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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Old_Yiddish_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Yiddish_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Old Yiddish literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Yiddish_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasidic_and_Haskalah_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasidic_and_Haskalah_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Hasidic and Haskalah literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hasidic_and_Haskalah_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hasidic and Haskalah literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hasidic_and_Haskalah_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hasidic_stories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasidic_stories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Hasidic stories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasidic_stories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hasidic_parables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hasidic_parables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hasidic parables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hasidic_parables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haskalah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haskalah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Haskalah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haskalah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Yiddish_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Yiddish_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Modern Yiddish literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_Yiddish_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern Yiddish literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_Yiddish_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_classic_Yiddish_writers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_classic_Yiddish_writers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The classic Yiddish writers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_classic_Yiddish_writers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_movements_and_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_movements_and_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Literary movements and figures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_movements_and_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_authors_in_Yiddish_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_authors_in_Yiddish_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Female authors in Yiddish literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_authors_in_Yiddish_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_and_the_Nobel_Prize" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_and_the_Nobel_Prize"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Isaac Bashevis Singer and the Nobel Prize</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_and_the_Nobel_Prize-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_writing_in_Yiddish_and_influenced_by_Yiddish_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_writing_in_Yiddish_and_influenced_by_Yiddish_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Contemporary writing in Yiddish and influenced by Yiddish literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_writing_in_Yiddish_and_influenced_by_Yiddish_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B4" title="الأدب بلغة الايدش – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأدب بلغة الايدش" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliteratura_en_yidis" title="Lliteratura en yidis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliteratura en yidis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_%C3%ADdix" title="Literatura ídix – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Literatura ídix" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llenyddiaeth_Iddew-Almaeneg" title="Llenyddiaeth Iddew-Almaeneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llenyddiaeth Iddew-Almaeneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddische_Literatur" title="Jiddische Literatur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jiddische Literatur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1i_kirjandus" title="Jidiši kirjandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jidiši kirjandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literatura_en_yidis" title="Literatura en yidis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Literatura en yidis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DB%8C%DB%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B4" title="ادبیات ییدیش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ادبیات ییدیش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_yiddish" title="Littérature yiddish – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Littérature yiddish" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_yiddish" title="Letteratura yiddish – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Letteratura yiddish" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9" title="ספרות יידיש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספרות יידיש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddische_literatuur" title="Jiddische literatuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jiddische literatuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B5" title="Литература на идише – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Литература на идише" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panitikang_Yidis" title="Panitikang Yidis – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Panitikang Yidis" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidi%C5%9F_edebiyat%C4%B1" title="Yidiş edebiyatı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yidiş edebiyatı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:lavender;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/260px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/390px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/520px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1021" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hulaul%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulaulá language">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishana_Deni" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishana Deni">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lish%C3%A1n_Did%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishán Didán">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barzani_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betanure_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishanid_Noshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishanid Noshan">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Djerbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Yemenite</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Jewish diaspora languages</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Yevanic">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalanic language">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italkian" class="mw-redirect" title="Italkian">Italkian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Gruzinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzhidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzhidi">Dzhidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhori" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani language">Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani dialect">Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuadit" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuadit">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Berber">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis 1">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilith" title="Lilith">Lilith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biblical)" title="Tree of life (biblical)">Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden Fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Patriarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Sodom and Gomorrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Cain and Abel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">Burning bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Plagues" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Plagues">Ten Plagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">Crossing the Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">The Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">Golden calf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Canaan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Canaan">Conquest of Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moloch" title="Moloch">Moloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_(biblical_figure)" title="Daniel (biblical figure)">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon" title="Gideon">Gideon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_and_Goliath" class="mw-redirect" title="David and Goliath">David and Goliath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson" title="Samson">Samson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haman" title="Haman">Haman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordecai" title="Mordecai">Mordecai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)" title="Job (biblical figure)">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_(biblical_figure)" title="Ruth (biblical figure)">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azrael" title="Azrael">Azrael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobiel" title="Dobiel">Dobiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouza" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouza">Ouza</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jewish_folklore" title="Jewish folklore">Jewish folklore</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dybbuk" title="Dybbuk">Dybbuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golem" title="Golem">Golem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behemoth" title="Behemoth">Behemoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shedim" title="Shedim">Shedim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannin_(monster)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannin (monster)">Tannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahab_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahab (Egypt)">Rahab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagdana_(Judaism)" title="Bagdana (Judaism)">Bagdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estries" title="Estries">Estries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belial" title="Belial">Belial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samael" title="Samael">Samael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re%27em" title="Re'em">Re'em</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_Berith" title="Baal Berith">Baal Berith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilin">Lilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Juchne" title="Bar Juchne">Bar Juchne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziz" title="Ziz">Ziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naamah_(demon)" title="Naamah (demon)">Naamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazzikin" title="Mazzikin">Mazzikin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arariel" title="Arariel">Arariel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Se%27irim" title="Se'irim">Se'irim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumah_(angel)" title="Dumah (angel)">Dumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armilus" title="Armilus">Armilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broxa" title="Broxa">Broxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elioud" title="Elioud">Elioud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alukah" title="Alukah">Alukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephaite" title="Rephaite">Rephaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(legend)" title="Pardes (legend)">Pardes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yossele_the_Holy_Miser" title="Yossele the Holy Miser">Yossele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_ants" title="Valley of the ants">Valley of the ants</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical literature">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Literature" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_English_Jewish_literature" title="Early English Jewish literature">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews#Yemenite_Jewish_literature" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_literature" title="Musar literature">Musar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Jewish poetry</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_poetry" title="Biblical poetry">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_poetry_from_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jewish_poetry" title="Yemenite Jewish poetry">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Jewish_epic_poetry" title="Hebrew and Jewish epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Medieval Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_poetry" title="Modern Hebrew poetry">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust literature">Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_music" title="Mizrahi music">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_music" title="Sephardic music">Sephardic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer" title="Klezmer">Klezmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niggun" class="mw-redirect" title="Niggun">Niggun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemirot" title="Zemirot">Zemirot</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient Jewish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Tat theatre">Judeo-Tat theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Jewish dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews_associated_with_the_visual_arts" title="Lists of Jews associated with the visual arts">List of Jews in the visual arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_film_directors" title="List of Jewish film directors">List of Jewish film directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_American_cinema" title="Jews in American cinema">Jews in American cinema</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Science_and_technology" title="Jewish culture">Science</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_medicine" title="Jewish medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Biblical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_mathematicians" title="List of Jewish mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_scientists_and_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish scientists and philosophers">Scientists</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Sport" title="Jewish culture">Sport</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_in_sports" title="List of Jews in sports">List of Jews in sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_association_football" title="Jews in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_baseball" title="Jews in baseball">Baseball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_Sports_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame">Jewish Sports Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabiah_Games" title="Maccabiah Games">Maccabiah Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observance_of_Yom_Kippur_by_Jewish_athletes" title="Observance of Yom Kippur by Jewish athletes">Jewish athletes and Yom Kippur</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Ancient Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Sephardic_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Mizrahi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Other aspects</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue_architecture" title="Synagogue architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal:Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_culture" title="Category:Jewish culture">Category:Jewish culture</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_culture" title="Template talk:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Yiddish literature</b> encompasses all those <a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belles-lettres</a> written in <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a>, the language of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazim" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazim">Ashkenazic Jewry</a> which is related to <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>. The history of Yiddish, with its roots in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central Europe</a> and locus for centuries in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, is evident in its literature. </p><p>It is generally described as having three historical phases: Old Yiddish literature; <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> literature; and modern Yiddish literature. While firm dates for these periods are hard to pin down, Old Yiddish can be said to have existed roughly from 1300 to 1780; <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> literature from 1780 to about 1890; and modern Yiddish literature from 1864 to the present. </p><p>An important <a href="/wiki/Bibliography" title="Bibliography">bibliography</a> of Yiddish literature is the <i>Leksikon Fun Der Nayer Yidisher Literatur</i> (Lexicon of Modern Yiddish Literature) published by the <a href="/wiki/Congress_for_Jewish_Culture" title="Congress for Jewish Culture">Congress for Jewish Culture</a> in 8 volumes between 1956 and 1981, containing a brief presentation of around 7,000 writers.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Old_Yiddish_literature">Old Yiddish literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Old Yiddish literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bovo-Bukh_1541.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bovo-Bukh_1541.jpg/220px-Bovo-Bukh_1541.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bovo-Bukh_1541.jpg/330px-Bovo-Bukh_1541.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Bovo-Bukh_1541.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>First edition of the <a href="/wiki/Bovo-Bukh" title="Bovo-Bukh">Bovo-Bukh</a> of 1507–1508, printed in 1541, the first non-religious Yiddish book. As the most popular <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalric</a> <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romance</a> in Yiddish, its name later passed into popular phrase as "bubbe meise"-"grandmother's tale"</figcaption></figure> <p>Yiddish literature began with translations of and commentary on <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a>. (See article on the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish language</a> for a full description of these texts.) The most important writer of old Yiddish literature was <a href="/wiki/Elia_Levita" title="Elia Levita">Elijah Levita</a> (known as Elye Bokher) who translated and adapted the chivalric romance of <a href="/wiki/Bevis_of_Hampton" title="Bevis of Hampton">Bevis of Hampton</a>, via its Italian version, Buovo d’Antona. Levita's version, called Bovo d'Antona, and later known with the title <i><a href="/wiki/Bovo-bukh" class="mw-redirect" title="Bovo-bukh">Bovo-bukh</a></i>, was circulated in manuscript from 1507, then published in Isny (Germany) in 1541. This work illustrates the influence of European literary forms on emerging Yiddish literature, not only in its subject but in the form of its stanzas and <a href="/wiki/Rhyme_scheme" title="Rhyme scheme">rhyme scheme</a>, an adaptation of Italian ottava rima. Nonetheless, Levita altered many features of the story to reflect Judaic elements, though they rest uneasily with the essentially Christian nature of chivalry. (For a discussion of the tension between Christian and Jewish elements in the Bovo-bukh, see chapter two of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Wex" title="Michael Wex">Michael Wex</a>’s <i><a href="/wiki/Born_to_Kvetch" title="Born to Kvetch">Born to Kvetch</a></i>.) </p><p>A number of Yiddish epic poems appeared in the 14-15th centuries. The most important works of this genre are the <i><a href="/wiki/Shmuel-Bukh" title="Shmuel-Bukh">Shmuel-Bukh</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Mlokhim-Bukh" title="Mlokhim-Bukh">Mlokhim-Bukh</a></i> – chivalric romances about king <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and other Biblical heroes. The stanzaic form of these poems resembles that of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nibelungenlied" title="Nibelungenlied">Nibelungenlied</a></i>. Following the example of other European epics, the <i>Shmuel-Bukh</i> was not simply recited, but sung or chanted to musical accompaniment; its melody was widely known in Jewish communities. </p><p>Far from being rhymed adaptations of the Bible, these old Yiddish <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poems</a> fused the Biblical and <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrashic</a> material with European courtly poetry, thus creating an <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazic">Ashkenazic</a> national epic, comparable to the <i><a href="/wiki/Nibelungenlied" title="Nibelungenlied">Nibelungenlied</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Roland" class="mw-redirect" title="The Song of Roland">The Song of Roland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another influential work of old Yiddish literature is the <i>Mayse-bukh</i> (“Story Book”). This work collects ethical tales based on Hebrew and rabbinic sources, as well as <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a> and legends. Based on the inclusion of a few <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">non-Jewish</a> stories, scholars have deduced that the compiler lived in the area that is now western Germany during the last third of the 16th century. It was first published in 1602. These instructional stories are still read in highly religious communities, especially among the <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidim</a>. </p><p>A commentary written for women on the weekly <a href="/wiki/Parashot" class="mw-redirect" title="Parashot">parashot</a> by Rabbi <a href="/wiki/Jacob_ben_Isaac_Ashkenazi" title="Jacob ben Isaac Ashkenazi">Jacob ben Isaac Ashkenazi</a> in 1616, the <i><a href="/wiki/Tseno_Ureno" class="mw-redirect" title="Tseno Ureno">Tseno Ureno</a></i> (צאנה וראינה), remains a ubiquitous book in Yiddish homes to this day. </p><p>Women wrote old Yiddish literature infrequently, but several collections of tkhines (personal prayers which are not part of liturgy) were written by women such as <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Bas_Tovim" title="Sarah Bas Tovim">Sara Bas-Tovim</a> and Sarah Rebekah Rachel Leah Horowitz, both in the 18th century. The most extensive text by a woman from this era is the memoir of the 17th-18th century <a href="/wiki/Gluckel_of_Hameln" class="mw-redirect" title="Gluckel of Hameln">Glikl of Hameln</a>, a family document that was not published until 1896. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hasidic_and_Haskalah_literature">Hasidic and Haskalah literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hasidic and Haskalah literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hasidic_stories">Hasidic stories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hasidic stories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Buber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martin_Buber.jpg/220px-Martin_Buber.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martin_Buber.jpg/330px-Martin_Buber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Martin_Buber.jpg/440px-Martin_Buber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>Non-Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> (1878–1965) was the first to publicise Hasidism to the wider non-Jewish world. His influential focus on its stories was criticised by <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a> for leaving aside its <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">scholarship</a> and adapting it to his <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hasidic">Neo-Hasidic</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">existentialism</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The rise of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidic">Hasidic</a> popular mysticism in the 18th century gave rise to a specific kind of literary work. Alongside its scholarly <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">thought</a> were <a href="/wiki/Hagiographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagiographic">hagiographic</a> stories venerating its <a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">leadership</a>. This gave storytelling a new centrality in <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a> as a form of <a href="/wiki/Dveikus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dveikus">worship</a>, and spread the movement's appeal. These anecdotal or miraculous stories personified new Hasidic doctrines of the <a href="/wiki/Tzaddik" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzaddik">saintly intermediary</a>, Divine Omnipresence, and the hidden <a href="/wiki/Jewish_meditation" title="Jewish meditation">value</a> of the common folk. As one master related of his visit to <a href="/wiki/Dov_Ber_of_Mezeritch" title="Dov Ber of Mezeritch">Dov Ber of Mezeritch</a>, "I went to see how the Maggid tied up his shoelaces".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A story of the <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Baal Shem Tov</a>, Hasidic founder, represents this: </p> <blockquote> <p>The saintly prayers of the Baal Shem Tov and his close circle were unable to lift a harsh Heavenly decree they perceived one <a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">New Year</a>. After extending the prayers beyond time, the danger remained. An unlettered shepherd boy entered and was deeply envious of those who could read the holy day's prayers. He said to God "I don't know how to pray, but I can make the noises of the animals of the field." With great feeling he cried out, "Cock-a-doodle-do, God have mercy!" Immediately, joy overcame the Baal Shem Tov and he hurried to finish the prayers. Afterwards, he explained that the heartfelt words of the shephard boy opened the Gates of Heaven, and the decree was lifted. </p> </blockquote> <p>As <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> was reserved for Torah study and prayer, the vernacular Yiddish stories of different masters were compiled in Yiddish or Hebrew writing, beginning with "Shivchei HaBesht"-"In Praise of the Baal Shem Tov" (1815 Yiddish translation from Hebrew compilation of 1814).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century <a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a> publicised Hasidism to the secular world through its stories, mediated through his own <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hasidic">Neo-Hasidic</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_existentialism" title="Jewish existentialism">philosophy</a>. Previous Kabbalistic themes, accepted without emphasis in Hasidism, entered Eastern European Jewish <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> in tales of <a href="/wiki/Gilgul" title="Gilgul">reincarnation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dybbuk" title="Dybbuk">possession</a>, and were commonly adapted by later secular Yiddish writers. Meanwhile, the mysticism of Hasidism as well as the culture of <a href="/wiki/Misnagdim" title="Misnagdim">wider</a> traditional Judaism, were parodied by Haskalah Yiddish literature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hasidic_parables">Hasidic parables</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hasidic parables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg/220px-Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg/330px-Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg/440px-Johnny_Gruelle_illustration_-_Rapunzel_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_11027.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov" title="Nachman of Breslov">Nachman of Breslov</a> saw sparks of holiness mixed up in the tales of the world. <a href="/wiki/Lurianic_Kabbalah" title="Lurianic Kabbalah">Lurianic Kabbalah</a> describes the purpose of Creation as the redemption of sparks of the <a href="/wiki/Shechinah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shechinah">Shechinah</a>. In Hasidism each person is <a href="/wiki/Divine_providence_(Judaism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine providence (Judaism)">guided</a> to elevate their particular share. This is compared to the tale of a princess who agrees to be freed from imprisonment only by a particular prince</figcaption></figure> <p>Within the works of <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_philosophy" title="Hasidic philosophy">Hasidic philosophy</a>, another storytelling form was used - insightful parables to illustrate its new mystical interpretations. The <a href="/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov" title="Baal Shem Tov">Baal Shem Tov</a> used short, <a href="/wiki/Deveikut" class="mw-redirect" title="Deveikut">soulful</a> analogies, alluded teachings and encouraging anecdotes in first reaching out to revive the common folk, while parables of other masters were integrated within their classic works of Hasidic thought. The distinct parables of <a href="/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov" title="Nachman of Breslov">Nachman of Breslov</a> comprise a complete literary form that stand alone with their own commentary, in Yiddish original and Hebrew translation. In one example of former Hasidic parable, the Baal Shem Tov explained the mystical meaning of blowing the <a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">ram's horn</a> on the New Year: </p> <blockquote> <p>A King sent his son away from the palace to learn new skills. Regrettably, the son lost his royal ways, and forgot his home tongue. After years in exile he remembered his true calling, and desired to return to the palace. Upon approaching the gates, the guards no longer recognised the King's son and refused him entry. At that moment the King appeared on the balcony and saw the commotion of the son at the gates, but also did not recognise his son who now appeared in peasant clothing. In distress, as the son could no longer remember the royal language, he cried out a heartfelt wordless call from his soul. Immediately, the King recognised his voice and delighted in being reunited with his son. </p> </blockquote> <p>Rabbi Nachman's 13 <i>Sippurei Ma'asiyot</i> Wonder-Tales of 1816 take mystical parable to a self-contained literary purpose and art. Where the analogies of other masters have direct messages, Rabbi Nachman's imaginative, intricate tales, that can involve stories within stories, offer layered <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">mystical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deveikut" class="mw-redirect" title="Deveikut">devotional</a> <a href="/wiki/Pardes_(Jewish_exegesis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pardes (Jewish exegesis)">commentaries</a>, or literary readings. Rabbi Nachman alluded to some meanings when he orally told each tale in Yiddish. He saw their roots in ancient <a href="/wiki/Aggadah" title="Aggadah">Aggadic</a> mystical articulation, by saying that this concealed form was how Kabbalah was taught orally before <a href="/wiki/Shimon_bar_Yochai" title="Shimon bar Yochai">Shimon bar Yochai</a> explained it, though the Tales are unique in <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a>. He took to storytelling as redemptive activity once other paths had been blocked, such as the death of his son in whom he saw Messianic potential; "the time has come to tell stories", he said.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rabbi Nachman saw his role as innovative, and his teachings focus on the <a href="/wiki/Lurianic_Kabbalah" title="Lurianic Kabbalah">redemptive</a> scheme of <a href="/wiki/Tohu_and_Tikkun" class="mw-redirect" title="Tohu and Tikkun">rectification</a>: </p> <blockquote> <p>"In the tales told by the Nations of the World are hidden sparks of holiness, but the tales are confused and spiritually out of order, so that the sparks remain hidden." </p> </blockquote> <p>The thirteenth tale, "The Seven Beggars", is the most intricate. The story told on the seventh day is missing and Rabbi Nachman said that it would only be known when the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_messiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish messiah">Messiah</a> comes. The Tales, documented in Yiddish with Hebrew translation by <a href="/wiki/Nathan_of_Breslov" title="Nathan of Breslov">Nathan of Breslov</a>, amongst other Hasidic storytelling have had the strongest effect on the development of Yiddish literature.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haskalah">Haskalah</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Haskalah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Issac_Baer_Levinsohn.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Issac_Baer_Levinsohn.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="280" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Baer_Levinsohn" title="Isaac Baer Levinsohn">Isaac Baer Levinsohn</a> (1788–1860), Russian-Hebrew scholar and <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> leader. As the "Russian <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a>", he spread Haskalah ideas in the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>, utilised by others in Yiddish literature, that opposed insular <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">education</a> and satirised <a href="/wiki/Hasidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidism">mysticism</a> over rationalism</figcaption></figure> <p>During the same years as the emergence of Hasidism, the most influential secular movement of Jews also appeared in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>. This movement was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and opposed superstition in religious life and the antiquated education given to most Jews. They proposed better integration into European culture and society, and were strong opponents of Hasidism. Writers who used their craft to expound this view were <a href="/wiki/Israel_Aksenfeld" title="Israel Aksenfeld">Israel Aksenfeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solomon_Ettinger" title="Solomon Ettinger">Solomon (or Shloyme) Ettinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Mayer_Dick" title="Isaac Mayer Dick">Isaac Mayer Dick</a>. Aksenfeld was at first a follower of Reb Nachman of Bratslav, but later abandoned Hasidism and became a strong opponent of it. His novel <i>Dos shterntikhl</i> (“The head-scarf”), published in 1861, portrays the Hasidic world as intolerant and small-minded. Only five of his works were published because of opposition from Hasidic leaders. His work is realist and shows the influence of 19th century <a href="/wiki/Russian_literature" title="Russian literature">Russian literature</a>. Ettinger was a physician who wrote plays, including what is considered the most important of the Haskalah era, “Serkele”. His satiric style shows the influence of European drama: one scholar speculates that he read <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>. Isaac Mayer Dick (1808–1893) wrote <a href="/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">short stories</a> which sold tens of thousands of copies in book form. His role in literary development is as significant for creating a readership for <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> as for the content of his work, which tends to the didactic. He also wrote in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>, including the outstanding <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmudic</a> parody, “Masseket Aniyyut” (“Tractate Poverty”). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_Yiddish_literature">Modern Yiddish literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern Yiddish literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_classic_Yiddish_writers">The classic Yiddish writers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The classic Yiddish writers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg/220px-Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg/330px-Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg/440px-Stamp_of_Ukraine_ua1022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4666" data-file-height="4185" /></a><figcaption>2009 Ukrainian stamp of <a href="/wiki/Sholem_Aleichem" title="Sholem Aleichem">Sholem Aleichem</a> (1859–1916). Together with <a href="/wiki/Mendele_Mocher_Sforim" title="Mendele Mocher Sforim">Mendele Mocher Sforim</a> and <a href="/wiki/I._L._Peretz" title="I. L. Peretz">I. L. Peretz</a>, the three "classic" Yiddish writers, he helped found the latter 19th-century cultural and artistic <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish Renaissance">Yiddish Renaissance</a> movement of Eastern Europe.</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern Yiddish literature is generally dated to the publication in 1864 of <a href="/wiki/Mendele_Mocher_Sforim" title="Mendele Mocher Sforim">Sholem Yankev Abramovitsh</a>'s novel <i>Dos kleyne mentshele</i> ("The Little Person"). Abramovitsh had previously written in Hebrew, the language in which many proponents of the Haskalah communicated with each other, until this publication. With this novel, originally published serially in a Yiddish newspaper, Abramovitsh introduced his <a href="/wiki/Alter_ego" title="Alter ego">alter ego</a>, the character of <a href="/wiki/Mendele_Moykher_Sforim" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendele Moykher Sforim">Mendele Moykher Sforim</a> ("Mendel the Book Peddler"), the character who narrates this and many succeeding stories. Abramovitsh himself is often known by this name, and it appears as the "author" on several of his books, producing a complex set of relations between the author, the persona and the readership which has been explored most thoroughly by Dan Miron. Abramovitsh's work is ironic and sharp, while maintaining the voice of a folksy narrator. His work critiques corruption inside the Jewish community and that imposed on it from Russian and Polish governing institutions. He also continues the tradition of Haskalah literature with his attack on superstition and outmoded traditions such as <a href="/wiki/Arranged_marriage" title="Arranged marriage">arranged marriage</a>. His extraordinary parody of the <a href="/wiki/Picaresque_novel" title="Picaresque novel">picaresque</a>, <i>Kitser masoes Binyomen hashlishi</i> ("The Brief Travels of Benjamin the Third"), published in 1878, was his last great work and provides one of his strongest critiques of Jewish life in the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a>. </p><p>Abramovitsh's influence lay in two factors. First, he wrote in Yiddish at a time when most Jewish thinkers tended to Hebrew or a non-Jewish language such as German. Secondly, as Dan Miron demonstrates, Abramovitsh brought Yiddish belles lettres firmly into the modern era through the use of rhetorical strategies that allowed his social reform agenda to be expressed at the highest level of literary and artistic achievement. The outpouring of Yiddish literature in modernist forms that followed Abramovitsh demonstrates how important this development was in giving voice to Jewish aspirations, both social and literary. The most important of the early writers to follow Abramovitsh were Sholem Rabinovitsh (popularly known by his alter-ego, <a href="/wiki/Sholem_Aleichem" title="Sholem Aleichem">Sholem Aleichem</a>), and <a href="/wiki/I._L._Peretz" title="I. L. Peretz">I. L. Peretz</a>. Rabinovitsh's best-known works are the stories centering on the character <a href="/wiki/Tevye" title="Tevye">Tevye the Dairyman</a>. Written over many years and in response to the variety of Jewish catastrophes of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the stories epitomize Rabinovitsh's style, including his signature style of "laughter through tears". I. L. Peretz brought into Yiddish a wide array of modernist techniques he encountered in his reading of European fiction. While himself politically radical, particularly during the 1890s, his fiction is enormously nuanced and allows multiple readings. His work is both simple and caustic, more psychological and more individualistic than Abramovitsh or Rabinovitsh's. For these reasons, he is considered the first true modernist in Yiddish literature. He wrote primarily stories of which "Bontshe shvayg" (Bontshe the Silent) is one of his best known. As with much of his work, it manages to convey two apparently opposing messages: sympathy for the oppressed with critique of passivity as a response to oppression. </p><p>Together, Abramovitsh, Rabinovitsh and I. L. Peretz are usually referred to as the three "classic" Yiddish writers ("di klasiker" in Yiddish). They are also nickednamed respectively the "grandfather", the "father" and the "son" of Yiddish literature. This formulation erases the fact that they were all roughly contemporaneous and are best understood as a single phenomenon rather than as distinct generational manifestations of a tradition. Nonetheless, this formulation was propounded by the classic writers themselves, perhaps as a means of investing their fledgling literary culture with a lineage that could stand up to other world literatures they admired. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_movements_and_figures">Literary movements and figures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Literary movements and figures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg/220px-Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg/330px-Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg/440px-Abraham_Sutzkever_1950.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2014" data-file-height="2997" /></a><figcaption>Leading poet <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Sutzkever" title="Abraham Sutzkever">Abraham Sutzkever</a> (1913–2010) was among the Modernists of the 1930s "Young Vilna" group in <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a>, a historical centre of Yiddish culture. After the War he revived Yiddish in <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a> and depicted the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Dramatic works in Yiddish grew up at first separately, and later intertwined with other Yiddish movements. Early drama, following Ettinger's example, was written by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Goldfaden" title="Abraham Goldfaden">Abraham Goldfaden</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Michailovitch_Gordin" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob Michailovitch Gordin">Jacob Gordin</a>. Much of what was presented on the Yiddish stage were translations from European repertoire, and as a result much of the earliest original writing in Yiddish owes as much to German theatre as to the classic Yiddish writers. </p><p>While the three classic writers were still at their height, the first true movement in modern Yiddish literature sprang up in New York. The “Sweatshop Poets,” as this school has come to be called, were all immigrant workers who experienced <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/firsthand" class="extiw" title="wikt:firsthand">first hand</a> the inhumane working conditions in the factories of their day. The leading members of this group were <a href="/wiki/Morris_Rosenfeld" title="Morris Rosenfeld">Morris Rosenfeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morris_Winchevsky" title="Morris Winchevsky">Morris Winchevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Edelstadt" title="David Edelstadt">David Edelstadt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bovshover" title="Joseph Bovshover">Joseph Bovshover</a>. Their work centers on the subject of proletarian oppression and struggle, and uses the styles of Victorian verse, producing a rhetoric that is highly stylized. As a result, it is little read or understood today. Simultaneously in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> a group of writers centered around I. L. Peretz took Yiddish to another level of modern experimentation; they included <a href="/wiki/David_Pinski" title="David Pinski">David Pinski</a>, <a href="/wiki/S._Ansky" class="mw-redirect" title="S. Ansky">S. Ansky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sholem_Asch" title="Sholem Asch">Sholem Asch</a> and <a href="/wiki/I.M._Weissenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="I.M. Weissenberg">I.M. Weissenberg</a>. A later Warsaw group, “<a href="/wiki/Di_Chaliastre" title="Di Chaliastre">Di Chaliastre</a>” (“The Gang”) included notables such as <a href="/wiki/I._J._Singer" class="mw-redirect" title="I. J. Singer">Israel Joshua Singer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peretz_Hirshbein" class="mw-redirect" title="Peretz Hirshbein">Peretz Hirshbein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melech_Ravitch" title="Melech Ravitch">Melech Ravitch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uri_Zvi_Grinberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Uri Zvi Grinberg">Uri Zvi Grinberg</a> (who went on to write most of his work in Hebrew). Like their New York counterpart, <a href="/wiki/Di_Yunge" title="Di Yunge">Di Yunge</a> (“The Young Ones”), they broke with earlier Yiddish writers and attempted to free Yiddish writing, particularly verse, from its preoccupation with politics and the fate of the Jews. Prominent members of Di Yunge included <a href="/wiki/Mani_Leib" title="Mani Leib">Mani Leib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moyshe-Leyb_Halpern" title="Moyshe-Leyb Halpern">Moyshe-Leyb Halpern</a>, <a href="/wiki/H._Leivick" title="H. Leivick">H. Leivick</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zishe_Landau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zishe Landau (page does not exist)">Zishe Landau</a> <span class="noprint metadata ill"><small>[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q206042" class="extiw" title="d:Special:EntityPage/Q206042">Wikidata</a>]</small></span> and the prose writers <a href="/wiki/David_Ignatoff" title="David Ignatoff">David Ignatoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lamed_Shapiro" title="Lamed Shapiro">Lamed Shapiro</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isaac_Raboy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isaac Raboy (page does not exist)">Isaac Raboy</a>. Just a few years after Di Yunge came into prominence, a group called “<a href="/w/index.php?title=In_Zikh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In Zikh (page does not exist)">In Zikh</a>” (“Introspection”) declared itself the true avant garde, rejecting metered verse and declaring that non-Jewish themes were a valid topic for Yiddish poetry. The most important member of this group was <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Glatstein" title="Jacob Glatstein">Yankev Glatshteyn</a>. Glatshteyn was interested in exotic themes, in poems that emphasized the sound of words, and later, as the Holocaust loomed and then took place, in reappropriations of Jewish tradition. His poem “A gute nakht, velt” (“Good Night, World,” 1938) seems to foresee the tragedy on the horizon in Eastern Europe. Also of note in interwar Warsaw's Yiddish avant-garde is <a href="/wiki/S.L._Shneiderman" title="S.L. Shneiderman">S.L. Shneiderman</a>, who published two books of poems, <i>Gilderne Feigl</i> (Eng: Golden Birds) in 1927 and <i>Feyern in Shtot</i> (Eng: Unrest in Town) in 1932. In <a href="/wiki/Vilnius,_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilnius, Lithuania">Vilnius, Lithuania</a> (called Vilna or Vilne by its Jewish inhabitants, and one of the most historically significant centers of Yiddish cultural activity), the group “<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yung_Vilne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yung Vilne (page does not exist)">Yung Vilne</a>” (“Young Vilna”) included <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Grade" title="Chaim Grade">Chaim Grade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Sutzkever" title="Abraham Sutzkever">Abraham Sutzkever</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shmerke_Kaczerginski" title="Shmerke Kaczerginski">Shmerke Kaczerginsky</a>. Grade's short story “Mayn krig mit Hersh Raseyner” (“My Quarrel With Hershl Rasseyner”) is one of the classic <a href="/wiki/Post-holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-holocaust">post-Holocaust</a> Yiddish stories, encapsulating the philosophical dilemma faced by many survivors. Sutzkever went on to be one of major poets of the 20th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg/220px-Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg/330px-Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg/440px-Chagal_and_Der_Nister.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1979" data-file-height="2576" /></a><figcaption>The painter <a href="/wiki/Marc_Chagall" title="Marc Chagall">Marc Chagall</a> at the front, and the Yiddish writer <a href="/wiki/Der_Nister" title="Der Nister">Der Nister</a> (1884–1950) behind him, with school teachers and children near Moscow in 1923. The writer's pseudonym, "The Hidden One", reflected his interest in symbols and esoteric Jewish ideas. He returned to Russia to join the Yiddish flowering, but fell victim to the Purges.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the radical turn of the 1930s, a group of writers clustered around the U. S. Communist Party came to be known as “Di Linke” (“The Left Wing”). This group included <a href="/wiki/Moishe_Nadir" class="mw-redirect" title="Moishe Nadir">Moishe Nadir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malka_Lee" title="Malka Lee">Malka Lee</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ber_Grin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ber Grin (page does not exist)">Ber Grin</a>. In Canada, a similar group was known as the Proletariat school of writers, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Yudica" class="mw-redirect" title="Yudica">Yudica</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">the Soviet Union</a>, Yiddish literature underwent a dramatic flowering, with such greats as <a href="/wiki/David_Bergelson" title="David Bergelson">David Bergelson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Der_Nister" title="Der Nister">Der Nister</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peretz_Markish" title="Peretz Markish">Peretz Markish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moyshe_Kulbak" title="Moyshe Kulbak">Moyshe Kulbak</a>. Several of these writers were murdered during a Stalinist purge known as the <a href="/wiki/Night_of_the_Murdered_Poets" title="Night of the Murdered Poets">Night of the Murdered Poets</a> (August 12–13, 1952), including <a href="/wiki/Itzik_Fefer" class="mw-redirect" title="Itzik Fefer">Itzik Fefer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leib_Kvitko" title="Leib Kvitko">Leib Kvitko</a>. Bergelson is considered by many an underrated genius whose work in the modernist novel may be among the most interesting examples of the form. Important Soviet writers who escaped persecution include <a href="/wiki/Moyshe_Altman" title="Moyshe Altman">Moyshe Altman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikhil_Shraybman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikhil Shraybman (page does not exist)">Ikhil Shraybman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Note_Lurie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Note Lurie (page does not exist)">Note Lurie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eli_Schechtman" title="Eli Schechtman">Eli Schechtman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shike_Driz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shike Driz (page does not exist)">Shike Driz</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rivke_Rubin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rivke Rubin (page does not exist)">Rivke Rubin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shira_Gorshman" title="Shira Gorshman">Shira Gorshman</a>, and others. There appears to have been no rhyme or reason to explain why certain writers were not persecuted, as all these writers pursued similar themes in their writing and participated in similar groupings of Jewish intellectuals. </p><p>Certain male writers also did not associate with a particular literary group, or did so for a short time before moving on to other creative ethics. Among these were <a href="/wiki/Itzik_Manger" title="Itzik Manger">Itzik Manger</a>, whose clever re-imaginings of Biblical and other Jewish stories are accessible and playful but deeply intellectual. Other writers in this category are <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Opatoshu" title="Joseph Opatoshu">Joseph Opatoshu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">I. B. Singer</a> (who is always called “Bashevis” in Yiddish to distinguish him from his older brother), <a href="/wiki/Israel_Joshua_Singer" title="Israel Joshua Singer">I. J. Singer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Zeitlin" title="Aaron Zeitlin">Aaron Zeitlin</a>. </p><p>Many of the writers mentioned above who wrote during and after the 1940s responded to the Holocaust in their literary works—some wrote poetry and stories while in ghettos, concentration camps, and partisan groups, and many continued to address the Holocaust and its aftereffects in their subsequent writing. Yiddish writers known best for their writings about the Holocaust include <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Katzenelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Yitzhak Katzenelson">Yitzhak Katzenelson</a>, <a href="/wiki/S.L._Shneiderman" title="S.L. Shneiderman">S.L. Shneiderman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Y._Shpigl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Y. Shpigl (page does not exist)">Y. Shpigl</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yehiel_De-Nur" title="Yehiel De-Nur">Katsetnik</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_authors_in_Yiddish_literature">Female authors in Yiddish literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Female authors in Yiddish literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An interesting feature of Yiddish literature in its most active years (1900–1940) is the presence of numerous women writers who were less involved in specific movements or tied to a particular artistic ideology. Writers such as <a href="/wiki/Celia_Dropkin" title="Celia Dropkin">Celia Dropkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anna_Margolin" title="Anna Margolin">Anna Margolin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kadia_Molodowsky" title="Kadia Molodowsky">Kadia Molodowsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esther_Kreitman" title="Esther Kreitman">Esther Kreitman</a>, Katie Brown and <a href="/wiki/Esther_Shumiatcher-Hirschbein" title="Esther Shumiatcher-Hirschbein">Esther Shumiatcher Hirschbein</a> created bodies of work that do not fit easily into a particular category and which are often experimental in form or subject matter.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Margolin's work pioneered the use of <a href="/wiki/Assonance" title="Assonance">assonance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Literary_consonance" title="Literary consonance">consonance</a> in Yiddish verse. She preferred off-rhymes to true rhymes. Dropkin introduced a highly charged erotic vocabulary and shows the influence of 19th century Russian poetry. Kreitman, the sister of <a href="/wiki/Israel_Joshua_Singer" title="Israel Joshua Singer">I. J.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">I. B. Singer</a>, wrote novels and short stories, many of which were sharply critical of <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">gender inequality</a> in traditional Jewish life. </p><p>In the developing Yiddish literary scene in Europe and the United States in the first decades of the twentieth century, women writers were regarded by literary critics as a rare phenomenon, at the same time that editors of newspapers and journals, especially those of the socialist and anarchist press, were eager to publish women's work, as a hallmark of modernity and in the hope of boosting circulation; however, a few leading male writers and editors, including <a href="/wiki/Avrom_Reyzen" title="Avrom Reyzen">Avrom Reyzen</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aaron_Glanz-Leyeles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aaron Glanz-Leyeles (page does not exist)">Aaron Glanz-Leyeles</a>, expressed the view that women writers had a particular contribution to make to the emerging American Yiddish literature.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women writers such as <a href="/wiki/Yente_Serdatzky" title="Yente Serdatzky">Yente Serdatzky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fradl_Shtok" title="Fradl Shtok">Fradl Shtok</a>, found a limited degree of recognition for their work but ultimately were out of step with their male literary peers and came to an impasse in their writing careers. Shtok, at first known for her poetry, especially for being among the first Yiddish poets to write sonnets, garnered disappointing reviews for her collection of short stories (<i>Gezammelte ertseylungen</i>, 1919) that were innovative in the way they incorporated the subjectivity, including erotic desires, of female characters.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writers such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rywka_Braun-Nyman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rywka Braun-Nyman (page does not exist)">Rywka Braun-Nyman</a> reflect an interest in poeticizing manifestations of <a href="/wiki/Survivor_guilt" title="Survivor guilt">survivor guilt</a> within <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust literature">Holocaust literature</a> in a nature that is first-hand.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Isaac_Bashevis_Singer_and_the_Nobel_Prize">Isaac Bashevis Singer and the Nobel Prize</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Isaac Bashevis Singer and the Nobel Prize"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The awarding of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> to <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a> in <a href="/wiki/1978_in_literature" title="1978 in literature">1978</a> helped cement his reputation as one of the great writers of world literature. Many readers of Yiddish, however, are convinced that there are many finer writers among Yiddish literature, including his brother.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Who are these many readers? (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Grade" title="Chaim Grade">Chaim Grade</a> believed himself overlooked by the English-speaking world. <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Ozick" title="Cynthia Ozick">Cynthia Ozick</a>'s short story "Envy; or, Yiddish in America" implies a similar emotion on the part of a Yiddish poet, generally taken to be based on <a href="/wiki/Yankev_Glatshteyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Yankev Glatshteyn">Yankev Glatshteyn</a>. Some Yiddish critics complained of the excessive sex and superstition in Singer's work, which they felt brought Yiddish literature in general into disrepute. In addition, Singer's habit of presenting himself to the American press as the last or only Yiddish writer was irksome to the dozens of writers still living and working at the time. But in spite of these squabbles (which to some extent continue, years after the death of the protagonists<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), most scholars of Yiddish today would agree that the awarding of the Nobel Prize to Singer brought an unprecedented amount of attention to Yiddish literature, and has served to heighten interest in the field generally. Many scholars believe it to be a justified prize on the basis of the part of Singer's oeuvre that is available in translation, which represents his most accomplished works. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_writing_in_Yiddish_and_influenced_by_Yiddish_literature">Contemporary writing in Yiddish and influenced by Yiddish literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Contemporary writing in Yiddish and influenced by Yiddish literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The last prewar European-born writers who published or are still publishing in the early 21st century include the Canadian authors <a href="/wiki/Chava_Rosenfarb" title="Chava Rosenfarb">Chava Rosenfarb</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simcha_Simchovitch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simcha Simchovitch (page does not exist)">Simcha Simchovitch</a> (1921–2017) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Grunia_Slutzky-Kohn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Grunia Slutzky-Kohn (page does not exist)">Grunia Slutzky-Kohn</a> (1928–2020); Israeli writers including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tzvi_Ayznman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tzvi Ayznman (page does not exist)">Tzvi Ayznman</a> (1920–2015), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aleksander_Shpiglblat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aleksander Shpiglblat (page does not exist)">Aleksander Shpiglblat</a> (1927–2013), <a href="/wiki/Rivka_Basman_Ben-Hayim" title="Rivka Basman Ben-Hayim">Rivka Basman Ben-Hayim</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yitzkhok_Luden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yitzkhok Luden (page does not exist)">Yitzkhok Luden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lev" title="Michael Lev">Mishe Lev</a> (1917–2013), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yente_Mash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yente Mash (page does not exist)">Yente Mash</a> (1922–2013), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tzvi_Kanar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tzvi Kanar (page does not exist)">Tzvi Kanar</a> (1929–2009), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elisheva_Kohen-Tsedek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elisheva Kohen-Tsedek (page does not exist)">Elisheva Kohen-Tsedek</a> (born 1922) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lev_Berinsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lev Berinsky (page does not exist)">Lev Berinsky</a> (born 1939); and American poet-songwriter <a href="/wiki/Beyle_Schaechter-Gottesman" title="Beyle Schaechter-Gottesman">Beyle Schaechter-Gottesman</a>, and poets and prose masters <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yonia_Fain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yonia Fain (page does not exist)">Yonia Fain</a> (1913–2013) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moyshe_Szklar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moyshe Szklar (page does not exist)">Moyshe Szklar</a> (editor of the Los Angeles Yiddish literary periodical <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khezhbn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khezhbn (page does not exist)">Khezhbn</a>; 1920–2014), as well as the prolific feuilletonist and playwright <a href="/wiki/Miriam_Hoffman" title="Miriam Hoffman">Miriam Hoffman</a>. Writers of the "younger" postwar born generation comprising those born in the late 1940s through 1960s (many hailing from the former Soviet Union) include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Belousov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Belousov (page does not exist)">Alexander Belousov</a> (1948–2004), <a href="/wiki/Mikhoel_Felsenbaum" title="Mikhoel Felsenbaum">Mikhoel Felsenbaum</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Galay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Galay (page does not exist)">Daniel Galay</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moyshe_Lemster&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moyshe Lemster (page does not exist)">Moyshe Lemster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Sandler" title="Boris Sandler">Boris Sandler</a> (who edited the Yiddish "Forverts" edition of <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Daily_Forward" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jewish Daily Forward">The Jewish Daily Forward</a> from 1998 to 2016), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Velvl_Chernin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Velvl Chernin (page does not exist)">Velvl Chernin</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zisye_Veytsman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zisye Veytsman (page does not exist)">Zisye Veytsman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heershadovid_Menkes" class="mw-redirect" title="Heershadovid Menkes">Heershadovid Menkes</a> (pen name of <a href="/wiki/Dovid_Katz" title="Dovid Katz">Dovid Katz</a>), and Boris Karloff (pen name of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dov-Ber_Kerler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dov-Ber Kerler (page does not exist)">Dov-Ber Kerler</a>, editor of "Yerusholaymer Almanakh"). A younger generation of writers who began to come to the fore in the 21st century includes poets <a href="/wiki/Gitl_Schaechter-Viswanath" title="Gitl Schaechter-Viswanath">Gitl Schaechter-Viswanath</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yermiyahu_Ahron_Taub&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yermiyahu Ahron Taub (page does not exist)">Yermiyahu Ahron Taub</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoel_Matveyev" title="Yoel Matveyev">Yoel Matveyev</a> in the US, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yisroel_Nekrasov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yisroel Nekrasov (page does not exist)">Yisroel Nekrasov</a> in Saint Petersburg, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Haike_Beruriah_Wiegand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haike Beruriah Wiegand (page does not exist)">Haike Beruriah Wiegand</a> in London, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Soxberger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Soxberger (page does not exist)">Thomas Soxberger</a> in Vienna, and the prose writers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boris_Kotlerman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boris Kotlerman (page does not exist)">Boris Kotlerman</a> in Israel and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilles_Rozier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilles Rozier (page does not exist)">Gilles Rozier</a> (editor of "Gilgulim") in Paris. The earlier works of some of the younger generation authors were collected in the anthology "Vidervuks" (regrowth), published in 1989. Recent works of many of contemporary authors appeared in 2008 in Paris (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilgulim:_naye_shafungen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilgulim: naye shafungen (page does not exist)">Gilgulim: naye shafungen</a>) and Jerusalem (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Yerusholaymer_Almanakh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yerusholaymer Almanakh (page does not exist)">Yerusholaymer Almanakh</a>). </p><p>A new generation of Yiddish writers has emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Hasidic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasidic">Hasidic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> movements of contemporary Orthodoxy. The author known only by the pseudonym Katle Kanye<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writes blistering satire of current halakhic literature as well as poetry and thoughtful commentary on Hasidic life. Another example of a <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> Yiddish blog-writer is Natirlich.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Spy_thriller" class="mw-redirect" title="Spy thriller">Spy thrillers</a> in Yiddish have become a popular genre within Hasidic communities. </p><p>European literatures have had a strong influence on Yiddish literature, but until the late 20th century there was little return flow into English, except through bilingual writers who chose to write in English, such as <a href="/wiki/Anzia_Yezierska" title="Anzia Yezierska">Anzia Yezierska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Cahan" title="Abraham Cahan">Ab Cahan</a>. The poet <a href="/wiki/Irena_Klepfisz" title="Irena Klepfisz">Irena Klepfisz</a>, who was born to Polish-speaking Jewish parents in Nazi-occupied Poland and learned Yiddish in school after immigrating to the United States, is influenced by the language in her work and also translates poetry from the Yiddish. </p><p>Currently, many young writers with little knowledge of Yiddish have been influenced by Yiddish literature in translation, such as <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Englander" title="Nathan Englander">Nathan Englander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Safran_Foer" title="Jonathan Safran Foer">Jonathan Safran Foer</a>. An exception is <a href="/wiki/Dara_Horn" title="Dara Horn">Dara Horn</a>, who has studied both Yiddish and Hebrew and draws on both of these traditions in her English-language novels. </p><p>The last Yiddish language writers in the former Soviet Union were <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aleksandr_Bejderman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aleksandr Bejderman (page does not exist)">Aleksandr Bejderman</a> in Odessa and <a href="/wiki/Yoysef_Burg" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoysef Burg">Yoysef Burg</a> in Chernivtsi, both of whom are deceased. </p><p>Literary works written originally in other languages continue to be translated and published in Yiddish. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s <i>Index Translationum</i> database lists 98 foreign-language books published in Yiddish translation since circa 1979, in a number of countries including Israel, the US, Romania, Germany, and the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_for_Yiddish_Culture_and_Language" title="California Institute for Yiddish Culture and Language">California Institute for Yiddish Culture and Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Yiddish_language_poets" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Yiddish language poets">List of Yiddish language poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shtetl" title="Shtetl">Shtetl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Book_Center" title="Yiddish Book Center">Yiddish Book Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish Renaissance">Yiddish Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cohen, Madeleine, and Dade Lemanski. “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ingeveb.org/blog/eight-volumes-in-dour-maroon-josh-fogel-on-translating-the-leksikon">"Eight Volumes in Dour Maroon": Josh Fogel on Translating the <i>Leksikon</i>.</a>” <i><a href="/wiki/In_geveb" title="In geveb">In geveb</a></i> (April 2016): Consulted Nov 08, 2024.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Introduction to Old Yiddish literature, by Jean Baumgarten, Jerold C. Frakes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Great Maggid</i>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Immanuel_Schochet" title="Jacob Immanuel Schochet">Jacob Immanuel Schochet</a>, Kehot Publication Society: "The academy of Mezeritch"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hasidicstories.com/Articles/Background_and_Sources/rosman1.html">Life Stories: Shivhei Ha-Besht</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121207064259/http://www.hasidicstories.com/Articles/Background_and_Sources/rosman1.html">Archived</a> 2012-12-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> - An excerpt from <i>"Founder of Hasidism: A Quest for the Historical Ba'al Shem Tov"</i> by Moshe Rosman at www.hasidicstories.com, summarising academic views on "the most fecund, interesting, intriguing, problematic, and most exploited source relating to the Ba'al Shem Tov"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For biographical and literary analysis of the storytelling activity of Nachman of Breslov see <i>A Bridge of Longing: The Lost Art of Yiddish Storytelling</i>, David G. Roskies, Harvard University Press, chapter on Rabbi Nachman</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Bridge of Longing</i> by David Roskies traces the history of Yiddish literary, imaginative reinvention of the world of the <a href="/wiki/Shtetl" title="Shtetl">shtetl</a> with chapters devoted to each classic writer in turn. The book begins with Rabbi Nachman's Tales, the only religious figure in the subsequent development</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSelections.2021" class="citation book cs1">Selections., Lachs, Vivi, translator, editor. Braʼun, Ḳaiṭi, 1887-1955. Works. Selections. Kaizer, A. M., 1896-1967. Works. Selections. Lisky, I. A., -1990. Works. (9 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1261302213"><i>London Yiddishtown : East End Jewish life in Yiddish sketch and story, 1930-1950 : selected works of Katie Brown, A.M. Kaizer, and I.A. Lisky</i></a>. Wayne State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4849-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-4849-9"><bdi>978-0-8143-4849-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1261302213">1261302213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=London+Yiddishtown+%3A+East+End+Jewish+life+in+Yiddish+sketch+and+story%2C+1930-1950+%3A+selected+works+of+Katie+Brown%2C+A.M.+Kaizer%2C+and+I.A.+Lisky&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=2021-11-09&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1261302213&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-4849-9&rft.aulast=Selections.&rft.aufirst=Lachs%2C+Vivi%2C+translator%2C+editor.+Bra%CA%BCun%2C+%E1%B8%B2ai%E1%B9%ADi%2C+1887-1955.+Works.+Selections.+Kaizer%2C+A.+M.%2C+1896-1967.+Works.+Selections.+Lisky%2C+I.+A.%2C+-1990.+Works.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1261302213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+literature" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|first=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pratt, Norma Fain. "Culture and Radical Politics: Yiddish Women Writers in America, 1890-1940." <i>Women of the Word: Jewish Women and Jewish Writing</i>. Ed. <a href="/wiki/Judith_R._Baskin" title="Judith R. Baskin">Judith R. Baskin</a>. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994. 120-135; here: 119-120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Fradl Shtok, 1890-ca. 1930" [biographical note]. <i>Jewish American Literature: A Norton Anthology</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001. 290-291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/tylerkliem/docs/rywka">"Lost Homeland: Poems of Pain by Tyler Kliem - Issuu"</a>. <i>issuu.com</i>. 2023-03-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=issuu.com&rft.atitle=Lost+Homeland%3A+Poems+of+Pain+by+Tyler+Kliem+-+Issuu&rft.date=2023-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Ftylerkliem%2Fdocs%2Frywka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlana_Newhouse2004" class="citation web cs1">Alana Newhouse (2004-06-17). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00D17FD34540C748DDDAF0894DC404482">"Dissent Greets Isaac Bashevis Singer Centennial - New York Times"</a>. Select.nytimes.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-06-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dissent+Greets+Isaac+Bashevis+Singer+Centennial+-+New+York+Times&rft.pub=Select.nytimes.com&rft.date=2004-06-17&rft.au=Alana+Newhouse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF00D17FD34540C748DDDAF0894DC404482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFקטלא_קניא2013" class="citation web cs1">קטלא קניא (2013-12-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katlekanye.blogspot.com">"katlekanye.blogspot.com"</a>. katlekanye.blogspot.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-06-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=natirlich.blogspot.com&rft.pub=natirlich.blogspot.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnatirlich.blogspot.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+literature" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/xtrans/bsresult.aspx?lg=0&l=yid">Index Translationum: translations into Yiddish</a> - lists 98 items, as of 2013-01-06. The index starts in 1979; however, several items in the list far predate that year.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_literature&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Estraikh, Gennady. <i>In Harness: Yiddish Writers’ Romance with Communism</i> (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-3052-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-3052-2">0-8156-3052-2</a></li> <li>Frieden, Ken. <i>Classic Yiddish Fiction: Abramovitsh, Sholem Aleichem, and Peretz</i> (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-2602-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-2602-5">0-7914-2602-5</a></li> <li>Glasser, Amelia (trans.) <i>Proletpen: America’s Rebel Yiddish Poets</i> (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-299-20800-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-299-20800-1">0-299-20800-1</a></li> <li>“Ma’aseh books,” “Aksenfed, Israel,” “Ettinger (Oetinger),” “Dick, Isaac Mayer”. <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i> (1904–11). 11 August 2006 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/">[1]</a></li> <li>Miron, Dan. <i>A Traveler Disguised: A Study in the Rise of Modern Yiddish Fiction in the Nineteenth Century</i>. (New York: Schocken, 1973; reprint edition Syracuse University Press, 1996). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8156-0330-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8156-0330-4">0-8156-0330-4</a></li> <li>Norich, Anita. <i>The Homeless Imagination in the Fiction of Israel Joshua Singer</i> (Bloomington: IUP, 1991) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-34109-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-34109-4">0-253-34109-4</a></li> <li>Riemer, Nathanael: Some parallels of stories in Glikls of Hameln "Zikhroynes". In: PaRDeS. Zeitschrift der Vereinigung für Jüdische Studien e.V. (2008) Nr. 14, S. 125–148.</li> <li>Roskies, David G. <i>A Bridge of Longing: The Lost Art of Yiddish Storytelling</i> (Harvard University Press, 1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-08140-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-08140-4">0-674-08140-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-08140-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-08140-6">978-0-674-08140-6</a></li> <li>Seidman, Naomi. <i>A Marriage Made in Heaven: the Sexual Politics of Hebrew and Yiddish</i> (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20193-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20193-0">0-520-20193-0</a></li> <li>Sokoloff, Naomi, Anne Lapidus Lerner and Anita Norich, eds. <i>Gender and Text in Modern Hebrew and Yiddish Literature</i>. New York: JTSA, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-34198-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-34198-8">0-674-34198-8</a></li> <li>Wex, Michael. <i>Born to Kvetch: Yiddish Language And Culture in All Its Moods</i>. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2005). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-30741-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-30741-1">0-312-30741-1</a></li> <li>Wisse, Ruth. <i>A Little Love in Big Manhattan: Two Yiddish Poets</i> (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-53659-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-53659-2">0-674-53659-2</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9108783">“Yiddish literature.” Written by Ken Frieden. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 31 July 2006</a></li> <li>"Yiddish literature", “<a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckel_of_Hameln" title="Glückel of Hameln">Glikl of Hameln</a>” and “Nahman of Bratslav”. <i>Reader’s Guide to Judaism</i>, ed. Michael Terry (Chicago, New York: Fitzroy Dearborn: 2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-139-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-139-0">1-57958-139-0</a></li> <li>Steinhoff, Thorsten. <i>Zeitgenössische jiddische Lyrik Odessaer Autoren</i> (Regensburg) : [Lehrstuhl für Neuere Dt. Literaturwiss. I der Univ.], [1996], Als Ms. gedr.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output 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