Desiderius Erasmus, <i>De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronunciatione dialogus</i>, Basel (Frobenius), 1528.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:315-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:315_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:315_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMantello,_F._A._C.1996" class="citation book cs1">Mantello, F. A. C., Rigg, A. G. (1996). <i>Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide</i>. United States of America: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813208416" title="Special:BookSources/0813208416"><bdi>0813208416</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Latin%3A+An+Introduction+and+Bibliographical+Guide&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=The+Catholic+University+of+America+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0813208416&rft.aulast=Mantello%2C+F.+A.+C.&rft.aufirst=Rigg%2C+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Latin" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>K.P. Harrington, J. Pucci, and A.G. Elliott, <i>Medieval Latin</i> (2nd ed.), (Univ. Chicago Press, 1997) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31712-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31712-9">0-226-31712-9</a></li> <li>F.A.C. Mantello and A.G. Rigg, eds., <i>Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide</i> (CUA Press, 1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8132-0842-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8132-0842-4">0-8132-0842-4</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Dictionaries</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_du_Fresne,_sieur_du_Cange" title="Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange">Du Cange</a> et al., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/">Glossarium ad scriptores mediæ et infimæ latinitatis</a>, Niort : L. Favre, 1883–1887, <a href="/wiki/Ecole_des_chartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecole des chartes">Ecole des chartes</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_Linguae_Latinae" title="Thesaurus Linguae Latinae">Thesaurus Linguae Latinae</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Auerbach, Erich, 1965. <i>Literary Language & Its Public: in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages</i>. New York, NY, USA, Bollingen Foundation.</li> <li>Bacci, Antonii. <i>Varia Latinitatis Scripta II, Inscriptiones Orationes Epistvlae.</i> Rome, Italy, Societas Librania Stvdivm.</li> <li>Beeson, Charles H., 1925. <i>A Primer of Medieval Latin: An Anthology of Prose and Poetry</i>. Chicago, United States, Scott, Foresman and Company.</li> <li>Chavannes-Mazel, Claudine A., and Margaret M. Smith, eds. 1996. <i>Medieval Manuscripts of the Latin Classics: Production and Use; *Proceedings of the Seminar in the History of the Book to 1500, Leiden, 1993.</i> Los Altos Hills, CA: Anderson-Lovelace.</li> <li>Curtius, Ernst Roberts, 1953. <i>European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages.</i> New York, New York, United States, <a href="/wiki/Bollingen_Foundation" title="Bollingen Foundation">Bollingen Foundation</a> Inc.</li> <li>Dronke, Peter, vol. 1, 1965. <i>Medieval Latin and the Rise of European Love-Lyric.</i> Oxford, UK, Clarendon Press.</li> <li>Harrington, Karl Pomeroy, 1942. <i>Mediaeval Latin.</i> Norwood, MA, USA, Norwood Press.</li> <li>Hexter, Ralph J., and Townsend, David eds. second edition 2012: <i>The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Latin Literature</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Lapidge, Michael. 1993. <i>Anglo-Latin Literature 900–1066.</i> London and Rio Grande, OH: Hambledon.</li> <li>--. 1996. <i>Anglo-Latin Literature 600–899.</i> London and Rio Grande, OH: Hambledon.</li> <li>Mann, Nicholas, and Birger Munk Olsen, eds. 1997. <i>Medieval and Renaissance Scholarship: Proceedings of the Second European Science Foundation Workshop on the Classical Tradition in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, London: Warburg Institute, 27–28 November 1992.</i> New York: Brill.</li> <li>Mantello, F. A. C., and George Rigg. 1996. <i>Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide.</i> Washington, DC: Catholic University of American Press.</li> <li>Pecere, Oronzo, and Michael D. Reeve. 1995. <i>Formative Stages of Classical Traditions: Latin Texts from Antiquity to the Renaissance; Proceedings of a Conference Held at Erice, 16–22 October 1993, as the 6th Course of International School for the Study of Written Records.</i> Spoleto, Italy: Centro Italiano di Studi sull’alto Medioevo.</li> <li>Raby, F. J. E. 1957. <i>A History of Secular Latin Poetry in the Middle Ages.</i> 2 vols. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon.</li> <li>Raby, F.J.E., 1959. <i>The Oxford Book of Medieval Latin Verse.</i> Amen House, London, Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Rigg, A. G. 1992. <i>A History of Anglo-Latin Literature A.D. 1066–1422.</i> Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Stella, Francesco, Doležalová Lucie, and Shanzer, Danuta eds. 2024: <i>Latin Literatures of Medieval and Early Modern times in Europe and Beyond</i>, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.</li> <li>Walde, Christine, ed. 2012. <i>Brill's New Pauly Supplement 5: The Reception of Classical Literature.</i> Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.</li> <li>Ziolkowski, Jan M., 1993. <i>Talking Animals: Medieval Latin Beast Poetry, 750–1150.</i> Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Latin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Medieval Latin</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Medieval+Latin&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Medieval+Latin">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Medieval+Latin&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/">In-depth Guides to Learning Latin</a> at the UK National Archives.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medievallatin.utoronto.ca/">The Journal of Medieval Latin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.latech.edu/~bmagee/latin/wright/wright_links_to_stories.htm">Wright, Thomas, ed. <i>A Selection of Latin Stories, from Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Founteenth Centuries: A Contribution to the History of Fiction During the Middle Ages.</i> (London: The Percy Society. 1842.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Corporum" title="Corpus Corporum">Corpus Corporum</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mlat.uzh.ch/MLS/index.php?lang=0">mlat.uzh.ch</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Thomisticum" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Thomisticum">Corpus Thomisticum</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131011213125/http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/iopera.html">corpusthomisticum.org</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LacusCurtius" title="LacusCurtius">LacusCurtius</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/home.html">penelope.uchicago.edu</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output 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abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Latin_periods" title="Template:Latin periods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Latin_periods" title="Template talk:Latin periods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Latin_periods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Latin periods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ages_of_Latin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ages of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>until 75 BC</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><span class="nowrap"><i>75 BC – 200 AD</i></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>200–700</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>700–1500</i><br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1900–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary Latin</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#eee;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History of Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin_studies" title="Neo-Latin studies">Neo-Latin studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_sine_flexione" title="Latino sine flexione">Latino sine flexione</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Latin" title="Hiberno-Latin">Hiberno-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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