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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Diode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transistor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Transistor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bipolar_junction_transistor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bipolar_junction_transistor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Bipolar junction transistor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bipolar_junction_transistor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Field-effect_transistor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Field-effect_transistor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Field-effect transistor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Field-effect_transistor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal-oxide-semiconductor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal-oxide-semiconductor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Metal-oxide-semiconductor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal-oxide-semiconductor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Other types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Component_identifiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Component_identifiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Component identifiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Component_identifiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fabrication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fabrication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Fabrication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fabrication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History of development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_of_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History of development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_of_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cat's-whisker_detector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cat's-whisker_detector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Cat's-whisker detector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cat's-whisker_detector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal_rectifier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal_rectifier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Metal rectifier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal_rectifier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_diode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_diode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Development of the diode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_diode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_transistor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_transistor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Development of the transistor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_transistor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_transistor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_transistor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>First transistor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_transistor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology_of_"transistor"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology_of_"transistor""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Etymology of "transistor"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology_of_"transistor"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Improvements_in_transistor_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improvements_in_transistor_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Improvements in transistor design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improvements_in_transistor_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal-oxide_semiconductor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal-oxide_semiconductor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Metal-oxide semiconductor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal-oxide_semiconductor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Semiconductor device</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yar%C4%B1mke%C3%A7irici_cihazlar" title="Yarımkeçirici cihazlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yarımkeçirici cihazlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="অর্ধপরিবাহী যন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অর্ধপরিবাহী যন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Паўправадніковыя прыборы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паўправадніковыя прыборы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispositiu_semiconductor" title="Dispositiu semiconductor – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dispositiu semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polovodi%C4%8Dov%C3%A1_sou%C4%8D%C3%A1stka" title="Polovodičová součástka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Polovodičová součástka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halvlederkomponent" title="Halvlederkomponent – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Halvlederkomponent" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pooljuhtseadis" title="Pooljuhtseadis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pooljuhtseadis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispositivo_semiconductor" title="Dispositivo semiconductor – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dispositivo semiconductor" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duonkondukta%C4%B5a_aparato" title="Duonkonduktaĵa aparato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Duonkonduktaĵa aparato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gailu_erdieroale" title="Gailu erdieroale – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gailu erdieroale" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B7%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="قطعات نیم‌رسانا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قطعات نیم‌رسانا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composant_semi-conducteur" title="Composant semi-conducteur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Composant semi-conducteur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%98%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%B4_%EC%86%8C%EC%9E%90" title="반도체 소자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="반도체 소자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%B9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%84%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կիսահաղորդչային սարքեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կիսահաղորդչային սարքեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="अर्धचालक युक्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अर्धचालक युक्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alat_semikonduktor" title="Alat semikonduktor – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alat semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispositivo_a_semiconduttore" title="Dispositivo a semiconduttore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dispositivo a semiconduttore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D3%A9%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%88_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80" title="Шалаөткізгіш болометр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шалаөткізгіш болометр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puslaidininkinis_%C4%AFtaisas" title="Puslaidininkinis įtaisas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Puslaidininkinis įtaisas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peranti_semikonduktor" title="Peranti semikonduktor – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peranti semikonduktor" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfgeleider_(elektronica)" title="Halfgeleider (elektronica) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Halfgeleider (elektronica)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E5%B0%8E%E4%BD%93%E7%B4%A0%E5%AD%90" title="半導体素子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="半導体素子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarimo%CA%BBtkazgichli_asboblar" title="Yarimoʻtkazgichli asboblar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yarimoʻtkazgichli asboblar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispositivo_semicondutor" title="Dispositivo semicondutor – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dispositivo semicondutor" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Полупроводниковые приборы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полупроводниковые приборы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poluprovodni%C4%8Dke_komponente" title="Poluprovodničke komponente – Serbian" lang="sr" 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data-title="అర్ధవాహక ఉపకరణాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yar%C4%B1_iletken_cihaz" title="Yarı iletken cihaz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yarı iletken cihaz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Напівпровідникові прилади – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Напівпровідникові прилади" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div class="cdx-message cdx-message--block cdx-message--warning mw-revision"><span class="cdx-message__icon"></span><div class="cdx-message__content"><div id="mw-revision-info-current"><p><b>This is the <a href="/wiki/Help:Page_history" title="Help:Page history">current revision</a> of this page, as edited by <span id="mw-revision-name"><a href="/wiki/User:BD2412" class="mw-userlink" title="User:BD2412" data-mw-revid="1258686110"><bdi>BD2412</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:BD2412">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/BD2412">contribs</a>)</span></span> at <span id="mw-revision-date">01:15, 21 November 2024</span><span id="mw-revision-summary"> <span class="comment">(Missing space after ref tag., replaced: /ref>F → /ref> F)</span></span>. The present address (URL) is a <a href="/wiki/Help:Permanent_link" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this version.</b></p><div id="revision-info-current-plain" style="display: none;">Revision as of 01:15, 21 November 2024 by <a href="/wiki/User:BD2412" class="mw-userlink" title="User:BD2412" data-mw-revid="1258686110"><bdi>BD2412</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:BD2412">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/BD2412" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/BD2412">contribs</a>)</span> <span class="comment">(Missing space after ref tag., replaced: /ref>F → /ref> F)</span></div></div><div id="mw-revision-nav">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&diff=prev&oldid=1258686110" title="Semiconductor device">diff</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&direction=prev&oldid=1258686110" title="Semiconductor device">← Previous revision</a> | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electronic component that exploits the electronic properties of semiconductor materials</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For information on semiconductor physics, see <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Semiconductor_device" title="Special:EditPage/Semiconductor device">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Semiconductor+device%22">"Semiconductor device"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Semiconductor+device%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Semiconductor+device%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Semiconductor+device%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Semiconductor+device%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Semiconductor+device%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semiconductor_outlines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Semiconductor_outlines.jpg/220px-Semiconductor_outlines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Semiconductor_outlines.jpg/330px-Semiconductor_outlines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Semiconductor_outlines.jpg/440px-Semiconductor_outlines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="739" /></a><figcaption>Outlines of some packaged semiconductor devices</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>semiconductor device</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">electronic component</a> that relies on the <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> properties of a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> material (primarily <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductors</a>) for its function. Its conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. Semiconductor devices have replaced <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> in most applications. They <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">conduct</a> <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid state</a>, rather than as free electrons across a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> (typically liberated by <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_emission" title="Thermionic emission">thermionic emission</a>) or as free electrons and ions through <a href="/wiki/Electric_discharge_in_gases" title="Electric discharge in gases">an ionized gas</a>. </p><p>Semiconductor devices are manufactured both as single <a href="/wiki/Discrete_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete device">discrete devices</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>, which consist of two or more devices—which can number from the hundreds to the billions—manufactured and interconnected on a single semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a> (also called a substrate). </p><p>Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the deliberate addition of impurities, known as <a href="/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)" title="Doping (semiconductor)">doping</a>. Semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">conductivity</a> can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped <a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">monocrystalline silicon</a> grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs due to mobile or "free" <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron holes</a>, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carriers</a>. Doping a semiconductor with a small proportion of an atomic impurity, such as <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes, it is called a <a href="/wiki/P-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="P-type semiconductor">p-type semiconductor</a> (<i>p</i> for positive <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a>); when it contains excess free electrons, it is called an <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type semiconductor</a> (<i>n</i> for a negative electric charge). A majority of mobile charge carriers have negative charges. The manufacture of semiconductors controls precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The connection of n-type and p-type semiconductors form <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junctions</a>. </p><p>The most common semiconductor device in the world is the <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (metal–oxide–semiconductor <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Golio_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golio-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also called the MOS <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>. As of 2013, billions of MOS transistors are manufactured every day.<sup id="cite_ref-computer_history-transistor_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computer_history-transistor-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Semiconductor devices made per year have been growing by 9.1% on average since 1978, and shipments in 2018 are predicted for the first time to exceed 1 trillion,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that well over 7 trillion have been made to date. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_types">Main types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Main types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diode">Diode</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Diode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a></div> <p>A semiconductor diode is a device typically made from a single <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a>. At the junction of a p-type and an <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">n-type semiconductor</a>, there forms a <a href="/wiki/Depletion_region" title="Depletion region">depletion region</a> where current conduction is inhibited by the lack of mobile charge carriers. When the device is <i>forward biased</i> (connected with the p-side, having a higher <a href="/wiki/Electric_potential" title="Electric potential">electric potential</a> than the n-side), this depletion region is diminished, allowing for significant conduction. Contrariwise, only a very small current can be achieved when the diode is <i>reverse biased</i> (connected with the n-side at lower electric potential than the p-side, and thus the depletion region expanded). </p><p>Exposing a semiconductor to <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> can generate <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93hole_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron–hole pair">electron–hole pairs</a>, which increases the number of free carriers and thereby the conductivity. Diodes optimized to take advantage of this phenomenon are known as <i><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">photodiodes</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound semiconductor">Compound semiconductor</a> diodes can also produce light, as in <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diodes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diode</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transistor">Transistor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Transistor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bipolar_junction_transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bipolar junction transistor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg/180px-Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg/270px-Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg/360px-Bipolar_Junction_Transistor_NPN_Structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>An n–p–n bipolar junction transistor structure</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar junction transistors">Bipolar junction transistors</a> (BJTs) are formed from two p–n junctions, in either n–p–n or p–n–p configuration. The middle, or <i>base</i>, the region between the junctions is typically very narrow. The other regions, and their associated terminals, are known as the <i>emitter</i> and the <i>collector</i>. A small current injected through the junction between the base and the emitter changes the properties of the base-collector junction so that it can conduct current even though it is reverse biased. This creates a much larger current between the collector and emitter, controlled by the base-emitter current. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Field-effect_transistor">Field-effect transistor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Field-effect transistor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a></div> <p>Another type of transistor, the <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a> (FET), operates on the principle that semiconductor conductivity can be increased or decreased by the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Electric_field" title="Electric field">electric field</a>. An electric field can increase the number of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor, thereby changing its conductivity. The field may be applied by a reverse-biased p–n junction, forming a <i>junction field-effect transistor</i> (<a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">JFET</a>) or by an electrode insulated from the bulk material by an oxide layer, forming a <i>metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor</i> (<a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metal-oxide-semiconductor">Metal-oxide-semiconductor</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Metal-oxide-semiconductor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples" title="List of semiconductor scale examples">List of semiconductor scale examples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">Transistor count</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif/400px-Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif" decoding="async" width="400" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif/600px-Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Threshold_formation_nowatermark.gif 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Operation of a <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate voltage is applied. There is no inversion electron in the channel, the device is OFF. As gate voltage increase, the inversion electron density in the channel increase, the current increases, and the device turns on.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">metal-oxide-semiconductor FET</a> (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), a <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> device, is by far the most used widely semiconductor device today. It accounts for at least 99.9% of all transistors, and there have been an estimated 13<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Sextillion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextillion">sextillion</a> MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 and 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory2018_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory2018-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>gate</i> electrode is charged to produce an electric field that controls the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">conductivity</a> of a "channel" between two terminals, called the <i>source</i> and <i>drain</i>. Depending on the type of carrier in the channel, the device may be an <i>n-channel</i> (for electrons) or a <i>p-channel</i> (for holes) MOSFET. Although the MOSFET is named in part for its "metal" gate, in modern devices <a href="/wiki/Polysilicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysilicon">polysilicon</a> is typically used instead. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types">Other types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component#Semiconductors" title="Electronic component">Electronic component § Semiconductors</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2008</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>Two-terminal devices:</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a> (rectifier diode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMPATT_diode" title="IMPATT diode">IMPATT diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photocell" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocell">Photocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototransistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototransistor">Phototransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient-voltage-suppression_diode" title="Transient-voltage-suppression diode">Transient-voltage-suppression diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_diode" title="Tunnel diode">Tunnel diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VCSEL" class="mw-redirect" title="VCSEL">VCSEL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zen_diode&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zen diode (page does not exist)">Zen diode</a></li></ul> <p><i>Three-terminal devices:</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar transistor">Bipolar transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-controlled_rectifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-controlled rectifier">Silicon-controlled rectifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a></li></ul> <p><i>Four-terminal devices:</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hall_effect_sensor" title="Hall effect sensor">Hall effect sensor</a> (magnetic field sensor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photocoupler" class="mw-redirect" title="Photocoupler">Photocoupler</a> (Optocoupler)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor materials">Semiconductor materials</a></div> <p>By far, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor devices. Its combination of low raw material cost, relatively simple processing, and a useful temperature range makes it currently the best compromise among the various competing materials. Silicon used in semiconductor device manufacturing is currently fabricated into <a href="/wiki/Boule_(crystal)" title="Boule (crystal)">boules</a> that are large enough in diameter to allow the production of 300 mm (12 in.) <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafers</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a> (Ge) was a widely used early semiconductor material but its thermal sensitivity makes it less useful than silicon. Today, germanium is often alloyed with silicon for use in very-high-speed SiGe devices; <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> is a major producer of such devices. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">Gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) is also widely used in high-speed devices but so far, it has been difficult to form large-diameter boules of this material, limiting the wafer diameter to sizes significantly smaller than silicon wafers thus making mass production of GaAs devices significantly more expensive than silicon. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">Gallium Nitride</a> (GaN) is gaining popularity in high-power applications including <a href="/wiki/Power_management_integrated_circuit" title="Power management integrated circuit">power ICs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diodes</a> (LEDs), and <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">RF</a> components due to its high strength and thermal conductivity. Compared to silicon, GaN's <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> is more than 3 times wider at 3.4 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</a> and it conducts electrons 1,000 times more efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other less common materials are also in use or under investigation. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">Silicon carbide</a> (SiC) is also gaining popularity in <a href="/wiki/Power_IC" class="mw-redirect" title="Power IC">power ICs</a> and has found some application as the raw material for blue LEDs and is being investigated for use in semiconductor devices that could withstand very high <a href="/wiki/Operating_temperature" title="Operating temperature">operating temperatures</a> and environments with the presence of significant levels of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>. <a href="/wiki/IMPATT_diode" title="IMPATT diode">IMPATT diodes</a> have also been fabricated from SiC. </p><p>Various <a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">indium</a> compounds (<a href="/wiki/Indium_arsenide" title="Indium arsenide">indium arsenide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indium_antimonide" title="Indium antimonide">indium antimonide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indium_phosphide" title="Indium phosphide">indium phosphide</a>) are also being used in LEDs and solid-state <a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diodes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Selenium_sulfide" title="Selenium sulfide">Selenium sulfide</a> is being studied in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>. </p><p>The most common use for <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductors</a> is <a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic light-emitting diode">organic light-emitting diodes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All transistor types can be used as the building blocks of <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a>, which are fundamental in the design of <a href="/wiki/Digital_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital circuit">digital circuits</a>. In digital circuits like <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, transistors act as on-off switches; in the <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a>, for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> applied to the gate determines whether the <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switch</a> is on or off. </p><p>Transistors used for <a href="/wiki/Analog_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog circuit">analog circuits</a> do not act as on-off switches; rather, they respond to a continuous range of inputs with a continuous range of outputs. Common analog circuits include <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oscillator" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscillator">oscillators</a>. </p><p>Circuits that interface or translate between digital circuits and analog circuits are known as <a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">mixed-signal circuits</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device" title="Power semiconductor device">Power semiconductor devices</a> are discrete devices or integrated circuits intended for high current or high voltage applications. Power integrated circuits combine IC technology with power semiconductor technology, these are sometimes referred to as "smart" power devices. Several companies specialize in manufacturing power semiconductors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Component_identifiers">Component identifiers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Component identifiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Part_number" title="Part number">part numbers</a> of semiconductor devices are often manufacturer specific. Nevertheless, there have been attempts at creating standards for type codes, and a subset of devices follow those. For <a href="/wiki/Discrete_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrete device">discrete devices</a>, for example, there are three standards: <a href="/wiki/JEDEC" title="JEDEC">JEDEC</a> JESD370B in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Pro_Electron" title="Pro Electron">Pro Electron</a> in Europe, and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Industrial_Standards" title="Japanese Industrial Standards">Japanese Industrial Standards</a> (JIS). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fabrication">Fabrication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fabrication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor device fabrication</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device_fabrication&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clean_room.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Clean_room.jpg/220px-Clean_room.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Clean_room.jpg/330px-Clean_room.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Clean_room.jpg/440px-Clean_room.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2247" data-file-height="1742" /></a><figcaption>NASA's Glenn Research Center <a href="/wiki/Clean_room" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean room">clean room</a> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor device fabrication</a> is the process used to manufacture <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor devices">semiconductor devices</a>, typically <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> (ICs) such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_processor" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer processor">computer processors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a>, and memory chips (such as <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a>). It is a multiple-step <a href="/wiki/Photolithography" title="Photolithography">photolithographic</a> and physico-chemical process (with steps such as <a href="/wiki/Thermal_oxidation" title="Thermal oxidation">thermal oxidation</a>, thin-film deposition, ion-implantation, etching) during which <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic circuits">electronic circuits</a> are gradually created on a <a href="/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)" title="Wafer (electronics)">wafer</a>, typically made of pure single-crystal <a href="/wiki/Semiconducting" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconducting">semiconducting</a> material. <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> is almost always used, but various <a href="/wiki/Compound_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound semiconductor">compound semiconductors</a> are used for specialized applications. </p><p>The fabrication process is performed in highly specialized <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication_plant" title="Semiconductor fabrication plant">semiconductor fabrication plants</a>, also called foundries or "fabs",<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_berlin-regression-methods_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_berlin-regression-methods-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the central part being the "<a href="/wiki/Clean_room" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean room">clean room</a>". In more advanced semiconductor devices, such as modern <a href="/wiki/14_nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="14 nanometer">14</a>/<a href="/wiki/10_nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="10 nanometer">10</a>/<a href="/wiki/7_nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="7 nanometer">7 nm</a> nodes, fabrication can take up to 15 weeks, with 11–13 weeks being the industry average.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Production in advanced fabrication facilities is completely automated, with automated material handling systems taking care of the transport of wafers from machine to machine.<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A wafer often has several integrated circuits which are called <a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">dies</a> as they are pieces diced from a single wafer. Individual dies are separated from a finished wafer in a process called <a href="/wiki/Die_singulation" title="Die singulation">die singulation</a>, also called wafer dicing. The dies can then undergo further assembly and packaging.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within fabrication plants, the wafers are transported inside special sealed plastic boxes called <a href="/wiki/FOUP" title="FOUP">FOUPs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FOUPs in many fabs contain an internal nitrogen atmosphere<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which helps prevent copper from oxidizing on the wafers. Copper is used in modern semiconductors for wiring.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The insides of the processing equipment and FOUPs is kept cleaner than the surrounding air in the cleanroom. This internal atmosphere is known as a mini-environment and helps improve yield which is the amount of working devices on a wafer. This mini environment is within an EFEM (equipment front end module)<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto6_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which allows a machine to receive FOUPs, and introduces wafers from the FOUPs into the machine. Additionally many machines also handle wafers in clean nitrogen or vacuum environments to reduce contamination and improve process control.<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto4_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fabrication plants need large amounts of liquid nitrogen to maintain the atmosphere inside production machinery and FOUPs, which are constantly purged with nitrogen.<sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There can also be an air curtain or a mesh<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between the FOUP and the EFEM which helps reduce the amount of humidity that enters the FOUP and improves yield.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto5_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Semiconductor_device_fabrication_auto5-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Companies that manufacture machines used in the industrial semiconductor fabrication process include <a href="/wiki/ASML_Holding" title="ASML Holding">ASML</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_Materials" title="Applied Materials">Applied Materials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Electron" title="Tokyo Electron">Tokyo Electron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lam_Research" title="Lam Research">Lam Research</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_development">History of development <span class="anchor" id="History_of_semiconductor_device_development"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History of development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Semiconductor_device" title="Special:EditPage/Semiconductor device">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2007</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cat's-whisker_detector"><span id="Cat.27s-whisker_detector"></span>Cat's-whisker detector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cat's-whisker detector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cat%27s-whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's-whisker detector">Cat's-whisker detector</a></div> <p>Semiconductors had been used in the electronics field for some time before the invention of the transistor. Around the turn of the 20th century they were quite common as detectors in <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radios</a>, used in a device called a "cat's whisker" developed by <a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a> and others. These detectors were somewhat troublesome, however, requiring the operator to move a small tungsten filament (the whisker) around the surface of a <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a> (lead sulfide) or <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">carborundum</a> (silicon carbide) crystal until it suddenly started working.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, over a period of a few hours or days, the cat's whisker would slowly stop working and the process would have to be repeated. At the time their operation was completely mysterious. After the introduction of the more reliable and amplified <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> based radios, the cat's whisker systems quickly disappeared. The "cat's whisker" is a primitive example of a special type of diode still popular today, called a <a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metal_rectifier">Metal rectifier</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Metal rectifier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metal_rectifier" title="Metal rectifier">Metal rectifier</a></div> <p>Another early type of semiconductor device is the metal rectifier in which the semiconductor is <a href="/wiki/Copper(I)_oxide" title="Copper(I) oxide">copper oxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>. <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric (1886)">Westinghouse Electric (1886)</a> was a major manufacturer of these rectifiers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During World War II, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> research quickly pushed radar receivers to operate at ever higher <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">frequencies</a> about 4000 MHz and the traditional tube-based radio receivers no longer worked well. The introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">cavity magnetron</a> from Britain to the United States in 1940 during the <a href="/wiki/Tizard_Mission" title="Tizard Mission">Tizard Mission</a> resulted in a pressing need for a practical high-frequency amplifier.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On a whim, <a href="/wiki/Russell_Ohl" title="Russell Ohl">Russell Ohl</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a> decided to try a <a href="/wiki/Cat%27s-whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's-whisker detector">cat's whisker</a>. By this point, they had not been in use for a number of years, and no one at the labs had one. After hunting one down at a used radio store in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan, New York">Manhattan</a>, he found that it worked much better than tube-based systems. </p><p>Ohl investigated why the cat's whisker functioned so well. He spent most of 1939 trying to grow more pure versions of the crystals. He soon found that with higher-quality crystals their finicky behavior went away, but so did their ability to operate as a radio detector. One day he found one of his purest crystals nevertheless worked well, and it had a clearly visible crack near the middle. However, as he moved about the room trying to test it, the detector would mysteriously work, and then stop again. After some study he found that the behavior was controlled by the light in the room – more light caused more conductance in the crystal. He invited several other people to see this crystal, and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a> immediately realized there was some sort of junction at the crack. </p><p>Further research cleared up the remaining mystery. The crystal had cracked because either side contained very slightly different amounts of the impurities Ohl could not remove – about 0.2%. One side of the crystal had impurities that added extra electrons (the carriers of electric current) and made it a "conductor". The other had impurities that wanted to bind to these electrons, making it (what he called) an "insulator". Because the two parts of the crystal were in contact with each other, the electrons could be pushed out of the conductive side which had extra electrons (soon to be known as the <i>emitter</i>), and replaced by new ones being provided (from a battery, for instance) where they would flow into the insulating portion and be collected by the whisker filament (named the <i>collector</i>). However, when the voltage was reversed the electrons being pushed into the collector would quickly fill up the "holes" (the electron-needy impurities), and conduction would stop almost instantly. This junction of the two crystals (or parts of one crystal) created a solid-state diode, and the concept soon became known as semiconduction. The mechanism of action when the diode off has to do with the separation of <a href="/wiki/Charge_carrier" title="Charge carrier">charge carriers</a> around the junction. This is called a "<a href="/wiki/Depletion_region" title="Depletion region">depletion region</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_the_diode">Development of the diode</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Development of the diode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Armed with the knowledge of how these new diodes worked, a vigorous effort began to learn how to build them on demand. Teams at <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> all joined forces to build better crystals. Within a year germanium production had been perfected to the point where military-grade diodes were being used in most radar sets. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_the_transistor">Development of the transistor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Development of the transistor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">History of the transistor</a></div> <p>After the war, <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> decided to attempt the building of a <a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>-like semiconductor device. He secured funding and lab space, and went to work on the problem with Brattain and <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>. </p><p>The key to the development of the transistor was the further understanding of the process of the <a href="/wiki/Electron_mobility" title="Electron mobility">electron mobility</a> in a semiconductor. It was realized that if there were some way to control the flow of the electrons from the emitter to the collector of this newly discovered diode, an amplifier could be built. For instance, if contacts are placed on both sides of a single type of crystal, current will not flow between them through the crystal. However, if a third contact could then "inject" electrons or holes into the material, the current would flow. </p><p>Actually doing this appeared to be very difficult. If the crystal were of any reasonable size, the number of electrons (or holes) required to be injected would have to be very large, making it less than useful as an <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifier</a> because it would require a large injection current to start with. That said, the whole idea of the crystal diode was that the crystal itself could provide the electrons over a very small distance, the depletion region. The key appeared to be to place the input and output contacts very close together on the surface of the crystal on either side of this region. </p><p>Brattain started working on building such a device, and tantalizing hints of amplification continued to appear as the team worked on the problem. Sometimes the system would work but then stop working unexpectedly. In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. Ohl and Brattain eventually developed a new branch of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, which became known as <a href="/wiki/Surface_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface physics">surface physics</a>, to account for the behavior. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges. Electrons in the emitters, or the "holes" in the collectors, would cluster at the surface of the crystal where they could find their opposite charge "floating around" in the air (or water). Yet they could be pushed away from the surface with the application of a small amount of charge from any other location on the crystal. Instead of needing a large supply of injected electrons, a very small number in the right place on the crystal would accomplish the same thing. </p><p>Their understanding solved the problem of needing a very small control area to some degree. Instead of needing two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny, region, a single larger surface would serve. The electron-emitting and collecting leads would both be placed very close together on the top, with the control lead placed on the base of the crystal. When current flowed through this "base" lead, the electrons or holes would be pushed out, across the block of the semiconductor, and collect on the far surface. As long as the emitter and collector were very close together, this should allow enough electrons or holes between them to allow conduction to start. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_transistor">First transistor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: First transistor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg/220px-Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg/330px-Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg/440px-Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>A stylized replica of the first transistor</figcaption></figure> <p>The Bell team made many attempts to build such a system with various tools but generally failed. Setups, where the contacts were close enough, were invariably as fragile as the original cat's whisker detectors had been, and would work briefly, if at all. Eventually, they had a practical breakthrough. A piece of gold foil was glued to the edge of a plastic wedge, and then the foil was sliced with a razor at the tip of the triangle. The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the wedge was pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage was applied to the other side (on the base of the crystal), current started to flow from one contact to the other as the base voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented. </p><p>While the device was constructed a week earlier, Brattain's notes describe the first demonstration to higher-ups at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23 December 1947, often given as the birthdate of the transistor. What is now known as the "<a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">p–n–p point-contact germanium transistor</a>" operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial. <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" class="mw-redirect" title="William Bradford Shockley">William Bradford Shockley</a> were awarded the 1956 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in physics for their work. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology_of_"transistor""><span id="Etymology_of_.22transistor.22"></span>Etymology of "transistor"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Etymology of "transistor""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bell Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for their new invention: "Semiconductor Triode", "Solid Triode", "Surface States Triode" [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>], "Crystal Triode" and "Iotatron" were all considered, but "transistor", coined by <a href="/wiki/John_R._Pierce" title="John R. Pierce">John R. Pierce</a>, won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda (May 28, 1948) [26] calling for votes: </p> <blockquote><p>Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words "transconductance" or "transfer", and "varistor". The device logically belongs in the varistor family, and has the transconductance or transfer impedance of a device having gain, so that this combination is descriptive.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improvements_in_transistor_design">Improvements in transistor design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Improvements in transistor design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Shockley was upset about the device being credited to Brattain and Bardeen, who he felt had built it "behind his back" to take the glory. Matters became worse when Bell Labs lawyers found that some of Shockley's own writings on the transistor were close enough to those of an earlier 1925 patent by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> that they thought it best that his name be left off the patent application. </p><p>Shockley was incensed, and decided to demonstrate who was the real brains of the operation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure, used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s. </p><p>With the fragility problems solved, the remaining problem was purity. Making <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> of the required purity was proving to be a serious problem and limited the yield of transistors that actually worked from a given batch of material. Germanium's sensitivity to temperature also limited its usefulness. Scientists theorized that silicon would be easier to fabricate, but few investigated this possibility. Former Bell Labs scientist <a href="/wiki/Gordon_K._Teal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon K. Teal">Gordon K. Teal</a> was the first to develop a working silicon transistor at the nascent <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>, giving it a technological edge. From the late 1950s, most transistors were silicon-based. Within a few years transistor-based products, most notably easily portable radios, were appearing on the market. "<a href="/wiki/Zone_melting" title="Zone melting">Zone melting</a>", a technique using a band of molten material moving through the crystal, further increased crystal purity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metal-oxide_semiconductor">Metal-oxide semiconductor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Metal-oxide semiconductor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor device fabrication</a></div> <p>In 1955, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Frosch" title="Carl Frosch">Carl Frosch</a> and Lincoln Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer, for which they observed surface passivation effects.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1957 Frosch and Derick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors; the first planar transistors, in which drain and source were adjacent at the same surface.<sup id="cite_ref-iopscience.iop.org_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iopscience.iop.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into the wafer.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iopscience.iop.org_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iopscience.iop.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Bell Labs, the importance of Frosch and Derick technique and transistors was immediately realized. Results of their work circulated around Bell Labs in the form of BTL memos before being published in 1957. At <a href="/wiki/Shockley_Semiconductor_Laboratory" title="Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory">Shockley Semiconductor</a>, Shockley had circulated the preprint of their article in December 1956 to all his senior staff, including <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek120_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek120-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who would later invent the <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar process</a> in 1959 while at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1957(Figure_9)-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1957%28Figure_9%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png/310px-1957%28Figure_9%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1957%28Figure_9%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png/465px-1957%28Figure_9%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/1957%28Figure_9%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png/620px-1957%28Figure_9%29-Gate_oxide_transistor_by_Frosch_and_Derrick.png 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>1957, Diagram of one of the SiO2 transistor devices made by Frosch and Derick<sup id="cite_ref-iopscience.iop.org_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iopscience.iop.org-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>After this, J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides, fabricated a high quality Si/<a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">SiO<sub>2</sub></a> stack and published their results in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Deal_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deal-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this research, <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atalla" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohamed Atalla">Mohamed Atalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> proposed a silicon MOS transistor in 1959<sup id="cite_ref-Bassett22_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bassett22-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With its <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">scalability</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and much lower power consumption and higher density than <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistors</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the MOSFET became the most common type of transistor in computers, electronics,<sup id="cite_ref-Khang_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khang-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Communications_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications technology">communications technology</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-uspto_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uspto-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/US_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="US Patent and Trademark Office">US Patent and Trademark Office</a> calls the MOSFET a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world".<sup id="cite_ref-uspto_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uspto-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bardeen's 1948 inversion layer concept, forms the basis of CMOS technology today.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> (complementary <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a>) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Chih-Tang_Sah" title="Chih-Tang Sah">Chih-Tang Sah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wanlass" title="Frank Wanlass">Frank Wanlass</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a> in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1963_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1963-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first report of a <a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">floating-gate MOSFET</a> was made by Dawon Kahng and <a href="/wiki/Simon_Sze" title="Simon Sze">Simon Sze</a> in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">FinFET</a> (fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D <a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">multi-gate</a> MOSFET, was proposed by H. R. Farrah (<a href="/wiki/Bendix_Corporation" title="Bendix Corporation">Bendix Corporation</a>) and R. F. Steinberg in 1967<sup id="cite_ref-FarrahSteinberg_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FarrahSteinberg-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and first built by Digh Hisamoto and his team of researchers at <a href="/wiki/Hitachi" title="Hitachi">Hitachi Central Research Laboratory</a> in 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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href="/wiki/Reliability_(semiconductor)" title="Reliability (semiconductor)">Reliability (semiconductor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B6n_scandal" title="Schön scandal">Schön scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">Semiconductor device fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a> (EDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration">VLSI</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Semiconductor_device&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Golio-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Golio_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGolioGolio2018" class="citation book cs1">Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2"><i>RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. 18-2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420006728" title="Special:BookSources/9781420006728"><bdi>9781420006728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=RF+and+Microwave+Passive+and+Active+Technologies&rft.pages=18-2&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781420006728&rft.aulast=Golio&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft.au=Golio%2C+Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMCj9jxSVQKIC%26pg%3DSA18-PA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computer_history-transistor-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computer_history-transistor_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/">"Who Invented the Transistor?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=Who+Invented+the+Transistor%3F&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2Fwho-invented-the-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icinsights.com/news/bulletins/Semiconductor-Shipments-Forecast-To-Exceed-1-Trillion-Devices-In-2018/">"Semiconductor Shipments Forecast to Exceed 1 Trillion Devices in 2018"</a>. <i>www.icinsights.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-16</span></span>. <q>Annual semiconductor unit shipments (integrated circuits and Opto-sensor-discrete, or O-S-D, devices) are expected to grow 9% [..] For 2018, semiconductor unit shipments are forecast to climb to 1,075.1 billion, which equates to 9% growth for the year. Starting in 1978 with 32.6 billion units and going through 2018, the compound annual growth rate for semiconductor units is forecast to be 9.1%, a solid growth figure over the 40-year span. [..] In 2018, O-S-D devices are forecast to account for 70% of total semiconductor units compared to 30% for ICs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.icinsights.com&rft.atitle=Semiconductor+Shipments+Forecast+to+Exceed+1+Trillion+Devices+in+2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icinsights.com%2Fnews%2Fbulletins%2FSemiconductor-Shipments-Forecast-To-Exceed-1-Trillion-Devices-In-2018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory2018-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory2018_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/">"13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=13+Sextillion+%26+Counting%3A+The+Long+%26+Winding+Road+to+the+Most+Frequently+Manufactured+Human+Artifact+in+History&rft.date=2018-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2F13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://navitassemi.com/gallium-nitride-the-next-generation-of-power/">"Gallium nitride semiconductors: The Next Generation of Power | Navitas"</a>. 19 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Analysis of double-gate thin-film transistor". <i>IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 69–74. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967ITED...14...69F">1967ITED...14...69F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FT-ED.1967.15901">10.1109/T-ED.1967.15901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Electron+Devices&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+double-gate+thin-film+transistor&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=69-74&rft.date=1967-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FT-ED.1967.15901&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967ITED...14...69F&rft.aulast=Farrah&rft.aufirst=H.+R.&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+R.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180909112404/https://www.ieee.org/about/awards/bios/grove-recipients.html">"IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award Recipients"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Andrew_S._Grove_Award" title="IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award">IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ieee.org/about/awards/bios/grove-recipients.html">the original</a> on September 9, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Andrew+S.+Grove+Award&rft.atitle=IEEE+Andrew+S.+Grove+Award+Recipients&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieee.org%2Fabout%2Fawards%2Fbios%2Fgrove-recipients.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/programmable/us/en/pdfs/literature/wp/wp-01201-fpga-tri-gate-technology.pdf">"The Breakthrough Advantage for FPGAs with Tri-Gate Technology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/programmable/us/en/pdfs/literature/wp/wp-01201-fpga-tri-gate-technology.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Breakthrough+Advantage+for+FPGAs+with+Tri-Gate+Technology&rft.pub=Intel&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intel.com%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Fwww%2Fprogrammable%2Fus%2Fen%2Fpdfs%2Fliterature%2Fwp%2Fwp-01201-fpga-tri-gate-technology.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuller,_Richard_S.Theodore_I._Kamins1986" class="citation book cs1">Muller, Richard S. & Theodore I. Kamins (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deviceelectronic00mull"><i>Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits</i></a></span>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-88758-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-88758-4"><bdi>978-0-471-88758-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Device+Electronics+for+Integrated+Circuits&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-471-88758-4&rft.au=Muller%2C+Richard+S.&rft.au=Theodore+I.+Kamins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdeviceelectronic00mull&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemiconductor+device" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">BioFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">Complementary MOS</a> (CMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic" title="Depletion-load NMOS logic">Depletion-load NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">Fin field-effect transistor</a> (FinFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a> (FGMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">Multi-gate field-effect transistor</a> (MuGFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">Thin-film transistor</a> (TFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMOS" title="VMOS">VMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET#UMOS" title="Power MOSFET">UMOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Other <br />transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused junction transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a> (FET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction Gate FET (JFET)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor" title="Organic field-effect transistor">Organic FET (OFET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor" title="Light-emitting transistor">Light-emitting transistor</a> (LET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic LET (OLET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode_transistor" title="Pentode transistor">Pentode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor" title="Programmable unijunction transistor">Programmable unijunction transistor</a> (PUT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_transistor" title="Static induction transistor">Static induction transistor</a> (SIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a> (UJT)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">Avalanche diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-current_diode" title="Constant-current diode">Constant-current diode</a> (CLD, CRD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Step_recovery_diode" title="Step recovery diode">Step recovery diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <br />devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor" title="Heterostructure barrier varactor">Heterostructure barrier varactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_emitting_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light emitting capacitor">Light emitting capacitor</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memtransistor" title="Memtransistor">Memtransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide_varistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide varistor">Metal-oxide varistor</a> (MOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">Photodetector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">Silicon controlled rectifier</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solaristor" title="Solaristor">Solaristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor" title="Static induction thyristor">Static induction thyristor</a> (SITh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trancitor" title="Trancitor">Trancitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">Voltage regulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regulator" title="Linear regulator">Linear regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator" title="Low-dropout regulator">Low-dropout regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">Switching regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_converter" title="Buck converter">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_converter" title="Boost converter">Boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter" title="Buck–boost converter">Buck–boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-pi_topology" title="Split-pi topology">Split-pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter" title="Ćuk converter">Ćuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter" title="Single-ended primary-inductor converter">SEPIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_pump" title="Charge pump">Charge pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_capacitor" title="Switched capacitor">Switched capacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_tube" title="Acorn tube">Acorn tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tetrode" title="Beam tetrode">Beam tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-wire_barretter" title="Hot-wire barretter">Barretter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compactron" title="Compactron">Compactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonode" title="Nonode">Nonode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuvistor" title="Nuvistor">Nuvistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagrid_converter" title="Pentagrid converter">Pentagrid</a> (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode" title="Pentode">Pentode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">Photomultiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">Phototube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode" title="Tetrode">Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">Triode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">RF</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator" title="Backward-wave oscillator">Backward-wave oscillator</a> (BWO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier" title="Crossed-field amplifier">Crossed-field amplifier</a> (CFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrotron" title="Gyrotron">Gyrotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_output_tube" title="Inductive output tube">Inductive output tube</a> (IOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">Klystron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">Maser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_tube" title="Sutton tube">Sutton tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a> (TWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube" title="Beam deflection tube">Beam deflection tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charactron" title="Charactron">Charactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_eye_tube" title="Magic eye tube">Magic eye tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_tube" title="Storage tube">Storage tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochotron">Trochotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-filled_tube" title="Gas-filled tube">Gas-filled tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossatron" title="Crossatron">Crossatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">Ignitron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">Krytron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">Mercury-arc valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">Thyratron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigatron" title="Trigatron">Trigatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube" title="Voltage-regulator tube">Voltage-regulator tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Adjustable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">Potentiometer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_potentiometer" title="Digital potentiometer">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capacitor" title="Variable capacitor">Variable capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Passive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Connector <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors" title="Audio and video interfaces and connectors">audio and video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets" title="AC power plugs and sockets">electrical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_connector" title="RF connector">RF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_detector" title="Electrolytic detector">Electrolytic detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrite_core" title="Ferrite core">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifuse" title="Antifuse">Antifuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resettable_fuse" title="Resettable fuse">resettable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="EFUSE">eFUSE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermistor" title="Thermistor">Thermistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varistor" title="Varistor">Varistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_wire" title="Wollaston wire">Wollaston wire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_reactance" title="Electrical reactance">Reactive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor_types" title="Capacitor types">types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_resonator" title="Ceramic resonator">Ceramic resonator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">Crystal oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametron" title="Parametron">Parametron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">Relay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reed_relay" title="Reed relay">reed relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_relay" title="Mercury relay">mercury relay</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control 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