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href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg/220px-Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg/330px-Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg/440px-Archeodrome_Beaune_8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the fortifications of Caesar's army at <a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> was one of the techniques used by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> to achieve ultimate victory,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> although <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">pitched battles</a> were considered the only true form of warfare.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Nevertheless, the importance that siege action could have in the warfare framework of that era cannot be underestimated. <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> was unable to defeat the might of Rome because, although he <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">had defeated</a> the Roman armies in the open field, he had proved unable to assault the city of Rome. As time went on, the armies of the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial</a> Republics also became particularly adept at siege warfare: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">conquest of Gaul</a> was the combination of a whole series of pitched battles and long sieges, culminating in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">that of Alesia</a> in 52 BCE. To seize the main center of an enemy people seemed to be the best way to bring a conflict to an end, as also happened in the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">conquest of Dacia</a>, when the enemy capital, <a href="/wiki/Sarmizegetusa_Regia" title="Sarmizegetusa Regia">Sarmizegetusa Regia</a>, was besieged and occupied.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> For this purpose, numerous works (an <a href="/wiki/Agger_(ancient_Rome)" title="Agger (ancient Rome)">agger</a> surmounted by a palisade, with ditches around it, as well as ramps and pitfalls of various kinds) and <a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">siege machines</a> were, therefore, required for variety and functionality, engaging soldiers in the execution of important <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">military engineering</a> works. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Domitius_Corbulo" title="Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo">Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo</a> used to say that the enemy was won with the hoe, that is, with construction works.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a>, Stratagemata, IV, 7, 2.</cite></div></blockquote> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Siege_techniques">Siege techniques</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Siege techniques">edit</a>]</div> The Romans used three main siege techniques to seize enemy cities: <ol><li>by starvation (it took more time, but less loss of life on the part of the attackers), by creating all around the besieged city a series of fortifications (an inner<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a> and sometimes an outer <a href="/wiki/Contravallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Contravallation">contravallation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-De_bello_gallico-5">[5]</a> as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Alesia</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Napoleone_III_1866-6">[6]</a> that would prevent the enemy from obtaining supplies (of food and even water, by diverting the courses of the rivers) or worse, from escaping, evading the siege, in the hope of leading the besieged to surrender. The attacked site was then surrounded by numerous emplacements, where the main one housed the headquarters, as well as a series of other linked forts.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></li> <li>with a massive frontal attack, employing a large amount of armor, artillery, ramparts, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a>. The final outcome was normally faster but with a high price in loss of armor by the Roman assailant. In this case a preparatory action to the assault, by artillery, was carried out to cause damage to the walls, produce casualties among the besieged and weaken the morale of the survivors. Immediately afterwards, legionaries would approach the city walls in <a href="/wiki/Testudo_formation" title="Testudo formation">tortoise formation</a>, while archers and slingers would launch a "shower" of darts (including flaming ones) at the besieged, to "cover" the Roman infantrymen. <a href="/wiki/Escalade" title="Escalade">Ladders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">mobile towers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">rams</a> also approached, until <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a>, having reached the top of the walls, engaged in a series of "hand-to-hand" duels. This was followed by the sacking of the city, now at the mercy of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman armies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li>with a sudden and unexpected attack that gave the besieged enemy no time to reason.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_most_significant_Roman_sieges">History of the most significant Roman sieges</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of the most significant Roman sieges">edit</a>]</div> Over time, the various siege techniques were perfected in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, due in part to the input of Hellenic culture from the cities of <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a>, and the confrontation with the <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginian</a> enemy during the three <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_era:_first_period_(509_-_201_BC).">Republican era: first period (509 - 201 BC).</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Republican era: first period (509 - 201 BC).">edit</a>]</div> 508/504 BC? <a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, after the ouster of the last king in 509 B.C., was besieged by the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucumo" title="Lucumo">lucumo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lars_Porsena" title="Lars Porsena">Porsena</a>, who had been called by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Tarquinius Superbus</a> to his aid after the Romans established the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>. Legend has it that Porsena, full of admiration for the acts of valor of <a href="/wiki/Horatius_Cocles" title="Horatius Cocles">Horatius Cocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Mucius_Scaevola" title="Gaius Mucius Scaevola">Mucius Scaevola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloelia" title="Cloelia">Cloelia</a>, gave up the conquest and returned to Chiusi.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> 502 BC. The first use of war machines by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Romans</a> would date back to this year according to <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, on the occasion of the siege of <a href="/wiki/Suessa_Pometia" title="Suessa Pometia">Suessa Pometia</a>, conducted with vineae and other undefined structures.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> From this it can be deduced that there were already <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">military technicians</a> for the construction of the first instruments of <a href="/wiki/Poliorcetica" title="Poliorcetica">poliorcetica</a> on that occasion. 436 BC. The city of Fidene was conquered by the Romans with a new technique: while the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a> barricaded themselves inside the city, the Romans with false attacks from four different directions at four different times, covered the noise of the excavations and reached the fortress through a long tunnel that passed under the enemy walls.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> 396 BC. The city of <a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a> also fell a few years later using the same technique of the tunnel dug under the walls. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Veii" title="Battle of Veii">fall of the Etruscan city</a> took place, according to legend, after ten long years of siege<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> (similarly to what had happened with the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">city of Troy</a>). 390 or 386 BC. <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> itself was besieged and sacked by an army of <a href="/wiki/Senones" title="Senones">Senones</a> <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(leader_of_the_Senones)" title="Brennus (leader of the Senones)">Brennus</a>. It represents one of the most traumatic episodes in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">Rome's history</a>, so much so that it is recorded in the annals as Clades Gallica, or Gallic defeat. <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> bear witness to it.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> 250 BC. In the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Lilybaeum_(250%E2%80%93241_BC)" title="Siege of Lilybaeum (250–241 BC)">siege of Lilybaeum</a> they expertly employed all the siege techniques they had learned during the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic Wars</a> of 280-275 B.C., including <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a>, and vinea.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> It should be added that an early use of throwing machines by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> seems to have been introduced by the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a>, where it was necessary to face the <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginians</a> in long sieges of their powerful cities, defended by imposing walls and equipped with sophisticated artillery.<a href="#cite_note-CascarinoII,279-20">[20]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Specchi_di_Archimede.svg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Specchi_di_Archimede.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Specchi_di_Archimede.svg/220px-Specchi_di_Archimede.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Specchi_di_Archimede.svg/330px-Specchi_di_Archimede.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Specchi_di_Archimede.svg/440px-Specchi_di_Archimede.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> may have used his <a href="/wiki/Burning_glass" title="Burning glass">mirrors</a> collectively to reflect sunlight to burn the ships of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman fleet</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(213%E2%80%93212_BC)" title="Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC)">siege of Syracuse</a>.</figcaption></figure> 214-212 BC. During the long <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(213%E2%80%93212_BC)" title="Siege of Syracuse (213–212 BC)">siege of Syracuse</a> operated by Consul <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" title="Marcus Claudius Marcellus">Marcus Claudius Marcellus</a>, the Romans had sufficient experience in both sea and land sieges, although they struggled with the innovative defensive techniques adopted by <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In fact, it is said that when: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">the Syracusans, when they saw the Romans invade the city from the two fronts, land and sea, were stunned and dumb with fear. They thought that nothing could counter the momentum of an attack in force of such proportions.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, Life of Marcellus, 14.</cite></div></blockquote> However, Archimedes prepared the defense of the city, along the 27 km of defensive walls, with new means of artillery. These were <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scorpio_(weapon)" title="Scorpio (weapon)">scorpions</a>, as well as other means such as <a href="/wiki/Claw_of_Archimedes" title="Claw of Archimedes">manus ferrea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burning_glass" title="Burning glass">burning mirrors</a>, with which he put Roman attacks by sea and land in serious difficulty. The Romans, for their part, continued their assaults from the sea with <a href="/wiki/Quinqueremes" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinqueremes">quinqueremes</a> and by land by attacking with every means at their disposal (from siege towers, battering rams, vinae, and <a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">sambucae</a>). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Romans, having set up these means, thought of assaulting the towers, but Archimedes, having prepared machines for launching darts at all distances, aiming at the assailants with ballistae and catapults that struck farther and safer, wounded many soldiers and spread serious havoc and disorder throughout the army; when the machines then launched too far, they resorted to less powerful ones that struck at the required distance. [...] When the Romans were within the range of the darts, Archimedes contrived another machine against the soldiers embarked on the ships: from the inner side of the wall he had frequent loopholes open that were the height of a man and about a palm wide from the outer side: near these he had archers and scorpionettes arranged, and striking them through the loopholes put the embarked soldiers out of action. [...] When they attempted to lift the sambucas, he resorted to machines which he had made ready along the wall and which, usually invisible, at the moment of need tied menacingly above the wall and protruded for a great distance with their horns out of the battlements: these could lift stones weighing ten talents and even blocks of lead. When the sambuca approached, they would spin the end of the machine with a rope in the required direction and by means of a spring hurl a stone: it ensued that not only the sambuca was shattered but also the ship carrying it and the sailors were in extreme danger.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, The Histories, VIII, 5.</cite></div></blockquote> Marcellus then decided to maintain the siege, trying to crush the city by starvation. The siege went on for a full 18 months, a length of time so long that considerable disagreements erupted in Syracuse among the people to the point that the pro-Roman side engineered treachery, allowing the Romans to break in in the middle of the night, when the gates of the northern part of the city were opened. Syracuse fell and was sacked, but not the nearby island of <a href="/wiki/Ortygia" title="Ortygia">Ortygia</a>, which was well protected by other walls and resisted for a short time. The great Syracusan scientist <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, who was killed by mistake by a soldier, also died on that occasion. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png"><img resource="/wiki/File:Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png/220px-Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png/330px-Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png/440px-Obsidio_Capua_212_aC.png 2x" data-file-width="5540" data-file-height="3784" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capua" title="Battle of Capua">fortification works</a> of the Romans around <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a> in 212 BC.</figcaption></figure> 212-211 BC. In the course of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> succeeded a first time in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capua" title="Battle of Capua">breaking the siege</a> of the city of <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a> (in 212 B.C.), the second time the Romans held firm in Campania.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> And although Hannibal had threatened to besiege Rome:<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Romans, who were besieged by Hannibal and in turn besieged Capua, arranged by decree for the army to hold that position until the city was conquered.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a>, Stratagemata, III, 18, 3.</cite></div></blockquote> And so Hannibal, noting that Rome's defenses were very strong and the Roman besiegers of Capua did not "break the siege," abandoned the Campanian city, which fell shortly thereafter into Roman hands. 209 BC. In the midst of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Publius Cornelius Scipio</a> succeeded in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Carthage" title="Battle of New Carthage">conquering</a> the <a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Ibero</a>-<a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthaginian</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Cartagena</a> (later renamed <a href="/wiki/Nova_Carthago" class="mw-redirect" title="Nova Carthago">Nova Carthago</a>), where an arsenal of launching machines amounting to 120 large <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a>, 281 small ones, 23 large and 52 small <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistae</a>, as well as a considerable number of <a href="/wiki/Scorpio_(weapon)" title="Scorpio (weapon)">scorpions</a> were found inside.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_era:_second_period_(200_-_30_BC).">Republican era: second period (200 - 30 BC).</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Republican era: second period (200 - 30 BC).">edit</a>]</div> 146 BC. During the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a>, at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Carthage_(Third_Punic_War)" title="Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)">siege of Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian of Alexandria</a> reports that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Romans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus</a> captured more than 2,000 throwing machines (including catapults, ballistae and scorpions) in the Carthaginian capital alone.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> 134-133 BC. Sent to besiege <a href="/wiki/Numantia" title="Numantia">Numantia</a>, after many Roman failures, was Consul <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus</a>, hero of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Punic_War" title="Third Punic War">Third Punic War</a>. After sacking the country of the <a href="/wiki/Vaccaei" title="Vaccaei">Vaccaei</a>, he besieged the city. The army commanded by Scipio was supplemented by a large contingent of Numidian cavalry, supplied by the ally <a href="/wiki/Micipsa" title="Micipsa">Micipsa</a>, under whose command was the king's young nephew, <a href="/wiki/Jugurtha" title="Jugurtha">Jugurtha</a>. First, Scipio endeavored to hearten and reorganize the army discouraged by the stubborn and effective resistance of the rebellious city; then, in the certainty that the citadel could only be taken by starvation, he had a ring road built (a 10-kilometer wall all around it) apt to isolate Numantia and deprive it of any outside help. The consul then endeavored to discourage the <a href="/wiki/Iberians" title="Iberians">Iberians</a> from bringing aid to the rebellious city by appearing with his army at the gates of the city of Lutia and forcing it to submit and hand over hostages. After nearly a year of siege, the Numantines, by now starved, sought a bargain with Scipio, but, learning that he would accept nothing but unconditional surrender, the few men in fighting condition preferred to throw themselves into a last, desperate assault on the Roman fortifications. The failure of the sortie prompted the survivors, according to legend, to burn the city and throw themselves into the flames. The remains of the <a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppidum</a> were razed to the ground like <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> a few years earlier. 87-86 BC. In the course of the <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First Mithridatic War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a> besieged <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Athens_and_Piraeus_(87%E2%80%9386_BC)" title="Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC)">Athens</a> for a long time, which fell into the hands of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a> on March 1, 86 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-LivioPeriochae81.1-26">[26]</a> 74-73 BC. During the <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third Mithridatic War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_Eupator" title="Mithridates VI Eupator">Mithridates VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cyzicus" title="Siege of Cyzicus">unsuccessfully besieged</a> the Roman city of <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus" title="Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a>, which was liberated by the consular <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucius Licinius Lucullus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AppianoMitridatiche72-76-27">[27]</a> Winter 73-72 BC. <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucius Licinius Lucullus</a> proceeded to besiege some cities of the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Pontus">king of Pontus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_VI_Eupator" title="Mithridates VI Eupator">Mithridates VI</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Themiscyra_(Pontus)" title="Themiscyra (Pontus)">Themiscyra</a>, which was located on the <a href="/wiki/Terme_River" title="Terme River">Thermodon</a> River. Here <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian of Alexandria</a> relates that the Romans built great <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">towers</a>, high mounds and dug tunnels so wide that whole great underground battles could be fought there. The inhabitants of the city then opened some tunnels that accessed those of the Romans, and they threw bears and other ferocious animals, as well as swarms of bees, into them against those who were working there.<a href="#cite_note-AppianoMitridatiche78-28">[28]</a> At the same time the Romans also besieged <a href="/wiki/Amisus" class="mw-redirect" title="Amisus">Amisus</a>, using other methods of siege. There the inhabitants bravely repelled them, making frequent sorties, even challenging them in the open field, partly due to the substantial aid that Mithridates sent them, including weapons and soldiers, from <a href="/wiki/Cabira" title="Cabira">Cabira</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AppianoMitridatiche78-28">[28]</a> 73-70 BC. Lucullus besieged the city of Amiso and after nearly three years succeeded in occupying the city.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Two years later, in 68 B.C., it was the turn of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> 63 BC. In the course of the Jewish war waged by <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> was besieged and occupied through a curious contrivance:<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Jerusalem">great Temple</a> was located on a hill and was defended by walls that encircled it all around. And if the Jews had defended it with the same constancy every day, Pompey would not have been able to conquer it. Instead, these neglected it on <a href="/wiki/Saturday" title="Saturday">Saturday</a>, during which no one works. Thus the Romans found an opportunity to conquer it.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, Roman History, XXXVII, 16.2.</cite></div></blockquote> 57 BC. In the course of his <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">conquest of Gaul</a>, Caesar, before the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> had recovered from the terror aroused by the recent massacre that had occurred to them near the <a href="/wiki/Aisne_(river)" title="Aisne (river)">Axona</a> River,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> led the army into the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Suessiones" title="Suessiones">Suessiones</a>, arriving before their main <a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppidum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noviodunum" title="Noviodunum">Noviodunum</a> (near present-day <a href="/wiki/Soissons" title="Soissons">Soissons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pommiers,_Aisne" title="Pommiers, Aisne">Pommiers</a>). The city was besieged, but their king Galba, frightened by the magnitude of the siege works that the Roman general had managed to set up in such a short time, offered the surrender of his people. The capitulation, favored also by the intercession of the neighboring Remi, was sealed by the surrender of hostages (including two sons of King Galba) and all the weapons they held in their capital.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> And also this same year, having achieved a new victory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sabis" title="Battle of the Sabis">battle of the Sabis</a>, the Roman proconsul decided to march against the <a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a>, who had all gathered in a single stronghold whose remarkable fortification was aided by the very nature of the places.<a href="#cite_note-35">[note 1]</a> Thus Caesar describes the siege of the city (probably <a href="/wiki/Namur" title="Namur">Namur</a>): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Having this city all around very high cliffs [...] there remained only on one side a gently sloping access not more than 200 feet [about 65 meters] wide; in this place the Atuatuci had built a very high double wall and placed very heavy boulders and sharp beams there [...] and as soon as the Roman army arrived, the <a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a> made frequent sorties from the city and fought small battles with ours. Further when they were encircled by a rampart that went around for 15,000 feet [about 4.5 km] and by numerous forts, they remained within the walls of their city. When they saw that, having approached the vineae, raised the embankment, a siege tower was being built, at first they mocked the Romans from their walls, why such a large machine had been built so far away [...] But when they saw that it was moving and approaching their walls, which was new and unusual for them, they sent ambassadors to Caesar to negotiate peace [... ] Caesar told them that he would save their nation more by custom than merit if they surrendered before the ram touched their walls, but that they should surrender their weapons [... ] threw from the walls a great quantity of weapons, so that the weapons piled up were as high as the top of the walls and embankment, but of one part was hidden in the city the third part [...] and for that day they remained at peace [...] As night fell Caesar ordered his soldiers to leave the city so that at night the inhabitants would not receive injustice from the soldiers. The Atuatuci, following a previously established plan [...] suddenly made a sortie after midnight from the city with all the troops at the point where it is easiest to ascend to the Roman fortifications [...] but having reported the fact quickly by means of fires, as Caesar had previously ordered, the Roman troops rushed in from the nearby castles. The enemies fought so valiantly and hard [...] against ours that from the rampart and towers they threw darts [...] killed about 4,000 enemies, the rest were driven back into the city. The next day, having forced the gates [...] and introduced our soldiers, Caesar put up for sale all the spoils of the city: [...] 53,000 people.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Caesar, De bello Gallico, II, 29-33.</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ambiorix.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Ambiorix.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Ambiorix.jpg/220px-Ambiorix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Ambiorix.jpg/330px-Ambiorix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Ambiorix.jpg/440px-Ambiorix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Statue of the <a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburon</a> chief, <a href="/wiki/Ambiorix" title="Ambiorix">Ambiorix</a>, placed in the square of the ancient city of Atuatuca, now <a href="/wiki/Tongeren" title="Tongeren">Tongeren</a>.</figcaption></figure> 54 BC. The legions, which were still quartered in their respective hiberna, were attacked by the Celtic people of the <a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ardennes" title="Ardennes">Ardennes</a> region). Such revolt was led by <a href="/wiki/Ambiorix" title="Ambiorix">Ambiorix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cativolcus" title="Cativolcus">Cativolcus</a>. The Roman camp of the <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legates</a> <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Titurius_Sabinus" title="Quintus Titurius Sabinus">Quintus Titurius Sabinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aurunculeius_Cotta" title="Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta">Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta</a>, placed in all probability near <a href="/wiki/Atuatuca" title="Atuatuca">Atuatuca</a>, was attacked and completely surrounded.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> Ambiorix, having seen that the siege of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castrum</a> was difficult to attack and would in any case fall only at the cost of heavy losses among his own, decided to change tactics, succeeding in convincing the Romans by deception to leave the camp. When the Roman troops were in the open, in the middle of a wooded <a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">vallum</a>,<a href="#cite_note-37">[note 2]</a> the Eburon army attacked them en masse and almost completely massacred one legion,<a href="#cite_note-38">[note 3]</a> five Roman cohorts and their commanders. Only a few survivors managed to reach Labienus' camp and warn him of what had happened.<a href="#cite_note-39">[note 4]</a> After this victory, <a href="/wiki/Ambiorix" title="Ambiorix">Ambiorix</a> succeeded in gaining the support of the <a href="/wiki/Atuatuci" title="Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a> and several smaller peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Ceutrones" title="Ceutrones">Ceutrones</a>, the Grudi, the Levaci, the Pleumossi and the Geidunni, to besiege the camp of <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Quintus Tullius Cicero">Quintus Cicero</a> and his legion (attested at the oppidum of Namur). The siege lasted a couple of weeks, until <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> himself arrived. In the course of this siege, which was particularly difficult for the Roman legion, the Gauls were able to implement siege techniques and tools similar to those of the Romans, from whom they had now learned them in part (partly due to Roman prisoners and deserters). Again Ambiorix tried to persuade the legate to abandon the camp, promising to protect his retreat. However, Quintus Cicero, unlike Sabinus, did not fall into the trap of the leader of the Eburones, although he did not know that as many as fifteen cohorts had been massacred shortly before, and he managed to hold out, amid enormous efforts and numerous human losses, until Caesar arrived.<a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a> Meanwhile, Caesar, at the head of two legions he had managed to find after rejoining Gaius Fabius and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Crassus</a>, arrived in the vicinity of Cicero and learned from Cicero himself that the great mass of besiegers (about sixty thousand Gauls) was heading against Caesar. The proconsul, having built a camp with great rapidity, succeeded in beating back the attackers and putting them to flight, thus and finally freeing Cicero from the siege,<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a> by implementing a contrivance: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">...just as the enemy Gauls were coming at him, [Caesar] feigned fear and held back his troops in the camp he had made smaller than usual. The Gauls, who now thought they had victory in their grasp, moved to plunder the Roman castrum, and began to fill in the moat and destroy the fences, but just when they were not ready to fight, Caesar brought out the legionaries from all parts of the camp and tore them to pieces.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a>, Stratagemata, III, 17, 6.</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg/220px-Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg/330px-Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg/440px-Avaricum_westpoint_july_2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Avaricum" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Avaricum">siege of Avaricum</a>.</figcaption></figure> 52 BC. At <a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a>, since the nature of the place prevented the city from being encircled with a continuous fortified line, as was later possible at Alesia, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> had to build a gigantic siege ramp (nearly 100 meters wide and 24 meters high), at great expense of energy and loss of men because of the continuous sorties that the besieged men made while the Romans were intent on building, as Caesar himself recounts: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The great valor of the Roman soldiers was being opposed by contrivances of all kinds by the Gauls [...] They, in fact, used ropes to deflect the <a href="/wiki/Siege_hook" title="Siege hook">siege hooks</a> and after securing them they would pull them in [...] they would remove the earth under the embankment with tunnels, with great skill since there were great iron mines in their country [...] they had also built wooden towers of several stories along all the walls and had covered them with skins [. ...] and with frequent sorties by day and night they set fire to the embankment or assaulted the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legionaries</a> engaged in building [...] they raised their towers to equal the towers of the Romans, as much as the embankment was raised daily [. ..] with fire-hardened timbers, with boiling pitch or very heavy stones they delayed the digging of the tunnels and prevented them from approaching the <a href="/wiki/Murus_gallicus" title="Murus gallicus">mura</a>.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Caesar, <a href="/wiki/De_bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De bello Gallico">De bello Gallico</a>, VII, 22.</cite></div></blockquote> Eventually, however, the Romans were able to break through the enemy defenses after 27 days of siege, when Caesar took advantage of a thunderstorm to bring one of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a> closer to the city <a href="/wiki/Murus_gallicus" title="Murus gallicus">walls</a>, hiding many of the soldiers inside the vineae, and at the agreed signal managing to break through the city's ramparts with great speed.<a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png"><img resource="/wiki/File:Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png/220px-Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png/330px-Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png/440px-Fortificazioni_alesia_png.png 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="730" /></a><figcaption>Graphic reconstruction of fortifications built by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>'s group of engineers during the siege of <a href="/wiki/Alesia_(city)" title="Alesia (city)">Alesia</a> (52 BC).</figcaption></figure> 52 BC. At <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Alesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>, in order to ensure a perfect blockade of the besieged, ordered the construction of a series of fortifications, called a "<a href="/wiki/Contravallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Contravallation">contravallation</a>" (inner) and a "<a href="/wiki/Circumvallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumvallation">circumvallation</a>" (outer), around the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gallic</a> <a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppidum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Napoleone_III_1866-6">[6]</a> These works were completed in record time in three weeks, the first "contravallation" of fifteen kilometers all around the enemy oppidum (equal to ten Roman miles)<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-4">[4]</a> and, outside it, for another nearly twenty-one kilometers (equal to fourteen miles).<a href="#cite_note-De_bello_gallico-5">[5]</a> The works also included two <a href="/wiki/Vallum" title="Vallum">valli</a> (one outer and one inner) surmounted by a palisade; two pits, the nearest of which to the fortification, was filled with water from the surrounding rivers;<a href="#cite_note-de.bello.gallico.VII.72-43">[39]</a> a whole series of traps and deep holes, from the "cervus" at the front of the rampart under the palisade, to five orders of "cippus," eight of "lilies," and numerous "stimuli."<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> nearly a thousand watchtowers manned by Roman artillery,<a href="#cite_note-de.bello.gallico.VII.72-43">[39]</a> twenty-three forts ("castella"), four large camps for legions (two for each <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castrum</a>) and four camps for the cavalry, legionary, auxiliary and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> legions.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> 49 BC. It is known from <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> that during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Brundisium" title="Siege of Brundisium">siege of Brundisium</a> he determined to block the exits from the harbor. At the mouth of the harbor, which is narrower, he had an embankment laid along both shores, as the sea at that point was shallow. A little further on, because of the increasing depth, he had pairs of rafts inserted on the extension of the seawall, the side of which was thirty <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_units_of_measurement" title="Ancient Roman units of measurement">feet</a>. After positioning them well, he added others of equal size, covering them as if they were the natural extension of the embankment, so that they could be easily accessed in case of their defense. On the outside and along the two sides they were protected by latticework and plutei, while two-story towers were erected every four rafts, to better defend the fortification work from possible assaults by enemy ships and fires.<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> During the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Massilia" title="Siege of Massilia">siege of Massilia</a>, a number of musculi were employed, the size of which was about 60 feet long (equal to about 18 meters).<a href="#cite_note-47">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_imperial_era:_offensive_phase_(30_B.C.-211_A.D.)">Early imperial era: offensive phase (30 B.C.-211 A.D.)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early imperial era: offensive phase (30 B.C.-211 A.D.)">edit</a>]</div> 24 BC. The Roman expedition to <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Felix" title="Arabia Felix">Arabia Felix</a> brought a Roman army, under the command of the governor of Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Gallus" title="Aelius Gallus">Aelius Gallus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">along the routes to India</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. At the end of a long journey that lasted six months,<a href="#cite_note-Strabo16.4.24-48">[44]</a> Gallus reached the city called Marsiaba or Mariaba (present-day <a href="/wiki/Marib" title="Marib">Ma'rib</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>), which belonged to the tribe of Rhammanitae, whose king was a certain <a href="/wiki/Ilasaros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilasaros">Ilasarus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Strabo16.4.24-48">[44]</a> The city was besieged for six days, but managed to hold out, aided by the lack of water from the Roman besiegers. Gallus was thus forced to stop only two days' march from the spice-producing country and to take the remains of his battered army, worn out by thirst, hunger and disease, back to Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-Strabo16.4.24-48">[44]</a> 67 As <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">hostilities</a> between the Romans and the Jews began, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> succeeded, after a long and difficult siege, in <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yodfat" title="Siege of Yodfat">occupying the fortified city of Iotapata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[45]</a> New and important sieges still took place during the course of the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish War</a> and saw Vespasian's Roman armies take the cities of <a href="/wiki/Tarichaea" title="Tarichaea">Tarichee</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamla" title="Gamla">Gamala</a>. 69 In the course of the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">civil war</a> that broke out after <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>'s death to succeed him, the city of <a href="/wiki/Cremona" title="Cremona">Cremona</a> was besieged twice: first, unsuccessfully, by the <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellians</a> against the supporters of <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a> (March);<a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a> secondly by the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavians</a> against the Vitellians (late October), leading the same legions loyal to the future emperor, <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, to a rampant sacking of the city for a full four days.<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Forty thousand armed men raided <a href="/wiki/Cremona" title="Cremona">Cremona</a>, with even greater numbers of servants and bearers, people very much given to cruelty and disorder. No one was protected by age or rank. Rapes and killings took place. Very old men and women were dragged as objects of ridicule.... If any young maiden of particular beauty happened to be on their hands, they were torn to pieces.... Someone carrying away money or golden votive gifts from temples was killed by another stronger than him... others dug up treasures, beating with rods and torturing their masters... soldiers equipped with torches, after stealing their prey threw them for fun inside houses...<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historiae_(Tacitus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae (Tacitus)">Historiae</a>, III, 33.</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:(Venice)_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:(Venice)_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%28Venice%29_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg/220px-%28Venice%29_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%28Venice%29_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg/330px-%28Venice%29_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/%28Venice%29_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg/440px-%28Venice%29_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5068" data-file-height="3643" /></a><figcaption>The destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple</a>, from a painting by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a> preserved in Venice, was the last act of the great <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">siege of Jerusalem</a>.</figcaption></figure> 70 The <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish War</a> had in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">siege of Jerusalem</a> the "key" operation in the Roman victory.<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> It is said that the future emperor <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a> first built around the besieged city in addition to a large camp, used as headquarters, thirteen forts<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> connected by a <a href="/wiki/Contravallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Contravallation">contravallation</a> of almost 8 km<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a> and as many as 5 siege ramps.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> He then attempted to reduce the food and water supplies of the besieged, allowing pilgrims to enter the city for the customary <a href="/wiki/Pesach" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesach">Pesach</a> temple visit, but preventing them from leaving. In mid-May, Titus succeeded in destroying the third wall with <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a> and then breaking through the second wall as well. The next target was <a href="/wiki/Antonia_Fortress" title="Antonia Fortress">Antonia Fortress</a>, located north of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_Mount" title="Temple Mount">Temple Mount</a>, forcing the Romans to fight street by street against the <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>. And after an initial attempt to negotiate peace, the besieged managed to prevent the construction of <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a> near Antonia Fortress, but food and water began to run out. Thus it was that small groups of resuppliers managed to penetrate between the Roman lines of the besiegers, and smuggle some supplies into the city. To permanently stop supplies from outside, Titus decided to erect a wall all around the city and, at the same time, to resume construction of the siege towers. Finally after further unsuccessful attempts to scale and penetrate the walls of Antonia Fortress, the Romans managed to sneak in, surprising the zealot guards deep in sleep, allowing them to conquer the fortress, which provided a perfect platform for attacking the temple itself. The rams apparently had little success, but subsequent fighting succeeded in setting fire to the walls. The flames spread quickly and soon the Temple was destroyed, while the fire spread to nearby residential neighborhoods, so that the Roman legions were able to crush the remaining Jewish resistance, albeit after the construction of new siege towers. It was September 7, and Jerusalem had fallen to the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg/220px-Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg/330px-Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg/440px-Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masada" title="Siege of Masada">siege of Masada</a>, the last stronghold of the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">Jewish revolt</a>, which fell into Roman hands in 74.</figcaption></figure> 74 The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Masada" title="Siege of Masada">siege of Masada</a> is said to have lasted for a long time, in the course of which all possible techniques were adopted to achieve final victory, starting with the construction of eight forts around the Judaean fortress (six small and two large ones),<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a> connected by a 3,6 km <a href="/wiki/Contravallation" class="mw-redirect" title="Contravallation">contravallation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> as well as a gigantic ramp (200 <a href="/wiki/Cubit" title="Cubit">cubits</a> high between earth and stone, plus 50 cubits of a wooden platform)<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> topped by a 60-cubit-high <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">tower</a>, all covered with iron, from the top of which the Romans placed <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistae</a> and a large <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">ram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> Eventually the Zealot leader, <a href="/wiki/Eleazar_Ben_Yair" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleazar Ben Yair">Eleazar Ben Yair</a>, spoke to his people, inducing them to commit collective suicide, given the now desperate situation. The Romans reached the top of the fortress and found the besieged all dead.<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:087_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:087_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/087_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg/220px-087_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/087_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg/330px-087_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/087_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg/440px-087_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1362" /></a><figcaption>The scene appears to depict the 106 siege of <a href="/wiki/Sarmizegetusa_Regia" title="Sarmizegetusa Regia">Sarmizegetusa Regia</a>, shortly before <a href="/wiki/Decebalus" title="Decebalus">Decebalus</a>' final surrender and the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Roman conquest of Dacia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a></figcaption></figure> 106 During the last year of the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">campaign in Dacia</a> by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, the Dacian king <a href="/wiki/Decebalus" title="Decebalus">Decebalus</a>, attacked from two fronts as also depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Column</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a> (perhaps from the side of the "Iron Gates" and from that of the <a href="/wiki/Turnu_Ro%C8%99u_Pass" title="Turnu Roșu Pass">Red Tower Pass</a>), put up such desperate resistance that the Romans left numerous dead and wounded on the field, victims of the fierce combativeness of the Dacians. Eventually, after a long and bloody siege, <a href="/wiki/Sarmizegetusa_Regia" title="Sarmizegetusa Regia">Sarmizegetusa Regia</a> also capitulated under the blows of the Roman armies assembled in the late summer of that year. The salient phases of this siege are also depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan Column</a>, in which the final suicide that the Dacian leaders inflicted on themselves to avoid being taken prisoner by the Romans is also depicted.<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a> Eventually all the <a href="/wiki/Dacian_Fortresses_of_the_Or%C4%83%C8%99tie_Mountains" title="Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains">fortified strongholds in the Orăștie area</a> fell, one after the other: from <a href="/wiki/Pope%C8%99ti,_Arge%C8%99" title="Popești, Argeș">Popești</a> to <a href="/wiki/Cet%C4%83%C8%9Beni" title="Cetățeni">Cetățeni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piatra_Neam%C8%9B" title="Piatra Neamț">Piatra Neamț</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pecica" title="Pecica">Pecica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piatra_Craivii" class="mw-redirect" title="Piatra Craivii">Piatra Craivii</a>, Căpâlna, <a href="/wiki/Coste%C8%99ti" title="Costești">Costești</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C4%83ni%C8%9Ba" title="Bănița">Bănița</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C4%83l%C4%83ne%C8%99ti,_Gorj" title="Bălănești, Gorj">Bălănești</a> up to <a href="/wiki/Tili%C8%99ca" title="Tilișca">Tilișca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a> During these campaigns, in addition to the usual siege machines, numerous rostral tortoises,<a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carroballista" title="Carroballista">carroballistae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cheiroballistra" title="Cheiroballistra">cheiroballistrae</a>, as depicted on the <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Column</a>, were used.<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a> 116 <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a>, in the course of his <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">Parthian campaigns</a>, succeeded in besieging and conquering their capital, <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, but not the important stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>. 165 <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a>, in the course of his <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">Parthian campaigns</a>, succeeded in besieging and conquering their capital, <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. 169-170 One of the major cities of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a>, was forced to endure a siege by a never-before-seen mass of barbarians (mainly <a href="/wiki/Quadi" title="Quadi">Quadi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcomanni" title="Marcomanni">Marcomanni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hasdingi" title="Hasdingi">Hasdingi</a> <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>), who had spread devastatingly into northern Italy, in the heart of <a href="/wiki/Venetia_et_Histria" title="Venetia et Histria">Venetia</a>. The impression caused was enormous: it had been since the time of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Marius</a> (102-101 B.C.) that a barbarian population had not besieged centers in northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg/220px-ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg/330px-ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg/440px-ArcoSettimioSeveroPart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1053" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Relief of the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Septimius_Severus" title="Arch of Septimius Severus">Arch of Septimius Severus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>, where the Siege and Taking of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> is depicted (marble 4.90 x 4 meters).</figcaption></figure> 197 <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, in the course of his Parthian campaigns, succeeded in besieging and conquering their capital, <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> Severus's armies, after crossing the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> for the second time, near <a href="/wiki/Zeugma_(Commagene)" title="Zeugma (Commagene)">Zeugma</a>, headed with great <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege machines</a> for <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a>, which opened its gates wide to him, sending him high dignitaries and banners as an act of submission. Severus continued his advance with a <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">large fleet</a> along the Euphrates, where he reached and subdued first <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura Europos</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a>, putting the <a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">cataphract</a> cavalry of the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> to flight. The advance continued with the capture of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a>, which had shortly before been abandoned by enemy forces, and, toward the end of the year, the Parthian capital itself, <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, was also placed under siege. The city, now surrounded, tried unsuccessfully to resist the impressive military machine the Roman emperor had managed to put together (some 150,000 armed men). When it was now close to capitulation, King <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> abandoned his people and fled to the interior of his territories. The city was sacked as had happened in the past in the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (in 116) and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a> (in 165).<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_imperial_era:_defensive_phase_(211-285_AD)">Early imperial era: defensive phase (211-285 AD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early imperial era: defensive phase (211-285 AD)">edit</a>]</div> 229-230 With the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">crisis of the 3rd century</a>, the sides between <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarians</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanids</a> began to reverse: more and more cities in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> were besieged by forces outside the <a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">imperial borders</a>. In 229, with the accession to the throne of the first <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> ruler, <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Persian armies</a> besieged, albeit to no avail, the "client" city of Hatra (to make it a base of attack against the Romans).<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> 238 Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a>, having arrived in <a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a>, located at the crossroads of important communication routes and a depot for the food and equipment needed by the soldiers, was forced to <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aquileia" title="Siege of Aquileia">place the city under siege</a>, as he had closed its gates to the emperor (after rebuilding part of its ancient walls),<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> at the behest of the Senate of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> This allowed his opponents to get organized, as <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> did by reaching the city of <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, from which he directed the defense of the besieged city. Although the ratio of forces was still in Maximinus' advantage, the prolonged siege,<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> the shortage of provisions and the strict discipline imposed by the emperor caused the troops' hostility toward the emperor, so much so that the soldiers of <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Parthica" title="Legio II Parthica">Legio II Parthica</a>, first tore his images from the military insignia, to signal his deposition, then assassinated him in his camp, along with his son <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Verus_Maximus" title="Gaius Julius Verus Maximus">Maximus</a> (May 10).<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a> 237-240 In the course of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaigns_of_Ardashir_I" title="Mesopotamian campaigns of Ardashir I">Ardashir I's Mesopotamian campaigns</a>, the cities of the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman province of Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carrhae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrhae">Carrhae</a>, were besieged and occupied by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a> in late 237/early 238.<a href="#cite_note-ZonaraXII,18-77">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> The following year<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a> a new invasion by Sasanian armies laid siege to the fortress-city of <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura Europos</a>, a Roman outpost on the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Millar150-81">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Southern70-83">[79]</a> In 240, <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> finally succeeded in the feat of occupying and destroying the important Roman-allied city-stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Southern70-83">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> then occupying much of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman Mesopotamia</a>, perhaps even going so far as to <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaigns_of_Ardashir_I#Third_phase:_new_Sasanian_invasions_into_Roman_Mesopotamia_after_the_death_of_Severus_Alexander_(237-241)" title="Mesopotamian campaigns of Ardashir I">besiege and occupy</a> <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> of Syria.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a> 248-250 With the continuing <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions_of_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century">barbarian invasions of the third century</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was now placed "under siege." During 248 a new incursion of Goths, who had been refused the annual contribution promised by <a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a>, and of Carpi, their associates, once again brought devastation to the province of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Moesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Moesia">Lower Moesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> The invasion was stopped by a general of <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Trajan Decius</a>, future emperor, at the city of <a href="/wiki/Marcianopolis" title="Marcianopolis">Marcianopolis</a>, which had remained under siege for a long time. The surrender was also made possible by the Germans' ignorance of siege machinery and probably, as <a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a> suggests, "by the sum paid to them by the inhabitants."<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a> The following year (in 249) a new invasion of <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a> pushed into Thrace as far as <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thrace)" title="Philippopolis (Thrace)">Philippopolis</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Plovdiv</a>), where they besieged the governor <a href="/wiki/Titus_Julius_Priscus" title="Titus Julius Priscus">Titus Julius Priscus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a> In 250, the emperor Decius managed to surprise and defeat the Goths of <a href="/wiki/Cniva" title="Cniva">Cniva</a> while the latter had been besieging the Mesic city of Nicopolis for several months. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Invasione_253-256.png"><img resource="/wiki/File:Invasione_253-256.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Invasione_253-256.png/220px-Invasione_253-256.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Invasione_253-256.png/330px-Invasione_253-256.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Invasione_253-256.png/440px-Invasione_253-256.png 2x" data-file-width="1223" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>Barbarian invasions of <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, Borans, <a href="/wiki/Carpi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpi people">Carpi</a>, contemporary with those of the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_dynasty" title="Sasanian dynasty">Sasanids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>, from the years 252-256, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a>.</figcaption></figure> 252-257 <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire">Sasanian king</a>, organized a violent offensive against the eastern provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The Persian troops occupied first the province of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> and then took possession of <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> after a difficult siege, where they plundered a large amount of booty, dragging numerous prisoners with them.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a> It is reported that in addition to the capital of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a> (in 252/253),<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a> other important strongholds were taken from Roman rule such as <a href="/wiki/Carrhae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carrhae">Carrhae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a> (in 252)<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura Europos</a> (in 256),<a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a> forcing Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> to intervene. 260 Along the Limes of <a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a> hordes of <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> succeeded in seizing the legionary fortress of <a href="/wiki/Castra_Vetera" class="mw-redirect" title="Castra Vetera">Castra Vetera</a> and besieged <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>, sparing <a href="/wiki/Augusta_Treverorum" title="Augusta Treverorum">Augusta Treverorum</a> (today's <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>) instead.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> At the same time along the eastern front <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> was besieged seemingly to no avail,<a href="#cite_note-Zonara.XII.23-96">[92]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>), <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kayseri" title="Kayseri">Caesarea</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Cappadocia</a>) fell under the blows of the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire" title="Military of the Sasanian Empire">Sasanian armies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Zonara.XII.23-96">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a> in addition to the entire <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman Mesopotamia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-grant231-99">[95]</a> 262 The Goths made a new sea raid along the Black Sea coast, succeeding in besieging and sacking <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Ilium_(Epirus)" title="Ilium (Epirus)">Ilion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Because the Scythians [i.e., the Goths, ed.] had brought great destruction to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellas</a> and besieged <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> itself, Gallienus sought to fight them, who by then had occupied <a href="/wiki/Thrace_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thrace (Roman province)">Thrace</a>.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a>, New History, I, 39.1.</cite></div></blockquote> Late 267 - early 268 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png"><img resource="/wiki/File:Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png/220px-Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png/330px-Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png/440px-Goti_268-270_invasioni_png.png 2x" data-file-width="1223" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>The invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Gothic</a> peoples of 267/268-270 during the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius the Gothic</a>. In green color the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> of Queen <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> A new and immense invasion by the Goths, together with the <a href="/wiki/Peucini" class="mw-redirect" title="Peucini">Peucini</a>, the "latest arrivals" in the region of the present-day <a href="/wiki/Azov_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Azov sea">Azov Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a>, and numerous other peoples took shape from the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Tyras_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyras River">Tyras River</a> (near the <a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">city of the same name</a>) and began the most astonishing invasion of this third century, which shook the coasts and hinterland of the Roman provinces of <a href="/wiki/Asia-Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia-Minor">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaia_(Roman_province)" title="Achaia (Roman province)">Achaia</a> facing the <a href="/wiki/Pontus_Euxinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontus Euxinus">Pontus Euxinus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zosimus42.1-102">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant231232-103">[99]</a> They succeeded in laying siege to numerous imperial cities, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus" title="Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a>, albeit unsuccessfully,<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> but later occupying the future city of <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Csk%C3%BCdar" title="Üsküdar">Chrysopolis</a> (opposite Byzantium), and laying new sieges to the cities of <a href="/wiki/Cassandreia" title="Cassandreia">Cassandreia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Thessaloniki" title="History of Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> and bringing devastation to the hinterland of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">province of Macedonia</a> as well.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> 268 Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> was forced to return to Italy to besiege the usurper <a href="/wiki/Aureolus" title="Aureolus">Aureolus</a>, who had attempted to usurp his throne, in <a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Milan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Southern225-108">[104]</a> 269 The untimely death of <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius the Goth</a> forced <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> to quickly conclude the war against the Goths in <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thrace</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesias</a>, ending the sieges of Anchialus (near modern <a href="/wiki/Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Pomorie</a>, along the <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> coast), and <a href="/wiki/Nicopolis_ad_Istrum" title="Nicopolis ad Istrum">Nicopolis ad Istrum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[105]</a> 272 Emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> put an end to <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>'s reign when, after liberating the city of Antioch, he defeated the Palmyrian army first at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Immae" title="Battle of Immae">Immae</a> and then at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emesa" title="Battle of Emesa">Emesa</a>, going so far as to besiege <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> itself, which was shortly conquered. The queen was caught up on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates River</a> and captured along with her son.<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> 278 Emperor <a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a> went, at the end of that year, to <a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a> to put down an uprising of brigands (with a final siege at their stronghold of <a href="/wiki/Cremna" title="Cremna">Cremna</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_imperial_era_(286-476_AD).">Late imperial era (286-476 AD).</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Late imperial era (286-476 AD).">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heinrich_Leutemann,_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_(c._1860%E2%80%931880).jpg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Heinrich_Leutemann,_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_(c._1860%E2%80%931880).jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Heinrich_Leutemann%2C_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_%28c._1860%E2%80%931880%29.jpg/220px-Heinrich_Leutemann%2C_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_%28c._1860%E2%80%931880%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Heinrich_Leutemann%2C_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_%28c._1860%E2%80%931880%29.jpg/330px-Heinrich_Leutemann%2C_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_%28c._1860%E2%80%931880%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Heinrich_Leutemann%2C_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_%28c._1860%E2%80%931880%29.jpg/440px-Heinrich_Leutemann%2C_Pl%C3%BCnderung_Roms_durch_die_Vandalen_%28c._1860%E2%80%931880%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Genseric</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> sack <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, as depicted in the painting above.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">crisis of the third century</a> with the period of <a href="/wiki/Barracks_emperor" title="Barracks emperor">military anarchy</a>, but especially after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" title="Battle of Adrianople">defeat of Adrianople</a> in 378, was placed under siege by the barbarian populations pressing along its <a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">borders</a> from the north, and by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> from the east.<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> 337/338 Shortly after the death of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>, the Sasanian king, <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>, resumed hostilities and besieged <a href="/wiki/Nusaybin" title="Nusaybin">Nisibis</a> unsuccessfully (something that had happened in the past in 326, and also happened in 346 and 350). It is reported that the city managed to repel the invader thanks to the people, led by the city's bishop.<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a> 359 <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> succeeded, after a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">siege lasting seventy-three days</a>, in occupying the city of <a href="/wiki/Amida_(Mesopotamia)" title="Amida (Mesopotamia)">Amida</a>, although numerous attacks brought with the great <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege machines</a> were repeatedly repulsed, with severe damage to the Persians and the machines themselves. The Romans capitulated when they found themselves fighting not only the Sasanian enemy but also a plague. The now exhausted city eventually fell as a result of a night attack, carried simultaneously by Shapur and Grumbates with siege towers and incendiary arrows.<a href="#cite_note-114">[110]</a> 363 In the course of <a href="/wiki/Julian%27s_Persian_expedition" title="Julian's Persian expedition">Julian's Sasanian campaign</a>, since the Romans lacked the necessary siege machinery, and it was, therefore, not possible to take <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> in a reasonable time, <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, in order to avoid being surrounded by Shapur II, decided to "break the siege" and move toward northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, to reunite with Procopius' contingent.<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a> 402 The general of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stilicho" title="Stilicho">Stilicho</a>, succeeded in liberating <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> from the siege of <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a>, managing to beat them shortly afterwards near <a href="/wiki/Pollentia" title="Pollentia">Pollentia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a> 408-410 <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigoth king</a> <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a> laid siege to the city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> three times during these years, until he succeeded in <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)" title="Sack of Rome (410)">sacking it</a> in 410, some eight hundred years after the previous Gallic sack of 390/386 BC. It is reported that the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> first blocked all access routes, including the Tiber and supplies from the port of <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia</a>, at the same time the siege lasted non-stop for five months, forcing the starving population to even feed on cats, rats, and dogs. Infectious diseases claimed many victims (sources speak of plague, but it was more likely cholera) and incidents of cannibalism are also mentioned. The siege mainly affected the poorer sections of the population, and it was probably a desperate group of starving people who decided to end the siege. On the night of August 24, 410, the <a href="/wiki/Porta_Salaria" title="Porta Salaria">Salarian Gate</a> was opened to the besiegers (who evidently did not have adequate siege machines), and Rome was sacked.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a> 411 The usurper <a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine</a> was besieged at <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gerontius_(magister_militum)" title="Gerontius (magister militum)">Gerontius</a>, where, however, another of <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>' generals, the vigorous Flavius Constantius (the future emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a>), also arrived. Although Gerontius was defeated and put to flight, Constantius continued the siege until Constantine was forced to surrender. The defeated usurper, however, did not reach Honorius' court alive.<a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a> 443 <a href="/wiki/Attila" title="Attila">Attila</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Hunnic</a> armies turned their attention to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, carrying out raids along the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, eventually occupying the important <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Roman fortresses</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ratiaria" title="Ratiaria">Ratiaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naissus" class="mw-redirect" title="Naissus">Naissus</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1" title="Niš">Niš</a>), the Barbarians themselves using siege machines such as <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a> and tall towers. It is said that when Attila attacked and devastated Naissus, the city's river banks were covered with an impressive number of corpses.<a href="#cite_note-119">[115]</a> 455 The barbarians succeeded in laying siege to and then <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)" title="Sack of Rome (455)">sacking the city of Rome</a>. These were the <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gaiseric" title="Gaiseric">Genseric</a>, then at war with Emperor <a href="/wiki/Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a>. It is said that Genseric set sail with his powerful fleet from <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, sailed up the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>, and then succeeded in sacking it. When the Vandals arrived, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_I" title="Pope Leo I">Pope Leo I</a> implored the barbarian king not to destroy the ancient city or kill its inhabitants. Genseric agreed. He entered through the <a href="/wiki/Porta_Portese" title="Porta Portese">Porta Portuensis</a> and plundered a large amount of gold, silver and many other valuables with greater impetus than <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> forty-five years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Roman siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient warfare</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> This is possibly the oppidum of Namur, or the high ground of Falhize-sur-Meuse, in front of Huy, but other locations have also been proposed by scholars. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> The valley of the clash between the Eburones and the Romans led by Cotta and Sabinus can be identified with the Geer River valley, 24 km southwest of Tongeren, as argued by L.A.Constans (in Guide Illustré des Campagnes de César en Gaule, Classical Journal, Vol. 25, No.9, Jun., 1930, p.57). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Lawrence Keppie (The making of the roman army, from Republic to Empire, Oklahoma 1998, p.97 e seg.) argues that the legion lost, though soon afterwards reformed was legio XIIII. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Caesar, De bello Gallico, V, 28-37. The incident is reminiscent of what happened sixty years later in Germania in the Teutoburg Forest, when three entire legions and their commander, Publius Quintilius Varus, were barbarously slaughtered by Germans led by Arminius. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Siege_warfare_in_ancient_Rome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Siege_Warfare/">"Roman Siege Warfare"</a>. worldhistory.org. 24 June 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=worldhistory.org&rft.atitle=Roman+Siege+Warfare&rft.date=2016-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FRoman_Siege_Warfare%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub408/entry-6357.html">"Roman Preparations for Battle and Gaging Morale"</a>. factsanddetails.com. Retrieved 6 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=factsanddetails.com&rft.atitle=Roman+Preparations+for+Battle+and+Gaging+Morale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffactsanddetails.com%2Fworld%2Fcat56%2Fsub408%2Fentry-6357.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>, no. 86 <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:086_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_LXXXVI.jpg" class="extiw" title="c:File:086 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LXXXVI.jpg">HERE</a> and 87 <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:087_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_LXXXVII.jpg" class="extiw" title="c:File:087 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LXXXVII.jpg">HERE</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_4-1">b</a> Caesar, <a href="/wiki/De_bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De bello Gallico">De bello Gallico</a>, VII, 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-De_bello_gallico-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-De_bello_gallico_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-De_bello_gallico_5-1">b</a> Caesar, <a href="/wiki/De_bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De bello Gallico">De bello Gallico</a>, VII, 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-Napoleone_III_1866-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Napoleone_III_1866_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Napoleone_III_1866_6-1">b</a> Napoleon III, Histoire de Jules César, Paris 1865-1866. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, III, 7, 4 (146). </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Yann_Le_Bohec" title="Yann Le Bohec">Yann Le Bohec</a>, L'esercito romano da Augusto alla fine del III secolo, Roma 2008, pp.181-183. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> G.Cascarino, L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione, Vol. II - Da Augusto ai Severi, p.265. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> A.Piganiol, Le conquiste dei Romani, Milano 1989, p.91. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">Ab Urbe condita libri</a> II, 12-13; <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Publius Cornelius Tacitus</a> Historiae 72; <a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a> De viris illustribus urbis Romae 11,1; 12, 1-3; <a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a>, Breviarium ab Urbe condita, I,11. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">Ab Urbe condita libri</a>, II, 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">Ab Urbe condita libri</a>, IV, 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">Ab Urbe condita libri</a>, V, 8-25. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">Histories</a>, II, 18, 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">Ab Urbe condita libri</a>, V, 35-55. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, XIV, 113-117. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, Camillus, 15, 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">Histories</a>, I, 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-CascarinoII,279-20"><a href="#cite_ref-CascarinoII,279_20-0">^</a> G.Cascarino, L'esercito romano. Armamento e organizzazione, Vol. II - Da Augusto ai Severi, p.279. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">Histories</a>, VIII, 3-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Livy, XXV, 20-22 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Polybius, IX, 4-7 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">Ab Urbe condita libri</a>, XXVI, 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, De rebus punicis et De rebus numidicis, 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-LivioPeriochae81.1-26"><a href="#cite_ref-LivioPeriochae81.1_26-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, Periochae <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_condita_libri" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe condita libri">ab Urbe condita libri</a>, 81.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-AppianoMitridatiche72-76-27"><a href="#cite_ref-AppianoMitridatiche72-76_27-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, Mithridatic Wars, 72-76. </li> <li id="cite_note-AppianoMitridatiche78-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AppianoMitridatiche78_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AppianoMitridatiche78_28-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, Mithridatic Wars, 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Lucullus, 19.3-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, Life of Lucullus, 32.3-5. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, Roman History, XXXVI, 6.1-3. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, I, 7.1.141 - I, 7.6.154. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Caesar, De bello Gallico, II, 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Caesar, De bello Gallico, II, 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Caesar, De bello Gallico, V, 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Caesar, De bello Gallico, V, 38-45. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Caesar, De bello Gallico, V, 46-53; <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, XL, 5-10; <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a> Life of Caesar, 24; <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">The Twelve Caesars</a>, Life of Caesar, 25,2; 67,2 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Caesar, <a href="/wiki/De_bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De bello Gallico">De bello Gallico</a>, VII, 27-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-de.bello.gallico.VII.72-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-de.bello.gallico.VII.72_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-de.bello.gallico.VII.72_43-1">b</a> Caesar, <a href="/wiki/De_bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De bello Gallico">De bello Gallico</a>, VII, 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Caesar, <a href="/wiki/De_bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De bello Gallico">De bello Gallico</a>, VII, 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Connolly, L'esercito romano, pp.32-33. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili">De bello civili</a>, I, 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili">De bello civili</a>, II, 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-Strabo16.4.24-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strabo16.4.24_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strabo16.4.24_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strabo16.4.24_48-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, Geography, XVI, 4, 24 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16D*.html">[1]</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, III, 7-8. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, III, 10.1-6. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historiae_(Tacitus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae (Tacitus)">Historiae</a>, II, 19-23. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Historiae_(Tacitus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae (Tacitus)">Historiae</a>, III, 19-35. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, V-VI. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, V, 2, 3 (72); V, 3, 5 (133-134); V, 7 2 (203); V, 12, 1 (499). </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, V, 12, 1 (499). </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, V, 3, 2 (107); 9, 2 (358); 11, 4 (467); VI, 2, 7 (149); 8, 1 (374). </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, from V, 2,1 to VI, 10,1. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Josephus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius Josephus">Flavius Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War">The Jewish War</a>, from VII, 8; 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Vol. 21–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Periochae&rft.au=Livy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fla.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FAb_Urbe_Condita_%25E2%2580%2593_Periochae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Orosius" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/orosius.html">Historiarum adversos paganos libri VII</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historiarum+adversos+paganos+libri+VII&rft.au=Orosius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Forosius.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Younger" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Younger. 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Milano.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+grande+strategia+dell%27Impero+romano&rft.place=Milano&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Luttwak&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMilan1993" class="citation book cs1">Milan, Alessandro (1993). Le forze armate nella storia di Roma Antica. Roma: Jouvence.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+forze+armate+nella+storia+di+Roma+Antica&rft.place=Roma&rft.pub=Jouvence&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Milan&rft.aufirst=Alessandro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiganiol1989" class="citation book cs1">Piganiol, André (1989). Le conquiste dei Romani. Milano.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+conquiste+dei+Romani&rft.place=Milano&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Piganiol&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson1975" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, H. Russel (1975). The Armour of Imperial Rome. Londra: Arms and Armour Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armour+of+Imperial+Rome&rft.place=Londra&rft.pub=Arms+and+Armour+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=H.+Russel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2001" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Empire: from Severus to Constantine. Londra & New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire%3A+from+Severus+to+Constantine&rft.place=Londra+%26+New+York&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebsterElton,_Hugh1998" class="citation book cs1">Webster, Graham; Elton, Hugh (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanimperialarm0000webs_i9o6">The Roman Imperial Army of the First and Second Centuries A.D.</a> University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806130002" title="Special:BookSources/9780806130002"><bdi>9780806130002</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Imperial+Army+of+the+First+and+Second+Centuries+A.D.&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780806130002&rft.aulast=Webster&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft.au=Elton%2C+Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanimperialarm0000webs_i9o6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASiege+warfare+in+ancient+Rome" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists and other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a 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