CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Light-emitting diode - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"29c668bf-431c-4a5e-b2d8-8a692e210206","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Light-emitting_diode","wgTitle":"Light-emitting diode","wgCurRevisionId":1257498423,"wgRevisionId":1257498423,"wgArticleId":18290,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 errors: periodical ignored","CS1 errors: missing periodical","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles to be split from September 2024","All articles to be split","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016","Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020", "Articles with unsourced statements from August 2023","Articles with excerpts","Articles needing additional references from October 2020","All articles needing additional references","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2022","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016","All articles with vague or ambiguous time","Vague or ambiguous time from October 2022","Articles prone to spam from July 2013","Use American English from October 2015","All Wikipedia articles written in American English","Use mdy dates from March 2013","Light-emitting diodes","LED lamps","Optical diodes","Display technology","Signage","20th-century inventions"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Light-emitting_diode","wgRelevantArticleId":18290,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false, "wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q25504","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={ "ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader", "ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/RBG-LED.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="890"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/RBG-LED.jpg/800px-RBG-LED.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="593"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/RBG-LED.jpg/640px-RBG-LED.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="474"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Light-emitting diode - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Light-emitting_diode rootpage-Light-emitting_diode skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Light-emitting+diode" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Light-emitting+diode" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Light-emitting+diode" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Light-emitting+diode" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discoveries_and_early_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discoveries_and_early_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Discoveries and early devices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discoveries_and_early_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_commercial_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_commercial_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Initial commercial development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_commercial_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blue_LED" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blue_LED"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Blue LED </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blue_LED-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_LEDs_and_the_illumination_breakthrough" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_LEDs_and_the_illumination_breakthrough"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough </div> </a> <ul id="toc-White_LEDs_and_the_illumination_breakthrough-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polychromatic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polychromatic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Polychromatic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polychromatic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physics_of_light_production_and_emission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics_of_light_production_and_emission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Physics of light production and emission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics_of_light_production_and_emission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Single-color_LEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single-color_LEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Single-color LEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single-color_LEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-White_LEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#White_LEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 White LEDs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-White_LEDs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle White LEDs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-White_LEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-RGB_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RGB_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 RGB systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RGB_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phosphor-based_LEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phosphor-based_LEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Phosphor-based LEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phosphor-based_LEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mixed_white_LEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_white_LEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Mixed white LEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mixed_white_LEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_white_LEDs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_white_LEDs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Other white LEDs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_white_LEDs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_light-emitting_diodes_(OLEDs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_light-emitting_diodes_(OLEDs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_light-emitting_diodes_(OLEDs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Miniature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miniature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Miniature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miniature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 High-power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-AC-driven" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#AC-driven"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 AC-driven </div> </a> <ul id="toc-AC-driven-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strip" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strip"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Strip </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strip-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Application-specific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Application-specific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Application-specific </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Application-specific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Considerations_for_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Considerations_for_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Considerations for use </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Considerations_for_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Considerations for use subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Considerations_for_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Power_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Power sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_polarity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_polarity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Electrical polarity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_polarity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appearance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appearance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Appearance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appearance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_properties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_properties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Light properties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reliability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reliability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Reliability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reliability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Manufacturing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colors_and_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colors_and_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Colors and materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colors_and_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indicators_and_signs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indicators_and_signs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Indicators and signs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indicators_and_signs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lighting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lighting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Lighting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lighting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_communication_and_other_signalling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_communication_and_other_signalling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Data communication and other signalling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_communication_and_other_signalling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_vision_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_vision_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Machine vision systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_vision_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_detection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_detection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Biological detection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_detection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Other applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Research and development </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_and_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research and development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Key_challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Key challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Potential technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Health and safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Environmental issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Light-emitting diode</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" > 78 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AB_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A1" title="ثنائي باعث للضوء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثنائي باعث للضوء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%27%E0%A6%A1" title="পোহৰ নিৰ্গতক ডায়'ড – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পোহৰ নিৰ্গতক ডায়'ড" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C5%9F%C4%B1q_diodu" title="İşıq diodu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İşıq diodu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%83%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A1" title="আলোক নিঃসারী ডায়োড – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আলোক নিঃসারী ডায়োড" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Святлодыёд – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Святлодыёд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%91%D0%B4" title="Сьвятлодыёд – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сьвятлодыёд" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Светодиод – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Светодиод" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svijetle%C4%87a_dioda" title="Svijetleća dioda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Svijetleća dioda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%ADode_emissor_de_llum" title="Díode emissor de llum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Díode emissor de llum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuod_allyrru_golau" title="Deuod allyrru golau – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Deuod allyrru golau" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysdiode" title="Lysdiode – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lysdiode" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuchtdiode" title="Leuchtdiode – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Leuchtdiode" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valgusdiood" title="Valgusdiood – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Valgusdiood" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%AE%CF%82_%CF%86%CF%89%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Δίοδος εκπομπής φωτός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δίοδος εκπομπής φωτός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lum-eliganta_diodo" title="Lum-eliganta diodo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lum-eliganta diodo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%E2%80%8C%D8%A6%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ال‌ئی‌دی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ال‌ئی‌دی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_%C3%A9lectroluminescente" title="Diode électroluminescente – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Diode électroluminescente" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9-%C3%B3id_sholasasta%C3%ADoch" title="Dé-óid sholasastaíoch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dé-óid sholasastaíoch" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%9C%EA%B4%91_%EB%8B%A4%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A4%EB%93%9C" title="발광 다이오드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="발광 다이오드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A1" title="प्रकाश उत्सर्जक डायोड – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रकाश उत्सर्जक डायोड" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svjetle%C4%87a_dioda" title="Svjetleća dioda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Svjetleća dioda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioda_pemancar_cahaya" title="Dioda pemancar cahaya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dioda pemancar cahaya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lj%C3%B3stvistur" title="Ljóstvistur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ljóstvistur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%8E%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D.%E0%B2%87.%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%BF" title="ಎಲ್.ಇ.ಡಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಎಲ್.ಇ.ಡಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="მანათობელი დიოდები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მანათობელი დიოდები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%88%D1%8B%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Жарық шығаратын диод – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жарық шығаратын диод" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaismas_diode" title="Gaismas diode – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Gaismas diode" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0viesos_diodas" title="Šviesos diodas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šviesos diodas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diod_emissor_de_lus" title="Diod emissor de lus – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Diod emissor de lus" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vil%C3%A1g%C3%ADt%C3%B3_di%C3%B3da" title="Világító dióda – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Világító dióda" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Светлечка диода – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Светлечка диода" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D" title="ലൈറ്റ് എമിറ്റിങ്ങ് ഡയോഡ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലൈറ്റ് എമിറ്റിങ്ങ് ഡയോഡ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80" title="एलईडी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="एलईडी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diod_pemancar_cahaya" title="Diod pemancar cahaya – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Diod pemancar cahaya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Led" title="Led – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Led" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BA%E5%85%89%E3%83%80%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89" title="発光ダイオード – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="発光ダイオード" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A5chtdioode" title="Jåchtdioode – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Jåchtdioode" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysdiode" title="Lysdiode – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Lysdiode" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysdiode" title="Lysdiode – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Lysdiode" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7_%DA%88%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%88" title="چانن والا ڈائیوڈ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چانن والا ڈائیوڈ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioda_elektroluminescencyjna" title="Dioda elektroluminescencyjna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dioda elektroluminescencyjna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodo_emissor_de_luz" title="Diodo emissor de luz – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Diodo emissor de luz" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Светодиод – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Светодиод" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licht-emittin_diode" title="Licht-emittin diode – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Licht-emittin diode" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljoachtdiode" title="Ljoachtdiode – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Ljoachtdiode" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%A0%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%A9%E0%B6%BA" title="ආලෝක විමෝචක දියෝඩය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ආලෝක විමෝචක දියෝඩය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Light-emitting diode" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiscen%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_di%C3%B3da" title="Luminiscenčná dióda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Luminiscenčná dióda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetle%C4%8Da_dioda" title="Svetleča dioda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Svetleča dioda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%DA%B5_%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ئێڵ ئی دی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێڵ ئی دی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Светлећа диода – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Светлећа диода" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetle%C4%87a_dioda" title="Svetleća dioda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Svetleća dioda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysdiod" title="Lysdiod – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Lysdiod" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஒளி உமிழ் இருமுனையம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒளி உமிழ் இருமுனையம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87" title="ไดโอดเปล่งแสง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไดโอดเปล่งแสง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Светодиод – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Светодиод" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Світлодіод – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Світлодіод" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED" title="LED – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="LED" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Light-emitting diode" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%91%E5%85%89%E4%BA%8C%E6%9E%81%E7%AE%A1" title="发光二极管 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="发光二极管" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%98-%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%93" title="ליכט-ארויסגעבנדיקער דיאד – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ליכט-ארויסגעבנדיקער דיאד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E5%85%89%E4%BA%8C%E6%A5%B5%E7%AE%A1" title="發光二極管 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="發光二極管" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BC%E5%85%89%E4%BA%8C%E6%A5%B5%E7%AE%A1" title="發光二極管 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="發光二極管" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q25504#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Light-emitting_diode" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Light-emitting_diode" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Light-emitting_diode" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&oldid=1257498423" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Light-emitting_diode&id=1257498423&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FLight-emitting_diode">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FLight-emitting_diode">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Light-emitting_diode&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/LED" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q25504" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Semiconductor and solid-state light source</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the electronic device. For specific use in lighting, see <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamp</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"LED" and "Led" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/LED_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="LED (disambiguation)">LED (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Light-emitting diode</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:RBG-LED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/RBG-LED.jpg/220px-RBG-LED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/RBG-LED.jpg/330px-RBG-LED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/RBG-LED.jpg/440px-RBG-LED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="665" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Blue, green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases. <a href="#Types">There are many different variants</a> of LEDs.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Working principle‍</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">Electroluminescence</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Invented</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._J._Round" title="H. J. Round">H. J. Round</a> (1907)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Oleg_Losev" title="Oleg Losev">Oleg Losev</a> (1927)<a href="#cite_note-100-YEAR_HISTORY-2">[2]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Biard" title="James R. Biard">James R. Biard</a> (1961)<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak" title="Nick Holonyak">Nick Holonyak</a> (1962)<a href="#cite_note-LEMELSON-MIT-4">[4]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First production </th><td class="infobox-data">October 1962; 62 years ago (1962-10)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pin configuration </th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_symbol" title="Electronic symbol">Electronic symbol</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:IEEE_315-1975_(1993)_8.5.4.2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.5.4.2.svg/100px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.5.4.2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.5.4.2.svg/150px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.5.4.2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.5.4.2.svg/200px-IEEE_315-1975_%281993%29_8.5.4.2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED,_5mm,_green_(en).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/LED%2C_5mm%2C_green_%28en%29.svg/220px-LED%2C_5mm%2C_green_%28en%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/LED%2C_5mm%2C_green_%28en%29.svg/330px-LED%2C_5mm%2C_green_%28en%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/LED%2C_5mm%2C_green_%28en%29.svg/440px-LED%2C_5mm%2C_green_%28en%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Parts of a conventional LED. The flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out via mechanical strain or vibration.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png/220px-Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png/330px-Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png/440px-Surface_mount_LED_close_up_image.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Close-up image of a <a href="/wiki/SMD_LED" title="SMD LED">surface-mount LED</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv/220px--LED_Operation.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="24" data-mwtitle="LED_Operation.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:LED_Operation.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv/LED_Operation.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv/LED_Operation.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv/LED_Operation.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv/LED_Operation.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/06/LED_Operation.ogv/LED_Operation.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Close-up of an LED with the voltage being increased and decreased to show a detailed view of its operation</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Br20_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Modern LED retrofit with E27 screw in base" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Br20_1.jpg/220px-Br20_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Br20_1.jpg/330px-Br20_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Br20_1.jpg/440px-Br20_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>A bulb-shaped modern retrofit <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamp</a> with aluminum <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sink</a>, a light <a href="/wiki/Diffuser_(optics)" title="Diffuser (optics)">diffusing</a> dome and <a href="/wiki/Edison_screw" title="Edison screw">E27 screw</a> base, using a built-in power supply working on <a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity" title="Mains electricity">mains voltage</a></figcaption></figure> A light-emitting diode (LED) is a <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">device</a> that <a href="/wiki/Light#Light_sources" title="Light">emits light</a> when <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> flows through it. <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electrons</a> in the semiconductor recombine with <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">electron holes</a>, releasing energy in the form of <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>. The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> of the semiconductor.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a> on the semiconductor device.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> (IR) light.<a href="#cite_note-FirstPracticalLED-7">[7]</a> Infrared LEDs are used in <a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">remote-control</a> circuits, such as those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent bulbs</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">seven-segment displays</a>. Later developments produced LEDs available in <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> (UV), and infrared wavelengths with high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance, white LEDs suitable for room and outdoor lighting. LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology with applications as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Navigation_light" title="Navigation light">aviation lighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christmas_lights" title="Christmas lights">fairy lights</a>, <a href="/wiki/LED_strip_light" title="LED strip light">strip lights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting#Light-emitting_diodes_(LED)" title="Automotive lighting">automotive headlamps</a>, advertising, <a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">general lighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">traffic signals</a>, camera flashes, <a href="/wiki/LED_wallpaper" title="LED wallpaper">lighted wallpaper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grow_light" title="Grow light">horticultural grow lights</a>, and medical devices.<a href="#cite_note-Aguilar-8">[8]</a> LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption, a longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller sizes, and faster switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power, the inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply source, and a lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature. LEDs are <a href="/wiki/Transducer" title="Transducer">transducers</a> of electricity into light. They operate in reverse of <a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">photodiodes</a>, which convert light into electricity. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Split plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this article should be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> into a new article titled <a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_LEDs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of LEDs (page does not exist)">history of LEDs</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Light-emitting_diode" title="Talk:Light-emitting diode">discuss</a>) (September 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discoveries_and_early_devices">Discoveries and early devices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Discoveries and early devices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SiC_LED_historic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/SiC_LED_historic.jpg/220px-SiC_LED_historic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/SiC_LED_historic.jpg/330px-SiC_LED_historic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/SiC_LED_historic.jpg/440px-SiC_LED_historic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">SiC</a> recreates <a href="/wiki/H._J._Round" title="H. J. Round">Round</a>'s original experiment from 1907.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1_watt_red_power_led.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/1_watt_red_power_led.jpg/220px-1_watt_red_power_led.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/1_watt_red_power_led.jpg/330px-1_watt_red_power_led.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/1_watt_red_power_led.jpg/440px-1_watt_red_power_led.jpg 2x" data-file-width="590" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of a 1 watt red power led</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">Electroluminescence</a> as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the English experimenter <a href="/wiki/Henry_Joseph_Round" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Joseph Round">Henry Joseph Round</a> of <a href="/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">Marconi Labs</a>, using a crystal of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">silicon carbide</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Cat%27s-whisker_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat's-whisker detector">cat's-whisker detector</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Russian inventor <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Losev" title="Oleg Losev">Oleg Losev</a> reported the creation of the first LED in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-Losev1927-11">[11]</a> His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades, partly due to the very inefficient light-producing properties of silicon carbide, the semiconductor Losev used.<a href="#cite_note-Zheludev_100yearhistory-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0603_LED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/0603_LED.jpg/220px-0603_LED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/0603_LED.jpg/330px-0603_LED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/0603_LED.jpg/440px-0603_LED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption>0603 SMD (Surface Mount Device) package LED</figcaption></figure> In 1936, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Destriau" title="Georges Destriau">Georges Destriau</a> observed that electroluminescence could be produced when <a href="/wiki/Zinc_sulphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc sulphide">zinc sulphide</a> (ZnS) powder is suspended in an insulator and an alternating electrical field is applied to it. In his publications, Destriau often referred to luminescence as Losev-Light. Destriau worked in the laboratories of Madame <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, also an early pioneer in the field of luminescence with research on <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ChemiePhysique-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConciseEncyclopediaOfPhysics-15">[15]</a> Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Zolt%C3%A1n_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoltán Bay">Zoltán Bay</a> together with <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Szigeti" title="György Szigeti">György Szigeti</a> patenting a lighting device in Hungary in 1939 based on silicon carbide, with an option on boron carbide, that emitted white, yellowish white, or greenish white depending on impurities present.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Lehovec" title="Kurt Lehovec">Kurt Lehovec</a>, Carl Accardo, and Edward Jamgochian explained these first LEDs in 1951 using an apparatus employing <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">SiC</a> crystals with a current source of a battery or a pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rubin_Braunstein" title="Rubin Braunstein">Rubin Braunstein</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Corporation of America">Radio Corporation of America</a> reported on infrared emission from <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using <a href="/wiki/Gallium_antimonide" title="Gallium antimonide">gallium antimonide</a> (GaSb), GaAs, <a href="/wiki/Indium_phosphide" title="Indium phosphide">indium phosphide</a> (InP), and <a href="/wiki/Silicon-germanium" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-germanium">silicon-germanium</a> (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvins</a>. In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Braunstein "…had set up a simple optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SNX100.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/SNX100.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="286" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="211" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>A 1962 Texas Instruments SNX-100 GaAs LED contained in a TO-18 transistor metal case</figcaption></figure> In September 1961, while working at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dallas" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_R._Biard" title="James R. Biard">James R. Biard</a> and Gary Pittman discovered near-infrared (900 nm) light emission from a <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_diode" title="Tunnel diode">tunnel diode</a> they had constructed on a GaAs substrate.<a href="#cite_note-FirstPracticalLED-7">[7]</a> By October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically isolated semiconductor photodetector.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on their findings, which described a zinc-diffused <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a> LED with a spaced <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> contact to allow for efficient emission of infrared light under <a href="/wiki/Forward_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward bias">forward bias</a>. After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions from <a href="/wiki/G.E." class="mw-redirect" title="G.E.">G.E.</a> Labs, <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> Research Labs, <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> Research Labs, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Lab" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln Lab">Lincoln Lab</a> at <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">U.S. patent office</a> issued the two inventors the patent for the GaAs infrared light-emitting diode (U.S. Patent <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3293513.pdf">US3293513</a>), the first practical LED.<a href="#cite_note-FirstPracticalLED-7">[7]</a> Immediately after filing the patent, <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> (TI) began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962, TI announced the first commercial LED product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit an 890 nm light output.<a href="#cite_note-FirstPracticalLED-7">[7]</a> In October 1963, TI announced the first commercial hemispherical LED, the SNX-110.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In the 1960s, several laboratories focused on LEDs that would emit visible light. A particularly important device was demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Nick_Holonyak" title="Nick Holonyak">Nick Holonyak</a> on October 9, 1962, while he was working for <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>. The device used the semiconducting alloy gallium phosphide arsenide (GaAsP). It was the first semiconductor laser to emit visible light, albeit at low temperatures. At room temperature it still functioned as a red light-emitting diode. GaAsP was the basis for the first wave of commercial LEDs emitting visible light. It was mass produced by the Monsanto and Hewlett-Packard companies and used widely for displays in calculators and wrist watches.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-chisuntimes-26">[26]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0603_SMD_LED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/0603_SMD_LED.jpg/220px-0603_SMD_LED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/0603_SMD_LED.jpg/330px-0603_SMD_LED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/0603_SMD_LED.jpg/440px-0603_SMD_LED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1285" data-file-height="1119" /></a><figcaption>0603 SMD (Surface Mount Device) package red LED</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/M._George_Craford" title="M. George Craford">M. George Craford</a>,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten in 1972.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In 1976, T. P. Pearsall designed the first high-brightness, high-efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_LED..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Red_LED..jpg/220px-Red_LED..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Red_LED..jpg/330px-Red_LED..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Red_LED..jpg/440px-Red_LED..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1858" data-file-height="1364" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of Red LED</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_commercial_development">Initial commercial development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Initial commercial development">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg/220px-TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg/330px-TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg/440px-TI-30-LED-Display-3682e1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>LED display of a <a href="/wiki/TI-30" title="TI-30">TI-30</a> scientific calculator (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Eight small rectangular blobs, which are the digits, connected by fine hair-like wires to tracks along a circuit board" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif/lossy-page1-220px-8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif/lossy-page1-330px-8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif/lossy-page1-440px-8-digit-multiplex-7-segment-LED-X-Ray.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1635" data-file-height="1299" /></a><figcaption>X-Ray of a 1970s 8-digit LED calculator display</figcaption></figure> Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>200 per unit, and so had little practical use.<a href="#cite_note-Schubert-30">[30]</a> The first commercial visible-wavelength LEDs used GaAsP semiconductors and were commonly used as replacements for <a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">incandescent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">neon indicator lamps</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">seven-segment displays</a>, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as calculators, TVs, radios, telephones, as well as watches.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard">Hewlett-Packard</a> company (HP) was engaged in <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> (R&D) on practical LEDs between 1962 and 1968, by a research team under Howard C. Borden, Gerald P. Pighini at HP Associates and <a href="/wiki/HP_Labs" title="HP Labs">HP Labs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Borden-32">[32]</a> During this time HP collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Monsanto_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Monsanto Company">Monsanto Company</a> on developing the first usable LED products.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer-33">[33]</a> The first usable LED products were HP's <a href="/wiki/LED_display" title="LED display">LED display</a> and Monsanto's <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED indicator lamp</a>, both launched in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer-33">[33]</a> Monsanto was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphide" title="Gallium arsenide phosphide">Gallium arsenide phosphide</a> (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators.<a href="#cite_note-Schubert-30">[30]</a> Monsanto had previously offered to supply HP with GaAsP, but HP decided to grow its own GaAsP.<a href="#cite_note-Schubert-30">[30]</a> In February 1969, Hewlett-Packard introduced the HP Model 5082-7000 Numeric Indicator, the first LED device to use <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (integrated <a href="/wiki/LED_circuit" title="LED circuit">LED circuit</a>) technology.<a href="#cite_note-Borden-32">[32]</a> It was the first intelligent LED display, and was a revolution in <a href="/wiki/Digital_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital display">digital display</a> technology, replacing the <a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a> and becoming the basis for later LED displays.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the 1970s, commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor chip">semiconductor chips</a> fabricated with the <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar process</a> (developed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a>,<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> ). The combination of planar processing for <a href="/wiki/Chip_fabrication" class="mw-redirect" title="Chip fabrication">chip fabrication</a> and innovative <a href="/wiki/Chip_package" class="mw-redirect" title="Chip package">packaging</a> methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> LED producers have continued to use these methods as of about 2009.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The early red LEDs were bright enough for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and equipment. Early LEDs were packaged in metal cases similar to those of transistors, with a glass window or lens to let the light out. Modern indicator LEDs are packed in transparent molded plastic cases, tubular or rectangular in shape, and often tinted to match the device color. Infrared devices may be dyed, to block visible light. More complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation in <a href="#High-power">high-power LEDs</a>. Surface-mounted LEDs further reduce the package size. LEDs intended for use with <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optics">fiber optics</a> cables may be provided with an optical connector. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blue_LED">Blue LED</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Blue LED">edit</a>]</div> The first <a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">blue</a>-violet LED, using magnesium-doped <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a> was made at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> in 1972 by Herb Maruska and <a href="/wiki/Wally_Rhines" title="Wally Rhines">Wally Rhines</a>, doctoral students in materials science and engineering.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> At the time Maruska was on leave from <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA Laboratories</a>, where he collaborated with Jacques Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride light-emitting diode, emitted green light.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In 1974 the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Patent_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Patent Office">U.S. Patent Office</a> awarded Maruska, Rhines, and Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3819974">US3819974 A</a>). Today, magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue LEDs and <a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">laser diodes</a>. In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for practical use, and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, <a href="/wiki/Cree_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Cree Inc.">Cree</a> introduced the first commercially available blue LED, based on the <a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_band_gaps" title="Direct and indirect band gaps">indirect bandgap</a> semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC).<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of the visible light spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN <a href="/wiki/Epitaxial" class="mw-redirect" title="Epitaxial">epitaxial</a> growth and <a href="/wiki/P-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="P-type semiconductor">p-type</a> doping<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> ushered in the modern era of GaN-based <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Optoelectronic">optoelectronic</a> devices. Building upon this foundation, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Moustakas" title="Theodore Moustakas">Theodore Moustakas</a> at Boston University patented a method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-step process in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In 2015, a US court ruled that three Taiwanese companies had infringed Moustakas's prior patent, and ordered them to pay licensing fees of not less than US$13 million.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Two years later, in 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Shuji Nakamura</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nichia_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nichia Corporation">Nichia Corporation</a> using a gallium nitride (GaN) growth process.<a href="#cite_note-Nakamura-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> These LEDs had efficiencies of 10%.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In parallel, <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Isamu Akasaki</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Hiroshi Amano</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nagoya_University" title="Nagoya University">Nagoya University</a> were working on developing the important <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">GaN</a> deposition on <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a> substrates and the demonstration of <a href="/wiki/P-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="P-type semiconductor">p-type doping</a> of GaN. This new development revolutionized LED lighting, making <a href="/wiki/Blue_laser" title="Blue laser">high-power blue light sources</a> practical, leading to the development of technologies like <a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Nakamura was awarded the 2006 <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Technology_Prize" title="Millennium Technology Prize">Millennium Technology Prize</a> for his invention.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Nakamura, <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Hiroshi Amano</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Isamu Akasaki</a> were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 2014 for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes, which has enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources."<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141007-DO-56">[56]</a> In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_University" title="Cardiff University">Cardiff University</a> Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using <a href="/wiki/Indium_tin_oxide" title="Indium tin oxide">indium tin oxide</a> (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs). In 2001<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> and 2002,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> processes for growing <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a> (GaN) LEDs on <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> were successfully demonstrated. In January 2012, <a href="/wiki/Osram" title="Osram">Osram</a> demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon substrates commercially,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> and GaN-on-silicon LEDs are in production at <a href="/wiki/Plessey#Plessey_Semiconductors_Ltd" title="Plessey">Plessey Semiconductors</a>. As of 2017, some manufacturers are using SiC as the substrate for LED production, but sapphire is more common, as it has the most similar properties to that of gallium nitride, reducing the need for patterning the sapphire wafer (patterned wafers are known as epi wafers). <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toshiba" title="Toshiba">Toshiba</a> are performing research into GaN on Si LEDs. Toshiba has stopped research, possibly due to low yields.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Some opt for <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">epitaxy</a>, which is difficult on <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, while others, like the University of Cambridge, choose a multi-layer structure, in order to reduce (crystal) lattice mismatch and different thermal expansion ratios, to avoid cracking of the LED chip at high temperatures (e.g. during manufacturing), reduce heat generation and increase luminous efficiency. Sapphire substrate patterning can be carried out with <a href="/wiki/Nanoimprint_lithography" title="Nanoimprint lithography">nanoimprint lithography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> GaN-on-Si is difficult but desirable since it takes advantage of existing semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure. It allows for the wafer-level packaging of LED dies resulting in extremely small LED packages.<a href="#cite_note-Toshiba-74">[74]</a> GaN is often deposited using <a href="/wiki/Metalorganic_vapour-phase_epitaxy" title="Metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy">metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy</a> (MOCVD),<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> and it also uses <a href="/wiki/Lift-off_(microtechnology)" title="Lift-off (microtechnology)">lift-off</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="White_LEDs_and_the_illumination_breakthrough">White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: White LEDs and the illumination breakthrough">edit</a>]</div> Even though white light can be created using individual red, green and blue LEDs, this results in poor <a href="/wiki/Color_rendering" title="Color rendering">color rendering</a>, since only three narrow bands of wavelengths of light are being emitted. The attainment of high efficiency blue LEDs was quickly followed by the development of the first <a href="#Phosphor-based_LEDs">white LED</a>. In this device a Y 3Al 5O 12:Ce (known as "<a href="/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet" title="Yttrium aluminium garnet">YAG</a>" or Ce:YAG phosphor) <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>-doped <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a> coating produces yellow light through <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a>. The combination of that yellow with remaining blue light appears white to the eye. Using different phosphors produces green and red light through fluorescence. The resulting mixture of red, green and blue is perceived as white light, with improved color rendering compared to wavelengths from the blue LED/YAG phosphor combination.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haitz-law.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Haitz-law.svg/320px-Haitz-law.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Haitz-law.svg/480px-Haitz-law.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Haitz-law.svg/640px-Haitz-law.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of <a href="/wiki/Haitz%27s_law" title="Haitz's law">Haitz's law</a>, showing improvement in light output per LED over time, with a logarithmic scale on the vertical axis</figcaption></figure> The first white LEDs were expensive and inefficient. The light output then increased <a href="/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">exponentially</a>. The latest research and development has been propagated by Japanese manufacturers such as <a href="/wiki/Panasonic" title="Panasonic">Panasonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nichia" title="Nichia">Nichia</a>, and by Korean and Chinese manufacturers such as <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a>, Solstice, Kingsun, Hoyol and others. This trend in increased output has been called <a href="/wiki/Haitz%27s_law" title="Haitz's law">Haitz's law</a> after Roland Haitz.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Light output and efficiency of blue and near-ultraviolet LEDs rose and the cost of reliable devices fell. This led to relatively high-power white-light LEDs for illumination, which are replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Experimental white LEDs were demonstrated in 2014 to produce 303 lumens per watt of electricity (lm/W); some can last up to 100,000 hours.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Commercially available LEDs have an efficiency of up to 223 lm/W as of 2018.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> A previous record of 135 lm/W was achieved by Nichia in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Compared to incandescent bulbs, this is a huge increase in electrical efficiency, and even though LEDs are more expensive to purchase, overall lifetime cost is significantly cheaper than that of incandescent bulbs.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The LED chip is encapsulated inside a small, plastic, white mold<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> although sometimes an LED package can incorporate a reflector.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> It can be encapsulated using resin (<a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a>-based), silicone,<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> or epoxy<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> containing (powdered) Cerium-doped YAG phosphor particles.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-95">[95]</a> The viscosity of phosphor-silicon mixtures must be carefully controlled.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-95">[95]</a> After application of a phosphor-silicon mixture on the LED using techniques such as jet dispensing,<a href="#cite_note-auto2-96">[96]</a> and allowing the solvents to evaporate, the LEDs are often tested, and placed on tapes for <a href="/wiki/SMT_placement_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="SMT placement equipment">SMT placement equipment</a> for use in LED light bulb production. Some "remote phosphor" LED light bulbs use a single plastic cover with YAG phosphor for one<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> or several blue LEDs, instead of using phosphor coatings on single-chip white LEDs.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Ce:YAG phosphors and epoxy in LEDs<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> can degrade with use, and is more apparent with higher concentrations of Ce:YAG in phosphor-silicone mixtures, because the Ce:YAG decomposes with use.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The output of LEDs can shift to yellow over time due to degradation of the silicone.<a href="#cite_note-auto-92">[92]</a> There are several variants of Ce:YAG, and manufacturers in many cases do not reveal the exact composition of their Ce:YAG offerings.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Several other phosphors are available for phosphor-converted LEDs to produce several colors such as red, which uses nitrosilicate phosphors,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> and many other kinds of phosphor materials exist for LEDs such as phosphors based on oxides, oxynitrides, oxyhalides, halides, nitrides, sulfides, quantum dots, and inorganic-organic hybrid semiconductors. A single LED can have several phosphors at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Some LEDs use phosphors made of glass-ceramic or composite phosphor/glass materials.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Alternatively, the LED chips themselves can be coated with a thin coating of phosphor-containing material, called a conformal coating.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The temperature of the phosphor during operation and how it is applied limits the size of an LED die. <a href="/wiki/Wafer-level_packaging" title="Wafer-level packaging">Wafer-level packaged</a> white LEDs allow for extremely small LEDs.<a href="#cite_note-Toshiba-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polychromatic">Polychromatic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Polychromatic">edit</a>]</div> In 2024, QPixel introduced as polychromatic LED that could replace the 3-subpixel model for digital displays. The technology uses a <a href="/wiki/Gallium_nitride" title="Gallium nitride">gallium nitride</a> semiconductor that emits light of different frequencies modulated by voltage changes. A prototype display achieved a resolution of 6,800 PPI or 3k x 1.5k pixels.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physics_of_light_production_and_emission">Physics of light production and emission</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physics of light production and emission">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode_physics" title="Light-emitting diode physics">Light-emitting diode physics</a></div> In a light-emitting diode, the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor produces light (be it infrared, visible or UV), a process called "<a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">electroluminescence</a>". The wavelength of the light depends on the energy <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> of the semiconductors used. Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to efficiently emit light.<a href="#cite_note-pears1-112">[112]</a> Unlike a <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>, the light emitted from an LED is neither spectrally <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">coherent</a> nor even highly <a href="/wiki/Monochromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic">monochromatic</a>. Its <a href="/wiki/Spectrum#Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> is sufficiently narrow that it appears to the <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">human eye</a> as a pure (<a href="/wiki/Colorfulness#Saturation" title="Colorfulness">saturated</a>) color.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Also unlike most lasers, its radiation is not <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)#Spatial_coherence" title="Coherence (physics)">spatially coherent</a>, so it cannot approach the very high <a href="/wiki/Radiance" title="Radiance">intensity</a> characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Single-color_LEDs">Single-color LEDs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Single-color LEDs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg/170px-Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg/255px-Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg/340px-Blue_light_emitting_diodes_over_a_proto-board.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a> LEDs</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png/210px-Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png/315px-Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png/420px-Herb_Maruska_original_blue_LED_College_of_New_Jersey_Sarnoff_Collection.png 2x" data-file-width="1066" data-file-height="576" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/109205062">"The Original Blue LED"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_History_Institute" title="Science History Institute">Science History Institute</a></td></tr></tbody></table> By <a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode_physics#Materials" title="Light-emitting diode physics">selection of different semiconductor materials</a>, single-color LEDs can be made that emit light in a narrow band of wavelengths from near-infrared through the visible spectrum and into the ultraviolet range. The required operating voltages of LEDs increase as the emitted wavelengths become shorter (higher energy, red to blue), because of their increasing semiconductor band gap. Blue LEDs have an active region consisting of one or more InGaN <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well" title="Quantum well">quantum wells</a> sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be varied from violet to amber. <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_nitride" title="Aluminium gallium nitride">Aluminium gallium nitride</a> (AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices. If unalloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device emits near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness applications.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] With <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_nitride" title="Aluminium gallium nitride">AlGaN</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aluminium_gallium_indium_nitride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aluminium gallium indium nitride (page does not exist)">AlGaInN</a>, even shorter wavelengths are achievable. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 360–395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for example, as <a href="/wiki/Black_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Black light">black light</a> lamp replacements for inspection of anti-<a href="/wiki/Counterfeiting" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfeiting">counterfeiting</a> UV watermarks in documents and bank notes, and for <a href="/wiki/UV_curing#LEDs" title="UV curing">UV curing</a>. Substantially more expensive, shorter-wavelength diodes are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, with a peak at about 260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250–270 nm are expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices.<a href="#cite_note-water_sterilization-116">[116]</a> UV-C wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_nitride" title="Aluminium nitride">aluminium nitride</a> (210 nm),<a href="#cite_note-aln-117">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Boron_nitride" title="Boron nitride">boron nitride</a> (215 nm)<a href="#cite_note-BN-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-bn2-119">[119]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> (235 nm).<a href="#cite_note-dia-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="White_LEDs">White LEDs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: White LEDs">edit</a>]</div> There are two primary ways of producing <a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a> light-emitting diodes. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three <a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary colors</a>—red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, similar to a <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">fluorescent lamp</a>. The yellow phosphor is <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>-doped <a href="/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet" title="Yttrium aluminium garnet">YAG</a> crystals suspended in the package or coated on the LED. This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to appear yellow when off, and the space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass through in LEDs with partial phosphor conversion. Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like manganese(IV)-doped <a href="/wiki/Potassium_fluorosilicate" title="Potassium fluorosilicate">potassium fluorosilicate</a> (PFS) or other engineered phosphors. PFS assists in red light generation, and is used in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor. In LEDs with PFS phosphor, some blue light passes through the phosphors, the Ce:YAG phosphor converts blue light to green and red (yellow) light, and the PFS phosphor converts blue light to red light. The color, emission spectrum or color temperature of white phosphor converted and other phosphor converted LEDs can be controlled by changing the concentration of several phosphors that form a phosphor blend used in an LED package.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The 'whiteness' of the light produced is engineered to suit the human eye. Because of <a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">metamerism</a>, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. The appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies. This is the issue of color rendition, quite separate from color temperature. An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit the wavelength it reflects. The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of phosphors, resulting in less efficiency and better color rendering.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The first white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were offered for sale in the autumn of 1996.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Nichia made some of the first white LEDs which were based on blue LEDs with Ce:YAG phosphor.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Ce:YAG is often grown using the <a href="/wiki/Czochralski_method" title="Czochralski method">Czochralski method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RGB_systems">RGB systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: RGB systems">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg/220px-RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg/330px-RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg/440px-RGB_LED_Spectrum.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high-brightness red solid-state semiconductor LEDs. <a href="/wiki/Full_width_at_half_maximum" title="Full width at half maximum">FWHM</a> spectral bandwidth is approximately 24–27 nm for all three colors.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RGB-Led-projection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RGB-Led-projection.jpg/220px-RGB-Led-projection.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RGB-Led-projection.jpg/330px-RGB-Led-projection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RGB-Led-projection.jpg/440px-RGB-Led-projection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>An RGB LED projecting red, green, and blue onto a surface</figcaption></figure> Mixing red, green, and blue sources to produce white light needs electronic circuits to control the blending of the colors. Since LEDs have slightly different emission patterns, the color balance may change depending on the angle of view, even if the RGB sources are in a single package, so RGB diodes are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nonetheless, this method has many applications because of the flexibility of mixing different colors,<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> and in principle, this mechanism also has higher <a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a> in producing white light.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> There are several types of multicolor white LEDs: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dichromatic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:dichromatic">di-</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trichromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic">tri-</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tetrachromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrachromatic">tetrachromatic</a> white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different methods include color stability, <a href="/wiki/Color_rendering_index" title="Color rendering index">color rendering</a> capability, and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency means lower color rendering, presenting a trade-off between the luminous efficacy and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. Although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficacy. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical maximum for green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even 100 lumens per watt. The blue and red LEDs approach their theoretical limits.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Multicolor LEDs offer a means to form light of different colors. Most <a href="/wiki/Color#Perception" title="Color">perceivable colors</a> can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. Their emission power <a href="/wiki/Exponential_decay" title="Exponential decay">decays exponentially</a> with rising temperature,<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> resulting in a substantial change in color stability. Such problems inhibit industrial use. Multicolor LEDs without phosphors cannot provide good color rendering because each LED is a narrowband source. LEDs without phosphor, while a poorer solution for general lighting, are the best solution for displays, either backlight of LCD, or direct LED based pixels. Dimming a multicolor LED source to match the characteristics of incandescent lamps is difficult because manufacturing variations, age, and temperature change the actual color value output. To emulate the appearance of dimming incandescent lamps may require a feedback system with color sensor to actively monitor and control the color.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phosphor-based_LEDs">Phosphor-based LEDs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Phosphor-based LEDs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_LED.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/White_LED.png/350px-White_LED.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/White_LED.png/525px-White_LED.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/White_LED.png/700px-White_LED.png 2x" data-file-width="3423" data-file-height="2459" /></a><figcaption>Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband <a href="/wiki/Stokes_shift" title="Stokes shift">Stokes-shifted</a> light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor, which emits at roughly 500–700 nm</figcaption></figure> This method involves <a href="/wiki/Coating" title="Coating">coating</a> LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of <a href="/wiki/InGaN" class="mw-redirect" title="InGaN">InGaN</a>) with <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphors</a> of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs).<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift, which transforms it from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the original LED's color, various color phosphors are used. Using several phosphor layers of distinct colors broadens the emitted spectrum, effectively raising the <a href="/wiki/Color_Rendering_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Color Rendering Index">color rendering index</a> (CRI).<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Phosphor-based LEDs have efficiency losses due to heat loss from the <a href="/wiki/Stokes_shift" title="Stokes shift">Stokes shift</a> and also other phosphor-related issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs depend on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength of the LED itself. For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor based white LED ranges from 3 to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED because of the human eye's greater sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in the <a href="/wiki/Luminosity_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Luminosity function">luminosity function</a>). Due to the simplicity of manufacturing, the phosphor method is still the most popular method for making high-intensity white LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex <a href="#RGB_systems">RGB</a> system, and the majority of high-intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg/220px-1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg/330px-1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg/440px-1_watt_9_volt_SMD_LED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="2864" /></a><figcaption>1 watt 9 volt three chips SMD phosphor based white LED</figcaption></figure> Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is the development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is still the YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stokes shift loss. Losses attributable to internal optical losses due to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself account typically for another 10% to 30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying phosphor thickness.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated epoxy. Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed polycarbonate piece coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more diffuse light, which is desirable for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant of variations in the LED emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor material is <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>-<a href="/wiki/Doping_(Semiconductors)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doping (Semiconductors)">doped</a> <a href="/wiki/Yttrium_aluminium_garnet" title="Yttrium aluminium garnet">yttrium aluminium garnet</a> (Ce3+:YAG).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] White LEDs can also be made by <a href="/wiki/Coating" title="Coating">coating</a> near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of high-efficiency <a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">europium</a>-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to the way <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">fluorescent lamps</a> work. This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so more energy is converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both methods offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to produce white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical costly <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a> <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(materials_science)" title="Substrate (materials science)">substrate</a> in relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes.<a href="#cite_note-electronicdesign.com-135">[135]</a> The sapphire apparatus must be coupled with a mirror-like collector to reflect light that would otherwise be wasted. It was predicted that since 2020, 40% of all GaN LEDs are made with GaN-on-Si. Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult, while large silicon material is cheaper and more abundant. LED companies shifting from using sapphire to silicon should be a minimal investment.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mixed_white_LEDs">Mixed white LEDs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mixed white LEDs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Led_Lights_Panel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Led_Lights_Panel.jpg/220px-Led_Lights_Panel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Led_Lights_Panel.jpg/330px-Led_Lights_Panel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Led_Lights_Panel.jpg/440px-Led_Lights_Panel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Tunable white LED array in a floodlight</figcaption></figure> There are RGBW LEDs that combine RGB units with a phosphor white LED on the market. Doing so retains the extremely tunable color of RGB LED, but allows color rendering and efficiency to be optimized when a color close to white is selected.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Some phosphor white LED units are "tunable white", blending two extremes of color temperatures (commonly 2700K and 6500K) to produce intermediate values. This feature allows users to change the lighting to suit the current use of a multifunction room.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> As illustrated by a straight line on the chromaticity diagram, simple two-white blends will have a pink bias, becoming most severe in the middle. A small amount of green light, provided by another LED, could correct the problem.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Some products are RGBWW, i.e. RGBW with tunable white.<a href="#cite_note-EG.COL.T-140">[140]</a> A final class of white LED with mixed light is dim-to-warm. These are ordinary 2700K white LED bulbs with a small red LED that turns on when the bulb is dimmed. Doing so makes the color warmer, emulating an incandescent light bulb.<a href="#cite_note-EG.COL.T-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_white_LEDs">Other white LEDs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other white LEDs">edit</a>]</div> Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was based on <a href="/wiki/Epitaxy" title="Epitaxy">homoepitaxially</a> grown <a href="/wiki/Zinc_selenide" title="Zinc selenide">zinc selenide</a> (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organic_light-emitting_diodes_(OLEDs)">Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">OLED</a></div> In an organic light-emitting diode (<a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">OLED</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">electroluminescent</a> material composing the emissive layer of the diode is an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a>. The organic material is electrically conductive due to the <a href="/wiki/Delocalized_electron" title="Delocalized electron">delocalization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi electrons</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Conjugated_system" title="Conjugated system">conjugation</a> over all or part of the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an <a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">organic semiconductor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The organic materials can be small organic <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OLEDSolidState-143">[143]</a> The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color <a href="/wiki/Gamut" title="Gamut">gamut</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bardsley-144">[144]</a> Polymer LEDs have the added benefit of printable and <a href="/wiki/Flexible_organic_light-emitting_diode" title="Flexible organic light-emitting diode">flexible</a> displays.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and televisions.<a href="#cite_note-OLEDSolidState-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-bardsley-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg/397px-Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg" decoding="async" width="397" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg/596px-Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg/794px-Verschiedene_LEDs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3392" data-file-height="1193" /></a><figcaption>LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in <a href="/wiki/Surface-mount_technology" title="Surface-mount technology">surface-mount technology</a> (SMT) packages (not shown).</figcaption></figure> LEDs are made in different packages for different applications. A single or a few LED junctions may be packed in one miniature device for use as an indicator or pilot lamp. An LED array may include controlling circuits within the same package, which may range from a simple <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistor</a>, blinking or color changing control, or an addressable controller for RGB devices. Higher-powered white-emitting devices will be mounted on heat sinks and will be used for illumination. Alphanumeric displays in dot matrix or bar formats are widely available. Special packages permit connection of LEDs to optical fibers for high-speed data communication links. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miniature">Miniature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Miniature">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg/220px-Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg/330px-Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg/440px-Single_and_multicolor_surface_mount_miniature_LEDs_in_most_common_sizes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2601" /></a><figcaption>Image of miniature <a href="/wiki/SMD_LED" title="SMD LED">surface mount LEDs</a> in most common sizes. They can be much smaller than a traditional 5 mm lamp type LED, shown on the upper left corner.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg/220px-Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg/330px-Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg/440px-Very_small_1.6x1.6x0.35_mm_RGB_Surface_Mount_LED_EAST1616RGBA2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>Very small (1.6×1.6×0.35 mm) red, green, and blue surface mount miniature LED package with gold <a href="/wiki/Wire_bonding" title="Wire bonding">wire bonding</a> details</figcaption></figure> These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 1.8 mm to 10 mm, <a href="/wiki/Through-hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Through-hole">through-hole</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surface_mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface mount">surface mount</a> packages.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Typical current ratings range from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. LED's can be soldered to a flexible PCB strip to form LED tape popularly used for decoration. Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle. Infrared devices may have a black tint to block visible light while passing infrared radiation, such as the Osram SFH 4546.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> 5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that have a series resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-power">High-power</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: High-power">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_(Luxeon,_Lumiled).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_%28Luxeon%2C_Lumiled%29.jpg/220px-2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_%28Luxeon%2C_Lumiled%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_%28Luxeon%2C_Lumiled%29.jpg/330px-2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_%28Luxeon%2C_Lumiled%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_%28Luxeon%2C_Lumiled%29.jpg/440px-2007-07-24_High-power_light_emitting_diodes_%28Luxeon%2C_Lumiled%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (<a href="/wiki/Luxeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxeon">Luxeon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philips_Lumileds_Lighting_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Philips Lumileds Lighting Company">Lumileds</a>)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_lighting" title="Solid-state lighting">Solid-state lighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamp</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_of_high-power_LEDs" title="Thermal management of high-power LEDs">Thermal management of high-power LEDs</a></div> High-power LEDs (HP-LEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> LED <a href="/wiki/Power_density" title="Power density">power densities</a> up to 300 W/cm2 have been achieved. Since overheating is destructive, the HP-LEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from an HP-LED is not removed, the device fails in seconds. One HP-LED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a <a href="/wiki/Flashlight" title="Flashlight">flashlight</a>, or be set in an array to form a powerful <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamp</a>. Some HP-LEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009, some HP-LEDs manufactured by Cree exceed 105 lm/W.<a href="#cite_note-Xlamp_Xp-G_Led-153">[153]</a> Examples for <a href="/wiki/Haitz%27s_law" title="Haitz's law">Haitz's law</a>—which predicts an exponential rise in light output and efficacy of LEDs over time—are the CREE XP-G series LED, which achieved 105 lm/W in 2009<a href="#cite_note-Xlamp_Xp-G_Led-153">[153]</a> and the Nichia 19 series with a typical efficacy of 140 lm/W, released in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="AC-driven">AC-driven</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: AC-driven">edit</a>]</div> LEDs developed by Seoul Semiconductor can operate on AC power without a DC converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficiency of this type of HP-LED is typically 40 lm/W.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED, named 'Acrich MJT', capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low-power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design.<a href="#cite_note-IDA-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strip">Strip</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Strip">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/LED_strip_light" title="LED strip light">LED strip light</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LED_strip_light&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Passenger_Experience_Week_2018,_Hamburg_(1X7A3748).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Passenger_Experience_Week_2018%2C_Hamburg_%281X7A3748%29.jpg/220px-Passenger_Experience_Week_2018%2C_Hamburg_%281X7A3748%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Passenger_Experience_Week_2018%2C_Hamburg_%281X7A3748%29.jpg/330px-Passenger_Experience_Week_2018%2C_Hamburg_%281X7A3748%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Passenger_Experience_Week_2018%2C_Hamburg_%281X7A3748%29.jpg/440px-Passenger_Experience_Week_2018%2C_Hamburg_%281X7A3748%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption>Several LED spots being reflected as continuous lighting strip</figcaption></figure> An <a href="/wiki/LED_strip_light" title="LED strip light">LED strip</a>, tape, or ribbon light is a flexible circuit board populated by <a href="/wiki/Surface-mount_technology" title="Surface-mount technology">surface-mount</a> light-emitting diodes (SMD LEDs) and other components that usually comes with an adhesive backing. Traditionally, strip lights had been used solely in accent lighting, backlighting, task lighting, and decorative lighting applications, such as <a href="/wiki/Cove_lighting" title="Cove lighting">cove lighting</a>. LED strip lights originated in the early 2000s. Since then, increased <a href="/wiki/Luminous_efficacy" title="Luminous efficacy">luminous efficacy</a> and higher-power SMDs have allowed them to be used in applications such as high brightness task lighting, fluorescent and halogen lighting fixture replacements, indirect lighting applications, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> inspection during manufacturing processes, set and costume design, and growing plants.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Application-specific">Application-specific</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Application-specific">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Light-emitting_diode" title="Special:EditPage/Light-emitting diode">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Light-emitting+diode%22">"Light-emitting diode"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Light-emitting+diode%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Light-emitting+diode%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Light-emitting+diode%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Light-emitting+diode%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Light-emitting+diode%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (October 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RGB-SMD-LED.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/RGB-SMD-LED.jpg/220px-RGB-SMD-LED.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/RGB-SMD-LED.jpg/330px-RGB-SMD-LED.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/RGB-SMD-LED.jpg/440px-RGB-SMD-LED.jpg 2x" data-file-width="731" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>RGB-SMD-LED</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg/170px-Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg/255px-Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg/340px-Macro_photo_of_LED_matrix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4558" /></a><figcaption>Composite image of an 11 × 44 LED matrix lapel <a href="/wiki/Name_tag" title="Name tag">name tag</a> display using 1608/0603-type SMD LEDs. Top: A little over half of the 21 × 86 mm display. Center: Close-up of LEDs in ambient light. Bottom: LEDs in their own red light.</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>Flashing</dt> <dd>Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated <a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">voltage regulator</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Multivibrator" title="Multivibrator">multivibrator</a> circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs, this circuit is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing. Flashing SMD LEDs in the 0805 and other size formats have been available since early 2019.</dd> <dt>Flickering</dt> <dd>Integrated electronics Simple electronic circuits integrated into the LED package have been around since at least 2011 which produce a random LED intensity pattern reminiscent of a flickering <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">candle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reverse_engineering" title="Reverse engineering">Reverse engineering</a> in 2024 has suggested that some flickering LEDs with automatic sleep and wake modes might be using an integrated <a href="/wiki/8-bit_computing" title="8-bit computing">8-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontroller</a> for such functionally.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></dd> <dt>Bi-color</dt> <dd>Bi-color LEDs contain two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads <a href="/wiki/Antiparallel_(electronics)" title="Antiparallel (electronics)">antiparallel</a> to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode so that they can be controlled independently. The most common bi-color combination is <a href="/wiki/RG_color_space" class="mw-redirect" title="RG color space">red/traditional green</a>. Others include amber/traditional green, red/pure green, red/blue, and blue/pure green.</dd> <dt>RGB tri-color</dt> <dd>Tri-color LEDs contain three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color. Others have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built-in electronic controller. <a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB</a> LEDs consist of one red, one green, and one blue LED.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> By independently <a href="/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation" title="Pulse-width modulation">adjusting</a> each of the three, RGB LEDs are capable of producing a wide color gamut. Unlike dedicated-color LEDs, these do not produce pure wavelengths. Modules may not be optimized for smooth color mixing.</dd> <dt>Decorative-multicolor</dt> <dd>Decorative-multicolor LEDs incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied by only two lead-out wires. Colors are switched internally by varying the supply voltage.</dd> <dt>Alphanumeric</dt> <dd>Alphanumeric LEDs are available in <a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">seven-segment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Starburst_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Starburst display">starburst</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dot-matrix_display" title="Dot-matrix display">dot-matrix</a> format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Dot-matrix displays typically use 5×7 pixels per character. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of <a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal display">liquid crystal displays</a>, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.</dd> <dt>Digital RGB</dt> <dd>Digital RGB addressable LEDs contain their own "smart" control electronics. In addition to power and ground, these provide connections for data-in, data-out, clock and sometimes a strobe signal. These are connected in a <a href="/wiki/Daisy_chain_(electrical_engineering)" title="Daisy chain (electrical engineering)">daisy chain</a>, which allows individual LEDs in a long <a href="/wiki/LED_strip_light" title="LED strip light">LED strip light</a> to be easily controlled by a microcontroller. Data sent to the first LED of the chain can control the brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They are used where a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such as strings for Christmas and LED matrices. Some even have refresh rates in the kHz range, allowing for basic video applications. These devices are known by their part number (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/datasheets/WS2812.pdf">WS2812</a> being common) or a brand name such as <a href="/wiki/Adafruit_Industries#NeoPixel" title="Adafruit Industries">NeoPixel</a>.</dd> <dt>Filament</dt> <dd>An <a href="/wiki/LED_filament" title="LED filament">LED filament</a> consists of multiple LED chips connected in series on a common longitudinal substrate that forms a thin rod reminiscent of a traditional incandescent filament.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> These are being used as a low-cost decorative alternative for traditional light bulbs that are being phased out in many countries. The filaments use a rather high voltage, allowing them to work efficiently with mains voltages. Often a simple rectifier and capacitive current limiting are employed to create a low-cost replacement for a traditional light bulb without the complexity of the low voltage, high current converter that single die LEDs need.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Usually, they are packaged in bulb similar to the lamps they were designed to replace, and filled with inert gas at slightly lower than ambient pressure to remove heat efficiently and prevent corrosion.</dd> <dt>Chip-on-board arrays</dt> <dd>Surface-mounted LEDs are frequently produced in <a href="/wiki/Chip_on_board" title="Chip on board">chip on board</a> (COB) arrays, allowing better heat dissipation than with a single LED of comparable luminous output.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The LEDs can be arranged around a cylinder, and are called "corn cob lights" because of the rows of yellow LEDs.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Considerations_for_use">Considerations for use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Considerations for use">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.</li> <li>Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a>) and are easily attached to printed circuit boards.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_sources">Power sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Power sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/LED_power_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="LED power sources">LED power sources</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_circuit.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/LED_circuit.svg/170px-LED_circuit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/LED_circuit.svg/255px-LED_circuit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/LED_circuit.svg/340px-LED_circuit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a><figcaption>Simple LED circuit with resistor for current limiting</figcaption></figure> The current in an LED or other diodes rises exponentially with the applied voltage (see <a href="/wiki/Shockley_diode_equation" title="Shockley diode equation">Shockley diode equation</a>), so a small change in voltage can cause a large change in current. Current through the LED must be regulated by an external circuit such as a <a href="/wiki/Constant_current" title="Constant current">constant current</a> source to prevent damage. Since most common power supplies are (nearly) constant-voltage sources, LED fixtures must include a power converter, or at least a current-limiting resistor. In some applications, the internal resistance of small batteries is sufficient to keep current within the LED rating.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] LEDs are sensitive to voltage. They must be supplied with a voltage above their <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction#Forward_bias" title="P–n junction">threshold voltage</a> and a current below their rating. Current and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied voltage. They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/LED_droop" class="mw-redirect" title="LED droop">Efficiency droop</a>: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> increases. Heating also increases with higher currents, which compromises LED lifetime. These effects put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.<a href="#cite_note-stevenson-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrical_polarity">Electrical polarity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Electrical polarity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrical_polarity_of_LEDs" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical polarity of LEDs">Electrical polarity of LEDs</a></div> Unlike a traditional incandescent lamp, an LED will light only when voltage is applied in the forward direction of the diode. No current flows and no light is emitted if voltage is applied in the reverse direction. If the reverse voltage exceeds the <a href="/wiki/Breakdown_voltage" title="Breakdown voltage">breakdown voltage</a>, which is typically about five volts, a large current flows and the LED will be damaged. If the reverse current is sufficiently limited to avoid damage, the reverse-conducting LED is a useful <a href="/wiki/Hardware_random_number_generator" title="Hardware random number generator">noise diode</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] By definition, the energy band gap of any diode is higher when reverse-biased than when forward-biased. Because the band gap energy determines the wavelength of the light emitted, the color cannot be the same when reverse-biased. The reverse breakdown voltage is sufficiently high that the emitted wavelength cannot be similar enough to still be visible. Though dual-LED packages exist that contain a different color LED in each direction, it is not expected that any single LED element can emit visible light when reverse-biased.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It is not known if any zener diode could exist that emits light only in reverse-bias mode. Uniquely, this type of LED would conduct when connected backwards. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appearance">Appearance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Appearance">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.</li> <li>Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.</li> <li>Color rendition: Most cool-<a href="#Other_white_LEDs">white LEDs</a> have spectra that differ significantly from a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can make the color of objects <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">appear differently</a> under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to <a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">metamerism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The same is true with green surfaces. The quality of color rendition of an LED is measured by the <a href="/wiki/Color_rendering_index" title="Color rendering index">Color Rendering Index (CRI)</a>.</li> <li>Dimming: LEDs can be <a href="/wiki/Dimmer" title="Dimmer">dimmed</a> either by <a href="/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation" title="Pulse-width modulation">pulse-width modulation</a> or lowering the forward current.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or flicker. This is a type of <a href="/wiki/Stroboscopic_effect" title="Stroboscopic effect">stroboscopic effect</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_properties">Light properties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Light properties">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Switch on time: LEDs light up extremely quickly. A typical red indicator LED achieves full brightness in under a <a href="/wiki/Microsecond" title="Microsecond">microsecond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.</li> <li>Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to <a href="/wiki/Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">focus</a> its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages <a href="/wiki/Total_internal_reflection" title="Total internal reflection">total internal reflection</a> (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect. When large quantities of light are needed, many light sources such as LED chips are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or <a href="/wiki/Collimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Collimate">collimate</a> on the same target.</li> <li>Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a <a href="/wiki/Point_source" title="Point source">point source</a> of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a <a href="/wiki/Lambert%27s_cosine_law" title="Lambert's cosine law">lambertian</a> distribution. So, LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. Different fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reliability">Reliability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Reliability">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></li> <li>Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly due to the manufacturing tolerances in their forward voltage. Running two or more strings from a single current source may result in LED failure as the devices warm up. If forward voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></li> <li>Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.<a href="#cite_note-eere-174">[174]</a></li> <li>Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be shorter or longer.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">DOE</a> demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></li> <li>Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or <a href="/wiki/High-intensity_discharge_lamp" title="High-intensity discharge lamp">high-intensity discharge lamps</a> (HID lamps) that require a long time to warm up to full output and to cool down before they can be lighted again if they are being restarted.</li> <li>Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment – or thermal management properties. Overdriving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sink</a> is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, and require low failure rates.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Manufacturing">edit</a>]</div> LED manufacturing involves multiple steps, including epitaxy, chip processing, chip separation, and packaging.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> In a typical LED manufacturing process, encapsulation is performed after probing, dicing, die transfer from wafer to package, and wire bonding or flip chip mounting,<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> perhaps using <a href="/wiki/Indium_tin_oxide" title="Indium tin oxide">indium tin oxide</a>, a transparent electrical conductor. In this case, the bond wire(s) are attached to the ITO film that has been deposited in the LEDs. Flip chip circuit on board (COB) is a technique that can be used to manufacture LEDs.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colors_and_materials">Colors and materials</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Colors and materials">edit</a>]</div> Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductor materials">semiconductor materials</a>, the following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material: <table class="wikitable" border="1"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Color </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">Wavelength</a> (nm) </th> <th>Voltage (V) </th> <th>Semiconductor Material </th></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="white"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">λ</a> > 760 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Delta_(letter)" title="Delta (letter)">Δ</a>V < 1.9 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">Gallium arsenide</a> (GaAs) <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenide" title="Aluminium gallium arsenide">Aluminium gallium arsenide</a> (AlGaAs) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="red"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a> </td> <td>610 < λ < 760 </td> <td>1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_arsenide" title="Aluminium gallium arsenide">Aluminium gallium arsenide</a> (AlGaAs) <a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphide" title="Gallium arsenide phosphide">Gallium arsenide phosphide</a> (GaAsP) <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphide" title="Aluminium gallium indium phosphide">Aluminium gallium indium phosphide</a> (AlGaInP) <a href="/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium(III) phosphide">Gallium(III) phosphide</a> (GaP) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#FF7F00"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a> </td> <td>590 < λ < 610 </td> <td>2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphide" title="Gallium arsenide phosphide">Gallium arsenide phosphide</a> (GaAsP) <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphide" title="Aluminium gallium indium phosphide">Aluminium gallium indium phosphide</a> (AlGaInP) <a href="/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium(III) phosphide">Gallium(III) phosphide</a> (GaP) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="yellow"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a> </td> <td>570 < λ < 590 </td> <td>2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide_phosphide" title="Gallium arsenide phosphide">Gallium arsenide phosphide</a> (GaAsP) <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphide" title="Aluminium gallium indium phosphide">Aluminium gallium indium phosphide</a> (AlGaInP) <a href="/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium(III) phosphide">Gallium(III) phosphide</a> (GaP) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#00FF00"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a> </td> <td>500 < λ < 570 </td> <td>1.9<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> < ΔV < 4.0 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitride" title="Indium gallium nitride">Indium gallium nitride</a> (InGaN) / <a href="/wiki/Gallium(III)_nitride" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium(III) nitride">Gallium(III) nitride</a> (GaN) <a href="/wiki/Gallium(III)_phosphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium(III) phosphide">Gallium(III) phosphide</a> (GaP) <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_indium_phosphide" title="Aluminium gallium indium phosphide">Aluminium gallium indium phosphide</a> (AlGaInP) <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_phosphide" title="Aluminium gallium phosphide">Aluminium gallium phosphide</a> (AlGaP) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="blue"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a> </td> <td>450 < λ < 500 </td> <td>2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc_selenide" title="Zinc selenide">Zinc selenide</a> (ZnSe) <a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitride" title="Indium gallium nitride">Indium gallium nitride</a> (InGaN) <a href="/wiki/Silicon_carbide" title="Silicon carbide">Silicon carbide</a> (SiC) as substrate <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> (Si) as substrate — (under development) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#8B00FF"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">Violet</a> </td> <td>400 < λ < 450 </td> <td>2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indium_gallium_nitride" title="Indium gallium nitride">Indium gallium nitride</a> (InGaN) </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="#BF00FF"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a> </td> <td>multiple types </td> <td>2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 </td> <td>Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plastic </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="white"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a> </td> <td>λ < 400 </td> <td>3.1 < ΔV < 4.4 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">Diamond</a> (235 nm)<a href="#cite_note-dia2-181">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Boron_nitride" title="Boron nitride">Boron nitride</a> (215 nm)<a href="#cite_note-BN2-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-bn22-183">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_nitride" title="Aluminium nitride">Aluminium nitride</a> (AlN) (210 nm)<a href="#cite_note-aln2-184">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_gallium_nitride" title="Aluminium gallium nitride">Aluminium gallium nitride</a> (AlGaN) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aluminium_gallium_indium_nitride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aluminium gallium indium nitride (page does not exist)">Aluminium gallium indium nitride</a> (AlGaInN) — (down to 210 nm)<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td bgcolor="white"> </td> <td>White </td> <td>Broad spectrum </td> <td>2.7 < ΔV < 3.5 </td> <td>Blue diode with yellow phosphor or violet/UV diode with multi-color phosphor   </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg/220px-LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg/330px-LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg/440px-LED_DaytimeRunningLights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3526" data-file-height="2350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daytime_running_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Daytime running light">Daytime running light</a> LEDs of an automobile</figcaption></figure> LED uses fall into five major categories: <ul><li>Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">Illumination</a> where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects</li> <li>Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a></li> <li>Narrow band light sensors where <a href="/wiki/LEDs_as_light_sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="LEDs as light sensors">LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode</a> and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a></li> <li>Indoor cultivation, including cannabis.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a></li></ul> The application of LEDs in horticulture has revolutionized plant cultivation by providing energy-efficient, customizable lighting solutions that optimize plant growth and development.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> LEDs offer precise control over light spectra, intensity, and photoperiods, enabling growers to tailor lighting conditions to the specific needs of different plant species and growth stages. This technology enhances photosynthesis, improves crop yields, and reduces energy costs compared to traditional lighting systems. Additionally, LEDs generate less heat, allowing closer placement to plants without risking thermal damage, and contribute to sustainable farming practices by lowering carbon footprints and extending growing seasons in controlled environments.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Light spectrum affects growth, metabolite profile, and resistance against fungal phytopathogens of <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">Solanum lycopersicum</a> seedlings.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> LEDs can also be used in <a href="/wiki/Micropropagation" title="Micropropagation">micropropagation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indicators_and_signs">Indicators and signs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Indicators and signs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Light-emitting_diode" title="Special:EditPage/Light-emitting diode">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (October 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">low energy consumption</a>, low maintenance and small size of LEDs has led to uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Large-area <a href="/wiki/LED_display" title="LED display">LED displays</a> are used as stadium displays, dynamic decorative displays, and <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_message_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic message sign">dynamic message signs</a> on freeways. Thin, lightweight message displays are used at airports and railway stations, and as <a href="/wiki/Destination_sign" title="Destination sign">destination displays</a> for trains, buses, trams, and ferries. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_and_green_traffic_signals,_Stamford_Road,_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Red_and_green_traffic_signals%2C_Stamford_Road%2C_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg/170px-Red_and_green_traffic_signals%2C_Stamford_Road%2C_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Red_and_green_traffic_signals%2C_Stamford_Road%2C_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg/255px-Red_and_green_traffic_signals%2C_Stamford_Road%2C_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Red_and_green_traffic_signals%2C_Stamford_Road%2C_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg/340px-Red_and_green_traffic_signals%2C_Stamford_Road%2C_Singapore_-_20111210.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3078" data-file-height="3204" /></a><figcaption>Red and green LED traffic signals</figcaption></figure> One-color light is well suited for <a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">traffic lights</a> and signals, <a href="/wiki/Exit_sign" title="Exit sign">exit signs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emergency_vehicle_lighting" title="Emergency vehicle lighting">emergency vehicle lighting</a>, ships' navigation lights, and <a href="/wiki/Christmas_lighting_technology#LEDs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christmas lighting technology">LED-based Christmas lights</a> Because of their long life, fast switching times, and visibility in broad daylight due to their high output and focus, LEDs have been used in automotive brake lights and turn signals. The use in brakes improves safety, due to a great reduction in the time needed to light fully, or faster rise time, about 0.1 second faster[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] than an incandescent bulb. This gives drivers behind more time to react. In a dual intensity circuit (rear markers and brakes) if the LEDs are not pulsed at a fast enough frequency, they can create a <a href="/wiki/Flicker_fusion_threshold#Visual_phenomena" title="Flicker fusion threshold">phantom array</a>, where ghost images of the LED appear if the eyes quickly scan across the array. White LED headlamps are beginning to appear. Using LEDs has styling advantages because LEDs can form much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with <a href="/wiki/Parabolic_reflector" title="Parabolic reflector">parabolic reflectors</a>. Due to the relative cheapness of low output LEDs, they are also used in many temporary uses such as <a href="/wiki/Glowstick" class="mw-redirect" title="Glowstick">glowsticks</a> and throwies. Artists have also used LEDs for <a href="/wiki/LED_art" title="LED art">LED art</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lighting">Lighting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Lighting">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamp</a></div> With the development of high-efficiency and high-power LEDs, it has become possible to use LEDs in lighting and illumination. To encourage the shift to <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamps</a> and other high-efficiency lighting, in 2008 the <a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Energy">US Department of Energy</a> created the <a href="/wiki/L_Prize" title="L Prize">L Prize</a> competition. The <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> Lighting North America LED bulb won the first competition on August 3, 2011, after successfully completing 18 months of intensive field, lab, and product testing.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Efficient lighting is needed for <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">sustainable architecture</a>. As of 2011, some LED bulbs provide up to 150 lm/W and even inexpensive low-end models typically exceed 50 lm/W, so that a 6-watt LED could achieve the same results as a standard 40-watt incandescent bulb. The lower heat output of LEDs also reduces demand on <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a> systems. Worldwide, LEDs are rapidly adopted to displace less effective sources such as <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent lamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp" title="Compact fluorescent lamp">CFLs</a> and reduce electrical energy consumption and its associated emissions. Solar powered LEDs are used as <a href="/wiki/Street_light" title="Street light">street lights</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Architectural_lighting_design" title="Architectural lighting design">architectural lighting</a>. The mechanical robustness and long lifetime are used in <a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting" title="Automotive lighting">automotive lighting</a> on cars, motorcycles, and <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_lighting#LEDs" title="Bicycle lighting">bicycle lights</a>. <a href="/wiki/LED_street_light" title="LED street light">LED street lights</a> are employed on poles and in parking garages. In 2007, the Italian village of <a href="/wiki/Torraca" title="Torraca">Torraca</a> was the first place to convert its street lighting to LEDs.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Cabin lighting on recent[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] <a href="/wiki/Airbus" title="Airbus">Airbus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boeing" title="Boeing">Boeing</a> jetliners uses LED lighting. LEDs are also being used in airport and heliport lighting. LED airport fixtures currently include medium-intensity runway lights, runway centerline lights, taxiway centerline and edge lights, guidance signs, and obstruction lighting. LEDs are also used as a light source for <a href="/wiki/Digital_Light_Processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Light Processing">DLP</a> projectors, and to <a href="/wiki/Backlight" title="Backlight">backlight</a> newer <a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid crystal display">LCD</a> television (referred to as <a href="/wiki/LED-backlit_LCD_display" class="mw-redirect" title="LED-backlit LCD display">LED TV</a>), computer monitor (including <a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">laptop</a>) and handheld device LCDs, succeeding older <a href="/wiki/CCFL" class="mw-redirect" title="CCFL">CCFL</a>-backlit LCDs although being superseded by <a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">OLED</a> screens. RGB LEDs raise the color gamut by as much as 45%. Screens for TV and computer displays can be made thinner using LEDs for backlighting.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices such as <a href="/wiki/Flashlight" title="Flashlight">flashlights</a>. LED <a href="/wiki/Strobe_light" title="Strobe light">strobe lights</a> or <a href="/wiki/Camera_flash" class="mw-redirect" title="Camera flash">camera flashes</a> operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the 250+ volts commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially useful in cameras on <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable. LEDs are used for infrared illumination in <a href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night vision</a> uses including <a href="/wiki/Security_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Security camera">security cameras</a>. A ring of LEDs around a <a href="/wiki/Video_camera" title="Video camera">video camera</a>, aimed forward into a <a href="/wiki/Retroreflective" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroreflective">retroreflective</a> <a href="/wiki/Projection_screen" title="Projection screen">background</a>, allows <a href="/wiki/Chroma_keying" class="mw-redirect" title="Chroma keying">chroma keying</a> in <a href="/wiki/Video_production" title="Video production">video productions</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_for_mines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/LED_for_mines.jpg/220px-LED_for_mines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/LED_for_mines.jpg/330px-LED_for_mines.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/LED_for_mines.jpg/440px-LED_for_mines.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>LED for miners, to increase visibility inside mines</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg/220px-Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg/330px-Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg/440px-Los_Angeles_Bridge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Los Angeles <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Thomas_Bridge" title="Vincent Thomas Bridge">Vincent Thomas Bridge</a> illuminated with blue LEDs</figcaption></figure> LEDs are used in <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> operations, as <a href="/wiki/Cap_lamp" title="Cap lamp">cap lamps</a> to provide light for miners. Research has been done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to increase illumination, reducing risk of injury to the miners.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> LEDs are increasingly finding uses in medical and educational applications, for example as mood enhancement.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> has even sponsored research for the use of LEDs to promote health for astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_communication_and_other_signalling">Data communication and other signalling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Data communication and other signalling">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Li-Fi" title="Li-Fi">Li-Fi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fibre_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibre optics">fibre optics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visible_light_communication" title="Visible light communication">Visible light communication</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></div> Light can be used to transmit data and analog signals. For example, lighting white LEDs can be used in systems assisting people to navigate in closed spaces while searching necessary rooms or objects.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assistive_listening_device" title="Assistive listening device">Assistive listening devices</a> in many theaters and similar spaces use arrays of infrared LEDs to send sound to listeners' receivers. Light-emitting diodes (as well as semiconductor lasers) are used to send data over many types of <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber optic</a> cable, from digital audio over <a href="/wiki/TOSLINK" title="TOSLINK">TOSLINK</a> cables to the very high bandwidth fiber links that form the Internet backbone. For some time, computers were commonly equipped with <a href="/wiki/IrDA" class="mw-redirect" title="IrDA">IrDA</a> interfaces, which allowed them to send and receive data to nearby machines via infrared. Because LEDs can <a href="/wiki/Frequency" title="Frequency">cycle on and off</a> millions of times per second, very high data bandwidth can be achieved.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> For that reason, <a href="/wiki/Visible_light_communication" title="Visible light communication">visible light communication</a> (VLC) has been proposed as an alternative to the increasingly competitive radio bandwidth.<a href="#cite_note-:4-204">[204]</a> VLC operates in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so data can be transmitted without occupying the frequencies of radio communications. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Machine_vision_systems">Machine vision systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Machine vision systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Machine_vision" title="Machine vision">Machine vision</a> systems often require bright and homogeneous illumination, so features of interest are easier to process. LEDs are often used. <a href="/wiki/Barcode_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="Barcode scanner">Barcode scanners</a> are the most common example of machine vision applications, and many of those scanners use red LEDs instead of lasers. Optical computer mice use LEDs as a light source for the miniature camera within the mouse. LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of light. LED lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the shape of the beam produced can be tailored to match the system's requirements. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_detection">Biological detection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Biological detection">edit</a>]</div> The discovery of radiative recombination in aluminum gallium nitride (AlGaN) alloys by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Army Research Laboratory">U.S. Army Research Laboratory</a> (ARL) led to the conceptualization of UV light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to be incorporated in light-induced <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a> sensors used for biological agent detection.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-207">[207]</a> In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/Edgewood_Chemical_Biological_Center" title="Edgewood Chemical Biological Center">Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC)</a> initiated the effort to create a biological detector named TAC-BIO. The program capitalized on semiconductor UV optical sources (SUVOS) developed by the <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-207">[207]</a> UV-induced fluorescence is one of the most robust techniques used for rapid real-time detection of biological aerosols.<a href="#cite_note-:2-207">[207]</a> The first UV sensors were lasers lacking in-field-use practicality. In order to address this, DARPA incorporated SUVOS technology to create a low-cost, small, lightweight, low-power device. The TAC-BIO detector's response time was one minute from when it sensed a biological agent. It was also demonstrated that the detector could be operated unattended indoors and outdoors for weeks at a time.<a href="#cite_note-:2-207">[207]</a> Aerosolized biological particles fluoresce and scatter light under a UV light beam. Observed fluorescence is dependent on the applied wavelength and the biochemical fluorophores within the biological agent. UV induced fluorescence offers a rapid, accurate, efficient and logistically practical way for biological agent detection. This is because the use of UV fluorescence is reagentless, or a process that does not require an added chemical to produce a reaction, with no consumables, or produces no chemical byproducts.<a href="#cite_note-:2-207">[207]</a> Additionally, TAC-BIO can reliably discriminate between threat and non-threat aerosols. It was claimed to be sensitive enough to detect low concentrations, but not so sensitive that it would cause false positives. The particle-counting algorithm used in the device converted raw data into information by counting the photon pulses per unit of time from the fluorescence and scattering detectors, and comparing the value to a set threshold.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> The original TAC-BIO was introduced in 2010, while the second-generation TAC-BIO GEN II, was designed in 2015 to be more cost-efficient, as plastic parts were used. Its small, light-weight design allows it to be mounted to vehicles, robots, and unmanned aerial vehicles. The second-generation device could also be utilized as an environmental detector to monitor air quality in hospitals, airplanes, or even in households to detect fungus and mold.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_applications">Other applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Other applications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg/220px-LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg/330px-LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg/440px-LED_Costume_by_Beo_Beyond.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>LED costume for stage performers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg/220px-Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg/330px-Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg/440px-Digitally_printed_LED_wallpaper_Dolomites.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>LED wallpaper by Meystyle</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg/220px-LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg/330px-LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg/440px-LED_screen_behind_Tsach_Zimroni_in_Tel_Aviv_Israel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3340" data-file-height="2504" /></a><figcaption>A large LED display behind a <a href="/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockey</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_Digital_Display.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/LED_Digital_Display.jpg/220px-LED_Digital_Display.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/LED_Digital_Display.jpg/330px-LED_Digital_Display.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/LED_Digital_Display.jpg/440px-LED_Digital_Display.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2771" data-file-height="1865" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">Seven-segment display</a> that can display four digits and points</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LED_panel_and_plants.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/LED_panel_and_plants.jpg/220px-LED_panel_and_plants.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/LED_panel_and_plants.jpg/330px-LED_panel_and_plants.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/LED_panel_and_plants.jpg/440px-LED_panel_and_plants.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>LED panel light source used in an early experiment on <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> growth during Shuttle mission <a href="/wiki/STS-73" title="STS-73">STS-73</a> to investigate the potential for growing food on future long duration missions</figcaption></figure> The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_space_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Free space optics">free space optics</a> communications. This includes <a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">remote controls</a>, such as for television sets, where infrared LEDs are often used. <a href="/wiki/Opto-isolator" title="Opto-isolator">Opto-isolators</a> use an LED combined with a <a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">photodiode</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phototransistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototransistor">phototransistor</a> to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensor</a> circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also lets information be transferred between circuits that do not share a common ground potential. Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements of the sensors. The Nintendo <a href="/wiki/Wii" title="Wii">Wii</a>'s sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. <a href="/wiki/Pulse_oximeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse oximeter">Pulse oximeters</a> use them for measuring <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation" title="Oxygen saturation">oxygen saturation</a>. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical <a href="/wiki/Cold-cathode_fluorescent_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold-cathode fluorescent lamp">cold-cathode fluorescent lamp</a> as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by one color of light. Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and detection. This could be used, for example, in a <a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">touchscreen</a> that registers reflected light from a finger or <a href="/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">stylus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Many materials and biological systems are sensitive to, or dependent on, light. <a href="/wiki/Grow_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Grow lights">Grow lights</a> use LEDs to increase <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>,<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> and bacteria and viruses can be removed from water and other substances using UV LEDs for <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">sterilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-water_sterilization-116">[116]</a> LEDs of certain wavelengths have also been used for <a href="/wiki/Light_therapy" title="Light therapy">light therapy</a> treatment of <a href="/wiki/Neonatal_jaundice" title="Neonatal jaundice">neonatal jaundice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acne" title="Acne">acne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> UV LEDs, with spectra range of 220 nm to 395 nm, have other applications, such as <a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">water</a>/<a href="/wiki/Air_purification" class="mw-redirect" title="Air purification">air</a> purification, surface disinfection, glue curing, free-space <a href="/wiki/Non-line-of-sight_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-line-of-sight communication">non-line-of-sight communication</a>, high performance liquid chromatography, UV curing dye printing, <a href="/wiki/Phototherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototherapy">phototherapy</a> (295nm <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a>, 308nm <a href="/wiki/Excimer_lamp" title="Excimer lamp">Excimer lamp</a> or laser replacement), medical/ analytical instrumentation, and DNA absorption.<a href="#cite_note-:1-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality <a href="/wiki/Voltage_reference" title="Voltage reference">voltage reference</a> in electronic circuits. The forward voltage drop (about 1.7 V for a red LED or 1.2V for an infrared) can be used instead of a <a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a> in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are not widely available. The progressive miniaturization of low-voltage lighting technology, such as LEDs and OLEDs, suitable to incorporate into low-thickness materials has fostered experimentation in combining light sources and wall covering surfaces for interior walls in the form of <a href="/wiki/LED_wallpaper" title="LED wallpaper">LED wallpaper</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_development">Research and development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Research and development">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_challenges">Key challenges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Key challenges">edit</a>]</div> LEDs require optimized efficiency to hinge on ongoing improvements such as phosphor materials and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">quantum dots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-215">[215]</a> The process of down-conversion (the method by which materials convert more-energetic photons to different, less energetic colors) also needs improvement. For example, the red phosphors that are used today are thermally sensitive and need to be improved in that aspect so that they do not color shift and experience efficiency drop-off with temperature. Red phosphors could also benefit from a narrower spectral width to emit more lumens and becoming more efficient at converting photons.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> In addition, work remains to be done in the realms of current efficiency droop, color shift, system reliability, light distribution, dimming, thermal management, and power supply performance.<a href="#cite_note-:0-215">[215]</a> Early suspicions were that the LED droop was caused by elevated temperatures. Scientists showed that temperature was not the root cause of efficiency droop.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The mechanism causing efficiency droop was identified in 2007 as <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination#Auger_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">Auger recombination</a>, which was taken with mixed reaction.<a href="#cite_note-stevenson-167">[167]</a> A 2013 study conclusively identified Auger recombination as the cause.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_technology">Potential technology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Potential technology">edit</a>]</div> A new family of LEDs are based on the semiconductors called <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)" title="Perovskite (structure)">perovskites</a>. In 2018, less than four years after their discovery, the ability of perovskite LEDs (PLEDs) to produce light from electrons already rivaled those of the best performing <a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">OLEDs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> They have a potential for cost-effectiveness as they can be processed from solution, a low-cost and low-tech method, which might allow perovskite-based devices that have large areas to be made with extremely low cost. Their efficiency is superior by eliminating non-radiative losses, in other words, elimination of <a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">recombination</a> pathways that do not produce photons; or by solving outcoupling problem (prevalent for thin-film LEDs) or balancing charge carrier injection to increase the <a href="/wiki/External_quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="External quantum efficiency">EQE</a> (external quantum efficiency). The most up-to-date PLED devices have broken the performance barrier by shooting the EQE above 20%.<a href="#cite_note-:3-220">[220]</a> In 2018, Cao et al. and Lin et al. independently published two papers on developing perovskite LEDs with EQE greater than 20%, which made these two papers a mile-stone in PLED development. Their device have similar planar structure, i.e. the active layer (perovskite) is sandwiched between two electrodes. To achieve a high EQE, they not only reduced non-radiative recombination, but also utilized their own, subtly different methods to improve the EQE.<a href="#cite_note-:3-220">[220]</a> In the work of Cao et al.,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-221">[221]</a> researchers targeted the outcoupling problem, which is that the optical physics of thin-film LEDs causes the majority of light generated by the semiconductor to be trapped in the device.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> To achieve this goal, they demonstrated that solution-processed perovskites can spontaneously form submicrometre-scale crystal platelets, which can efficiently extract light from the device. These perovskites are formed via the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> additives into the perovskite <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">precursor</a> solutions. In addition, their method is able to passivate perovskite surface <a href="/wiki/Crystallographic_defects_in_diamond" title="Crystallographic defects in diamond">defects</a> and reduce nonradiative recombination. Therefore, by improving the light outcoupling and reducing nonradiative losses, Cao and his colleagues successfully achieved PLED with EQE up to 20.7%.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-221">[221]</a> Lin and his colleague used a different approach to generate high EQE. Instead of modifying the microstructure of perovskite layer, they chose to adopt a new strategy for managing the compositional distribution in the device—an approach that simultaneously provides high <a href="/wiki/Luminescence" title="Luminescence">luminescence</a> and balanced charge injection. In other words, they still used flat emissive layer, but tried to optimize the balance of electrons and holes injected into the perovskite, so as to make the most efficient use of the charge carriers. Moreover, in the perovskite layer, the crystals are perfectly enclosed by MABr additive (where MA is CH3NH3). The MABr shell passivates the nonradiative defects that would otherwise be present perovskite crystals, resulting in reduction of the nonradiative recombination. Therefore, by balancing charge injection and decreasing nonradiative losses, Lin and his colleagues developed PLED with EQE up to 20.3%.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_and_safety">Health and safety</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Health and safety">edit</a>]</div> Certain blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs can exceed safe limits of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Blue-light_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-light hazard">blue-light hazard</a> as defined in eye safety specifications such as "ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems".<a href="#cite_note-BlueLEDAhealthHazard-224">[224]</a> One study showed no evidence of a risk in normal use at domestic illuminance,<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> and that caution is only needed for particular occupational situations or for specific populations.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> In 2006, the <a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">International Electrotechnical Commission</a> published IEC 62471 Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems, replacing the application of early laser-oriented standards for classification of LED sources.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> While LEDs have the advantage over <a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">fluorescent lamps</a>, in that they do not contain <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, they may contain other hazardous metals such as <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Limetal2011-228">[228]</a> In 2016 the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a> (AMA) issued a statement concerning the possible adverse influence of blueish <a href="/wiki/Street_light" title="Street light">street lighting</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Sleep-wake_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep-wake cycle">sleep-wake cycle</a> of city-dwellers. Industry critics claim exposure levels are not high enough to have a noticeable effect.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_issues">Environmental issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Environmental issues">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light pollution</a>: Because <a href="#White">white LEDs</a> emit more short wavelength light than sources such as high-pressure <a href="/wiki/Sodium_vapor_lamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium vapor lamp">sodium vapor lamps</a>, the increased blue and green sensitivity of <a href="/wiki/Scotopic_vision" title="Scotopic vision">scotopic vision</a> means that white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially more <a href="/wiki/Sky_glow" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky glow">sky glow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IDA-156">[156]</a></li> <li>Impact on wildlife: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor lights, so much so that there has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> LED lighting near beaches, particularly intense blue and white colors, can disorient turtle hatchlings and make them wander inland instead.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> The use of "turtle-safe lighting" LEDs that emit only at narrow portions of the visible spectrum is encouraged by conservancy groups in order to reduce harm.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a></li> <li>Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them, leading to accidents.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LED_tattoo" title="LED tattoo">LED tattoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-CRI_LED_lighting" title="High-CRI LED lighting">High-CRI LED lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_light_sources" title="List of light sources">List of light sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MicroLED" title="MicroLED">MicroLED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superluminescent_diode" title="Superluminescent diode">Superluminescent diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_light-emitting_diode" title="Perovskite light-emitting diode">Perovskite light-emitting diode</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201028074225/http://www.myledpassion.com/History/hj-round.htm">"HJ Round was a pioneer in the development of the LED"</a>. www.myledpassion.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myledpassion.com/History/hj-round.htm">the original</a> on October 28, 2020. Retrieved April 11, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.myledpassion.com&rft.atitle=HJ+Round+was+a+pioneer+in+the+development+of+the+LED&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myledpassion.com%2FHistory%2Fhj-round.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100-YEAR_HISTORY-2"><a href="#cite_ref-100-YEAR_HISTORY_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915034646/http://holly.orc.soton.ac.uk/fileadmin/downloads/100_years_of_optoelectronics__2_.pdf">"The life and times of the LED — a 100-year history"</a> (PDF). The Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Southampton. April 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://holly.orc.soton.ac.uk/fileadmin/downloads/100_years_of_optoelectronics__2_.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 15, 2012. Retrieved September 4, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+life+and+times+of+the+LED+%E2%80%94+a+100-year+history&rft.date=2007-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fholly.orc.soton.ac.uk%2Ffileadmin%2Fdownloads%2F100_years_of_optoelectronics__2_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3293513.pdf">US Patent 3293513</a>, "Semiconductor Radiant Diode", James R. Biard and Gary Pittman, Filed on Aug. 8th, 1962, Issued on Dec. 20th, 1966. </li> <li id="cite_note-LEMELSON-MIT-4"><a href="#cite_ref-LEMELSON-MIT_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111009111042/http://web.mit.edu/invent/n-pressreleases/n-press-04LMP.html">"Inventor of Long-Lasting, Low-Heat Light Source Awarded $500,000 Lemelson-MIT Prize for Invention"</a>. Washington, D.C. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. April 21, 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/invent/n-pressreleases/n-press-04LMP.html">the original</a> on October 9, 2011. Retrieved December 21, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Inventor+of+Long-Lasting%2C+Low-Heat+Light+Source+Awarded+%24500%2C000+Lemelson-MIT+Prize+for+Invention&rft.date=2004-04-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Finvent%2Fn-pressreleases%2Fn-press-04LMP.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards" class="citation web cs1">Edwards, Kimberly D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190214175634/http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/chem1l/files/2013/11/RDGLED.pdf">"Light Emitting Diodes"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a>. p. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.sites.uci.edu/chem1l/files/2013/11/RDGLED.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 14, 2019. Retrieved January 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+California%2C+Irvine&rft.atitle=Light+Emitting+Diodes&rft.pages=2&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Kimberly+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.sites.uci.edu%2Fchem1l%2Ffiles%2F2013%2F11%2FRDGLED.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLighting_Research_Center" class="citation web cs1">Lighting Research Center. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210502084248/https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/nlpip/lightinganswers/led/whiteLight.asp">"How is white light made with LEDs?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute" title="Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute">Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/nlpip/lightinganswers/led/whitelight.asp">the original</a> on May 2, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rensselaer+Polytechnic+Institute&rft.atitle=How+is+white+light+made+with+LEDs%3F&rft.au=Lighting+Research+Center&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lrc.rpi.edu%2Fprograms%2Fnlpip%2Flightinganswers%2Fled%2Fwhitelight.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FirstPracticalLED-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FirstPracticalLED_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FirstPracticalLED_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FirstPracticalLED_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FirstPracticalLED_7-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkon,_Thomas_M.Biard,_James_R.2015" class="citation web cs1">Okon, Thomas M.; Biard, James R. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edisontechcenter.org/lighting/LED/TheFirstPracticalLED.pdf">"The First Practical LED"</a> (PDF). EdisonTechCenter.org. <a href="/wiki/Edison_Tech_Center" title="Edison Tech Center">Edison Tech Center</a>. Retrieved February 2, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EdisonTechCenter.org&rft.atitle=The+First+Practical+LED&rft.date=2015&rft.au=Okon%2C+Thomas+M.&rft.au=Biard%2C+James+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedisontechcenter.org%2Flighting%2FLED%2FTheFirstPracticalLED.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aguilar-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Aguilar_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeláezVillegas2007" class="citation book cs1">Peláez, E. A; Villegas, E. R (2007). "LED power reduction trade-offs for ambulatory pulse oximetry". 2007 29th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Vol. 2007. pp. 2296–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEMBS.2007.4352784">10.1109/IEMBS.2007.4352784</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-0787-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-0787-3"><bdi>978-1-4244-0787-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1557-170X">1557-170X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18002450">18002450</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34626885">34626885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=LED+power+reduction+trade-offs+for+ambulatory+pulse+oximetry&rft.btitle=2007+29th+Annual+International+Conference+of+the+IEEE+Engineering+in+Medicine+and+Biology+Society&rft.pages=2296-9&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34626885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FIEMBS.2007.4352784&rft.issn=1557-170X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18002450&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-0787-3&rft.aulast=Pel%C3%A1ez&rft.aufirst=E.+A&rft.au=Villegas%2C+E.+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRound,_H._J.1907" class="citation journal cs1">Round, H. J. (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TAZRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA309">"A note on carborundum"</a>. Electrical World. 19: 309.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electrical+World&rft.atitle=A+note+on+carborundum&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=309&rft.date=1907&rft.au=Round%2C+H.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTAZRAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA309&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargolin_J" class="citation web cs1">Margolin J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jmargolin.com/history/trans.htm">"The Road to the Transistor"</a>. jmargolin.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jmargolin.com&rft.atitle=The+Road+to+the+Transistor&rft.au=Margolin+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jmargolin.com%2Fhistory%2Ftrans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Losev1927-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Losev1927_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLosev1927" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Losev, O. V. (1927). "Светящийся карборундовый детектор и детектирование с кристаллами" [Luminous carborundum detector and detection with crystals]. Телеграфия и Телефония без Проводов [Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony] (in Russian). 5 (44): 485–494.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2+%5BWireless+Telegraphy+and+Telephony%5D&rft.atitle=%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8F%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8F+%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%81+%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=44&rft.pages=485-494&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Losev&rft.aufirst=O.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> English translation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLosev1928" class="citation journal cs1">Losev, O. V. (November 1928). "Luminous carborundum detector and detection effect and oscillations with crystals". Philosophical Magazine. 7th series. 5 (39): 1024–1044. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441108564683">10.1080/14786441108564683</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=Luminous+carborundum+detector+and+detection+effect+and+oscillations+with+crystals&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=1024-1044&rft.date=1928-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786441108564683&rft.aulast=Losev&rft.aufirst=O.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zheludev_100yearhistory-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Zheludev_100yearhistory_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheludev,_N.2007" class="citation journal cs1">Zheludev, N. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511132457/http://www.nanophotonics.org.uk/niz/publications/zheludev-2007-ltl.pdf">"The life and times of the LED: a 100-year history"</a> (PDF). Nature Photonics. 1 (4): 189–192. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007NaPho...1..189Z">2007NaPho...1..189Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphoton.2007.34">10.1038/nphoton.2007.34</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nanophotonics.org.uk/niz/publications/zheludev-2007-ltl.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 11, 2011. Retrieved April 11, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Photonics&rft.atitle=The+life+and+times+of+the+LED%3A+a+100-year+history&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=189-192&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphoton.2007.34&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007NaPho...1..189Z&rft.au=Zheludev%2C+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nanophotonics.org.uk%2Fniz%2Fpublications%2Fzheludev-2007-ltl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee,_Thomas_H.2004" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Thomas H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/designcmosradiof00leet_307">The design of CMOS radio-frequency integrated circuits</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/designcmosradiof00leet_307/page/n18">20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83539-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-83539-8"><bdi>978-0-521-83539-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+design+of+CMOS+radio-frequency+integrated+circuits&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-83539-8&rft.au=Lee%2C+Thomas+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdesigncmosradiof00leet_307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChemiePhysique-14"><a href="#cite_ref-ChemiePhysique_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDestriau,_G.1936" class="citation journal cs1">Destriau, G. (1936). "Recherches sur les scintillations des sulfures de zinc aux rayons". Journal de Chimie Physique. 33: 587–625. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fjcp%2F1936330587">10.1051/jcp/1936330587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+Chimie+Physique&rft.atitle=Recherches+sur+les+scintillations+des+sulfures+de+zinc+aux+rayons&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=587-625&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fjcp%2F1936330587&rft.au=Destriau%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConciseEncyclopediaOfPhysics-15"><a href="#cite_ref-ConciseEncyclopediaOfPhysics_15-0">^</a> McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Physics: electroluminescence. (n.d.) McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Physics. (2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iitk.ac.in/solarlighting/files/brief_history_of_LEDs.pdf">"Brief history of LEDs"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brief+history+of+LEDs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iitk.ac.in%2Fsolarlighting%2Ffiles%2Fbrief_history_of_LEDs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehovecAccardoJamgochian1951" class="citation journal cs1">Lehovec, K; Accardo, C. A; Jamgochian, E (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141211015103/http://www.campevans.org/_CE/html/tpr-08-01-1951p604-lehovec.html">"Injected Light Emission of Silicon Carbide Crystals"</a>. Physical Review. 83 (3): 603–607. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1951PhRv...83..603L">1951PhRv...83..603L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.83.603">10.1103/PhysRev.83.603</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.campevans.org/_CE/html/tpr-08-01-1951p604-lehovec.html">the original</a> on December 11, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Injected+Light+Emission+of+Silicon+Carbide+Crystals&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=603-607&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.83.603&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1951PhRv...83..603L&rft.aulast=Lehovec&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Accardo%2C+C.+A&rft.au=Jamgochian%2C+E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.campevans.org%2F_CE%2Fhtml%2Ftpr-08-01-1951p604-lehovec.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehovecAccardoJamgochian1953" class="citation journal cs1">Lehovec, K; Accardo, C. A; Jamgochian, E (1953). "Injected Light Emission of Silicon Carbide Crystals". Physical Review. 89 (1): 20–25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953PhRv...89...20L">1953PhRv...89...20L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.89.20">10.1103/PhysRev.89.20</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Injected+Light+Emission+of+Silicon+Carbide+Crystals&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-25&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.89.20&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953PhRv...89...20L&rft.aulast=Lehovec&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Accardo%2C+C.+A&rft.au=Jamgochian%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311150933/http://personnel.physics.ucla.edu/directory/faculty/braunstein">"Rubin Braunstein"</a>. UCLA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://personnel.physics.ucla.edu/directory/faculty/braunstein/">the original</a> on March 11, 2011. Retrieved January 24, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rubin+Braunstein&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonnel.physics.ucla.edu%2Fdirectory%2Ffaculty%2Fbraunstein%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraunstein,_Rubin1955" class="citation journal cs1">Braunstein, Rubin (1955). "Radiative Transitions in Semiconductors". Physical Review. 99 (6): 1892–1893. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955PhRv...99.1892B">1955PhRv...99.1892B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.99.1892">10.1103/PhysRev.99.1892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Radiative+Transitions+in+Semiconductors&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1892-1893&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.99.1892&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1955PhRv...99.1892B&rft.au=Braunstein%2C+Rubin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroemer2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kroemer, Herbert (September 16, 2013). "The Double-Heterostructure Concept: How It Got Started". Proceedings of the IEEE. 101 (10): 2183–2187. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2013.2274914">10.1109/JPROC.2013.2274914</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2554978">2554978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=The+Double-Heterostructure+Concept%3A+How+It+Got+Started&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2183-2187&rft.date=2013-09-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJPROC.2013.2274914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2554978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kroemer&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Matzen, W. T. ed. (March 1963) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729085826/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/411614.pdf">"Semiconductor Single-Crystal Circuit Development"</a>, Texas Instruments Inc., Contract No. AF33(616)-6600, Rept. No ASD-TDR-63-281. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr,_W._N.G._E._Pittman1963" class="citation journal cs1">Carr, W. N.; G. E. Pittman (November 1963). "One-watt GaAs p-n junction infrared source". Applied Physics Letters. 3 (10): 173–175. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963ApPhL...3..173C">1963ApPhL...3..173C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1753837">10.1063/1.1753837</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=One-watt+GaAs+p-n+junction+infrared+source&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=173-175&rft.date=1963-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1753837&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1963ApPhL...3..173C&rft.au=Carr%2C+W.+N.&rft.au=G.+E.+Pittman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubetz2012" class="citation web cs1">Kubetz, Rick (May 4, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200710150131/https://grainger.illinois.edu/news/2012-05-04-nick-holonyak-jr-six-decades-pursuit-light">"Nick Holonyak, Jr., six decades in pursuit of light"</a>. University of Illinois. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://grainger.illinois.edu/news/2012-05-04-nick-holonyak-jr-six-decades-pursuit-light">the original</a> on July 10, 2020. Retrieved July 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nick+Holonyak%2C+Jr.%2C+six+decades+in+pursuit+of+light&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois&rft.date=2012-05-04&rft.aulast=Kubetz&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgrainger.illinois.edu%2Fnews%2F2012-05-04-nick-holonyak-jr-six-decades-pursuit-light&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolonyak_NickBevacqua1962" class="citation journal cs1">Holonyak Nick; Bevacqua, S. F. (December 1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121014035733/http://apl.aip.org/resource/1/applab/v1/i4">"Coherent (Visible) Light Emission from Ga(As1−x Px) Junctions"</a>. Applied Physics Letters. 1 (4): 82. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962ApPhL...1...82H">1962ApPhL...1...82H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1753706">10.1063/1.1753706</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apl.aip.org/resource/1/applab/v1/i4">the original</a> on October 14, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Coherent+%28Visible%29+Light+Emission+from+Ga%28As%3Csub%3E1%E2%88%92x%3C%2Fsub%3E+P%3Csub%3Ex%3C%2Fsub%3E%29+Junctions&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=82&rft.date=1962-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1753706&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1962ApPhL...1...82H&rft.au=Holonyak+Nick&rft.au=Bevacqua%2C+S.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapl.aip.org%2Fresource%2F1%2Fapplab%2Fv1%2Fi4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chisuntimes-26"><a href="#cite_ref-chisuntimes_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolinsky,_Howard2005" class="citation news cs1">Wolinsky, Howard (February 5, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060328001535/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20050202/ai_n9504926">"U. of I.'s Holonyak out to take some of Edison's luster"</a>. Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20050202/ai_n9504926">the original</a> on March 28, 2006. Retrieved July 29, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Sun-Times&rft.atitle=U.+of+I.%27s+Holonyak+out+to+take+some+of+Edison%27s+luster&rft.date=2005-02-05&rft.au=Wolinsky%2C+Howard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffindarticles.com%2Fp%2Farticles%2Fmi_qn4155%2Fis_20050202%2Fai_n9504926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry1995" class="citation journal cs1">Perry, T. S. (1995). "M. George Craford [biography]". IEEE Spectrum. 32 (2): 52–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F6.343989">10.1109/6.343989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&rft.atitle=M.+George+Craford+%5Bbiography%5D&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=52-55&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F6.343989&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=T.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070809062214/http://www.technology.gov/Medal/2002/bios/Holonyak_Craford_Dupuis.pdf">"Brief Biography — Holonyak, Craford, Dupuis"</a> (PDF). Technology Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technology.gov/Medal/2002/bios/Holonyak_Craford_Dupuis.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on August 9, 2007. Retrieved May 30, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brief+Biography+%E2%80%94+Holonyak%2C+Craford%2C+Dupuis&rft.pub=Technology+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.technology.gov%2FMedal%2F2002%2Fbios%2FHolonyak_Craford_Dupuis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearsallMillerCapikBachmann1976" class="citation journal cs1">Pearsall, T. P.; Miller, B. I.; Capik, R. J.; Bachmann, K. J. (1976). "Efficient, Lattice-matched, Double Heterostructure LEDs at 1.1 mm from GaxIn1−xAsyP1−y by Liquid-phase Epitaxy". Appl. Phys. Lett. 28 (9): 499. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976ApPhL..28..499P">1976ApPhL..28..499P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.88831">10.1063/1.88831</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Appl.+Phys.+Lett.&rft.atitle=Efficient%2C+Lattice-matched%2C+Double+Heterostructure+LEDs+at+1.1+mm+from+Ga%3Csub%3Ex%3C%2Fsub%3EIn%3Csub%3E1%E2%88%92x%3C%2Fsub%3EAs%3Csub%3Ey%3C%2Fsub%3EP%3Csub%3E1%E2%88%92y%3C%2Fsub%3E+by+Liquid-phase+Epitaxy&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=499&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.88831&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976ApPhL..28..499P&rft.aulast=Pearsall&rft.aufirst=T.+P.&rft.au=Miller%2C+B.+I.&rft.au=Capik%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Bachmann%2C+K.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schubert-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schubert_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schubert_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schubert_30-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchubert,_E._Fred2003" class="citation book cs1">Schubert, E. Fred (2003). "1". Light-Emitting Diodes. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8194-3956-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8194-3956-7"><bdi>978-0-8194-3956-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1&rft.btitle=Light-Emitting+Diodes&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8194-3956-7&rft.au=Schubert%2C+E.+Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRostky,_George1997" class="citation journal cs1">Rostky, George (March 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.datamath.org/Display/Monsanto.htm">"LEDs cast Monsanto in Unfamiliar Role"</a>. Electronic Engineering Times (944).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Engineering+Times&rft.atitle=LEDs+cast+Monsanto+in+Unfamiliar+Role&rft.issue=944&rft.date=1997-03&rft.au=Rostky%2C+George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.datamath.org%2FDisplay%2FMonsanto.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borden-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Borden_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borden_32-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordenPighini1969" class="citation journal cs1">Borden, Howard C.; Pighini, Gerald P. (February 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hparchive.com/Journals/HPJ-1969-02.pdf">"Solid-State Displays"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Journal" title="Hewlett-Packard Journal">Hewlett-Packard Journal</a>: 2–12. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231105061725/http://hparchive.com/Journals/HPJ-1969-02.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on November 5, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hewlett-Packard+Journal&rft.atitle=Solid-State+Displays&rft.pages=2-12&rft.date=1969-02&rft.aulast=Borden&rft.aufirst=Howard+C.&rft.au=Pighini%2C+Gerald+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhparchive.com%2FJournals%2FHPJ-1969-02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramer-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2003" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Bernhard (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oREQToB2q2UC&pg=PA40">Advances in Solid State Physics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540401506" title="Special:BookSources/9783540401506"><bdi>9783540401506</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Solid+State+Physics&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9783540401506&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoREQToB2q2UC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141117052948/http://www.decadecounter.com/vta/articleview.php?item=1052">"Hewlett-Packard 5082-7000"</a>. The Vintage Technology Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.decadecounter.com/vta/articleview.php?item=1052">the original</a> on November 17, 2014. Retrieved August 15, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Vintage+Technology+Association&rft.atitle=Hewlett-Packard+5082-7000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.decadecounter.com%2Fvta%2Farticleview.php%3Fitem%3D1052&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3025589">US 3025589</a>, Hoerni, J. A., "Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices", issued Mar 20, 1962<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=3025589&rft.cc=US&rft.title=Method+of+Manufacturing+Semiconductor+Devices&rft.inventor=Hoerni%2C+J.+A.&rft.date=Mar 20, 1962&rft.appldate=May 1, 1959">  </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US3025589">Patent number: 3025589</a> Retrieved May 17, 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBausch,_Jeffrey2011" class="citation news cs1">Bausch, Jeffrey (December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electronicproducts.com/Optoelectronics/LEDs/The_long_history_of_light-emitting_diodes.aspx">"The Long History of Light Emitting Diodes"</a>. Hearst Business Communications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Long+History+of+Light+Emitting+Diodes&rft.date=2011-12&rft.au=Bausch%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.electronicproducts.com%2FOptoelectronics%2FLEDs%2FThe_long_history_of_light-emitting_diodes.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkXiongKimElvikis2009" class="citation journal cs1">Park, S. -I.; Xiong, Y.; Kim, R. -H.; Elvikis, P.; Meitl, M.; Kim, D. -H.; Wu, J.; Yoon, J.; Yu, C. -J.; Liu, Z.; Huang, Y.; Hwang, K. -C.; Ferreira, P.; Li, X.; Choquette, K.; Rogers, J. A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151024212822/http://vcsel.mntl.illinois.edu/Pubs/Pubs%202009/2009%20Sci%20325%20977%20flex%20substrate%20LED.pdf">"Printed Assemblies of Inorganic Light-Emitting Diodes for Deformable and Semitransparent Displays"</a> (PDF). Science. 325 (5943): 977–981. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...325..977P">2009Sci...325..977P</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.660.3338">10.1.1.660.3338</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1175690">10.1126/science.1175690</a>. <a href="/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OSTI (identifier)">OSTI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1876039">1876039</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19696346">19696346</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8062948">8062948</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vcsel.mntl.illinois.edu/Pubs/Pubs+2009/2009+Sci+325+977+flex+substrate+LED.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on October 24, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Printed+Assemblies+of+Inorganic+Light-Emitting+Diodes+for+Deformable+and+Semitransparent+Displays&rft.volume=325&rft.issue=5943&rft.pages=977-981&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8062948%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F1876039%23id-name%3DOSTI&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Sci...325..977P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.660.3338%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19696346&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1175690&rft.aulast=Park&rft.aufirst=S.+-I.&rft.au=Xiong%2C+Y.&rft.au=Kim%2C+R.+-H.&rft.au=Elvikis%2C+P.&rft.au=Meitl%2C+M.&rft.au=Kim%2C+D.+-H.&rft.au=Wu%2C+J.&rft.au=Yoon%2C+J.&rft.au=Yu%2C+C.+-J.&rft.au=Liu%2C+Z.&rft.au=Huang%2C+Y.&rft.au=Hwang%2C+K.+-C.&rft.au=Ferreira%2C+P.&rft.au=Li%2C+X.&rft.au=Choquette%2C+K.&rft.au=Rogers%2C+J.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvcsel.mntl.illinois.edu%2FPubs%2FPubs%2B2009%2F2009%2BSci%2B325%2B977%2Bflex%2Bsubstrate%2BLED.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141011124658/http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/geek-life/history/rcas-forgotten-work-on-the-blue-led">"Nobel Shocker: RCA Had the First Blue LED in 1972"</a>. IEEE Spectrum. October 9, 2014, </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oregonlive.com/silicon-forest/index.ssf/2014/10/oregon_tech_ceo_says_nobel_pri.html">"Oregon tech CEO says Nobel Prize in Physics overlooks the actual inventors"</a>. The Oregonian. October 16, 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Schubert, E. Fred (2006) Light-emitting diodes (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-86538-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-86538-7">0-521-86538-7</a> pp. 16–17 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Maruska, H. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sslighting.net/news/features/maruska_blue_led_history.pdf">"A Brief History of GaN Blue Light-Emitting Diodes"</a>. LIGHTimes Online – LED Industry News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120611224723/http://www.sslighting.net/news/features/maruska_blue_led_history.pdf">Archived</a> June 11, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cree.com/about/milestones.asp">Major Business and Product Milestones</a>. Cree.com. Retrieved on March 16, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110413031614/http://www.cree.com/about/milestones.asp">Archived</a> April 13, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdmondKongCarter1993" class="citation journal cs1">Edmond, John A.; Kong, Hua-Shuang; Carter, Calvin H. (April 1, 1993). "Blue LEDs, UV photodiodes and high-temperature rectifiers in 6H-SiC". Physica B: Condensed Matter. 185 (1): 453–460. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PhyB..185..453E">1993PhyB..185..453E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0921-4526%2893%2990277-D">10.1016/0921-4526(93)90277-D</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0921-4526">0921-4526</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+B%3A+Condensed+Matter&rft.atitle=Blue+LEDs%2C+UV+photodiodes+and+high-temperature+rectifiers+in+6H-SiC&rft.volume=185&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=453-460&rft.date=1993-04-01&rft.issn=0921-4526&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0921-4526%2893%2990277-D&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993PhyB..185..453E&rft.aulast=Edmond&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Kong%2C+Hua-Shuang&rft.au=Carter%2C+Calvin+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170216121011/http://cree.com/About-Cree/History-and-Milestones">"History & Milestones"</a>. Cree.com. <a href="/wiki/Cree_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Cree Inc.">Cree</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cree.com/About-Cree/History-and-Milestones">the original</a> on February 16, 2017. Retrieved September 14, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cree.com&rft.atitle=History+%26+Milestones&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cree.com%2FAbout-Cree%2FHistory-and-Milestones&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.takeda-foundation.jp/en/award/takeda/2002/fact/pdf/fact01.pdf">"GaN-based blue light emitting device development by Akasaki and Amano"</a> (PDF). Takeda Award 2002 Achievement Facts Sheet. The Takeda Foundation. April 5, 2002. Retrieved November 28, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Takeda+Award+2002+Achievement+Facts+Sheet&rft.atitle=GaN-based+blue+light+emitting+device+development+by+Akasaki+and+Amano&rft.date=2002-04-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.takeda-foundation.jp%2Fen%2Faward%2Ftakeda%2F2002%2Ffact%2Fpdf%2Ffact01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Moustakas, Theodore D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5686738A">U.S. patent 5686738A</a> "Highly insulating monocrystalline gallium nitride thin films" Issue date: March 18, 1991 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2015" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joel_Brown" title="Joel Brown">Brown, Joel</a> (December 7, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bu.edu/today/2015/bu-wins-13-million-in-patent-infringement-suit/">"BU Wins $13 Million in Patent Infringement Suit"</a>. BU Today. Retrieved December 7, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BU+Today&rft.atitle=BU+Wins+%2413+Million+in+Patent+Infringement+Suit&rft.date=2015-12-07&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bu.edu%2Ftoday%2F2015%2Fbu-wins-13-million-in-patent-infringement-suit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nakamura-49"><a href="#cite_ref-Nakamura_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakamuraMukaiSenoh1994" class="citation journal cs1">Nakamura, S.; Mukai, T.; Senoh, M. (1994). "Candela-Class High-Brightness InGaN/AlGaN Double-Heterostructure Blue-Light-Emitting-Diodes". <a href="/wiki/Applied_Physics_Letters" title="Applied Physics Letters">Applied Physics Letters</a>. 64 (13): 1687. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ApPhL..64.1687N">1994ApPhL..64.1687N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.111832">10.1063/1.111832</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Candela-Class+High-Brightness+InGaN%2FAlGaN+Double-Heterostructure+Blue-Light-Emitting-Diodes&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=1687&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.111832&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994ApPhL..64.1687N&rft.aulast=Nakamura&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Mukai%2C+T.&rft.au=Senoh%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakamura" class="citation web cs1">Nakamura, Shuji. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spie.org/x115688.xml">"Development of the Blue Light-Emitting Diode"</a>. SPIE Newsroom. Retrieved September 28, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Development+of+the+Blue+Light-Emitting+Diode&rft.pub=SPIE+Newsroom&rft.aulast=Nakamura&rft.aufirst=Shuji&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspie.org%2Fx115688.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Iwasa, Naruhito; Mukai, Takashi and Nakamura, Shuji <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US5578839">U.S. patent 5,578,839</a> "Light-emitting gallium nitride-based compound semiconductor device" Issue date: November 26, 1996 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFred_Schubert2006" class="citation book cs1">Fred Schubert, E. (January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=algLBgAAQBAJ">Light-Emitting Diodes (2nd Edition, 2006)</a>. E. Fred Schubert. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-1-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-1-1"><bdi>978-0-9863826-1-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light-Emitting+Diodes+%282nd+Edition%2C+2006%29&rft.pub=E.+Fred+Schubert&rft.date=2006-01&rft.isbn=978-0-9863826-1-1&rft.aulast=Fred+Schubert&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DalgLBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230324123538/https://ssleec.ucsb.edu/news/2023/01/12/professor-shuji-nakamura-was-key-invention-blu-ray-technology">"Professor Shuji Nakamura was key to the Invention of Blu-Ray Technology"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>. January 12, 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssleec.ucsb.edu/news/2023/01/12/professor-shuji-nakamura-was-key-invention-blu-ray-technology">the original</a> on March 24, 2023. Retrieved June 4, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Professor+Shuji+Nakamura+was+key+to+the+Invention+of+Blu-Ray+Technology&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Santa+Barbara&rft.date=2023-01-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fssleec.ucsb.edu%2Fnews%2F2023%2F01%2F12%2Fprofessor-shuji-nakamura-was-key-invention-blu-ray-technology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190411125926/https://www.nae.edu/128641/Dr-Shuji-Nakamura-">"Dr. Shuji Nakamura"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering" title="National Academy of Engineering">National Academy of Engineering</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nae.edu/128641/Dr-Shuji-Nakamura-">the original</a> on April 11, 2019. Retrieved June 4, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dr.+Shuji+Nakamura&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Engineering&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nae.edu%2F128641%2FDr-Shuji-Nakamura-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.news.ucsb.edu/2006/012148/2006-millennium-technology-prize">2006 Millennium technology prize awarded to UCSB's Shuji Nakamura</a>. Ia.ucsb.edu (June 15, 2006). Retrieved on August 3, 2019. </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20141007-DO-56"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20141007-DO_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverbye2014" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Overbye" title="Dennis Overbye">Overbye, Dennis</a> (October 7, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/08/science/isamu-akasaki-hiroshi-amano-and-shuji-nakamura-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics.html">"Nobel Prize in Physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nobel+Prize+in+Physics&rft.date=2014-10-07&rft.aulast=Overbye&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F10%2F08%2Fscience%2Fisamu-akasaki-hiroshi-amano-and-shuji-nakamura-awarded-the-nobel-prize-in-physics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDadgarAlamRiemannBläsing2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dadgar, A.; Alam, A.; Riemann, T.; Bläsing, J.; Diez, A.; Poschenrieder, M.; Strassburg, M.; Heuken, M.; Christen, J.; Krost, A. (2001). "Crack-Free InGaN/GaN Light Emitters on Si(111)". Physica Status Solidi A. 188: 155–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1521-396X%28200111%29188%3A1%3C155%3A%3AAID-PSSA155%3E3.0.CO%3B2-P">10.1002/1521-396X(200111)188:1<155::AID-PSSA155>3.0.CO;2-P</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physica+Status+Solidi+A&rft.atitle=Crack-Free+InGaN%2FGaN+Light+Emitters+on+Si%28111%29&rft.volume=188&rft.pages=155-158&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1521-396X%28200111%29188%3A1%3C155%3A%3AAID-PSSA155%3E3.0.CO%3B2-P&rft.aulast=Dadgar&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Alam%2C+A.&rft.au=Riemann%2C+T.&rft.au=Bl%C3%A4sing%2C+J.&rft.au=Diez%2C+A.&rft.au=Poschenrieder%2C+M.&rft.au=Strassburg%2C+M.&rft.au=Heuken%2C+M.&rft.au=Christen%2C+J.&rft.au=Krost%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDadgarPoschenriederBläSingFehse2002" class="citation journal cs1">Dadgar, A.; Poschenrieder, M.; BläSing, J.; Fehse, K.; Diez, A.; Krost, A. (2002). "Thick, crack-free blue light-emitting diodes on Si(111) using low-temperature AlN interlayers and in situ Si\sub x]N\sub y] masking". Applied Physics Letters. 80 (20): 3670. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ApPhL..80.3670D">2002ApPhL..80.3670D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1479455">10.1063/1.1479455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Thick%2C+crack-free+blue+light-emitting+diodes+on+Si%28111%29+using+low-temperature+AlN+interlayers+and+in+situ+Si%5Csub+x%5DN%5Csub+y%5D+masking&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=3670&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.1479455&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002ApPhL..80.3670D&rft.aulast=Dadgar&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Poschenrieder%2C+M.&rft.au=Bl%C3%A4Sing%2C+J.&rft.au=Fehse%2C+K.&rft.au=Diez%2C+A.&rft.au=Krost%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915034646/http://www.osram-os.de/osram_os/EN/Press/Press_Releases/Company_Information/2012/_documents/OSRAM_PI_Production_GaNonSi_e.pdf">"Success in research: First gallium-nitride LED chips on silicon in pilot stage"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osram-os.de/osram_os/EN/Press/Press_Releases/Company_Information/2012/_documents/OSRAM_PI_Production_GaNonSi_e.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 15, 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Success+in+research%3A+First+gallium-nitride+LED+chips+on+silicon+in+pilot+stage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osram-os.de%2Fosram_os%2FEN%2FPress%2FPress_Releases%2FCompany_Information%2F2012%2F_documents%2FOSRAM_PI_Production_GaNonSi_e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988">. www.osram.de, January 12, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Lester, Steve (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lester_substrate-pkg_tampa2014.pdf">Role of Substrate Choice on LED Packaging</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140712100725/https://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lester_substrate-pkg_tampa2014.pdf">Archived</a> July 12, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Toshiba America Electronic Components. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gan.msm.cam.ac.uk/projects/silicon">"GaN on Silicon"</a>. Cambridge Centre for Gallium Nitride. Gan.msm.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Bush, Steve (June 30, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.electronicsweekly.com/blogs/led-luminaries/toshiba-gets-out-of-gan-on-si-leds-2016-06/">"Toshiba gets out of GaN-on-Si LEDs"</a>. Electronics Weekly. Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNunoueHikosakaYoshidaTajima2013" class="citation book cs1">Nunoue, Shin-ya; Hikosaka, Toshiki; Yoshida, Hisashi; Tajima, Jumpei; Kimura, Shigeya; Sugiyama, Naoharu; Tachibana, Koichi; Shioda, Tomonari; Sato, Taisuke; Muramoto, Eiji; Onomura, Masaaki (2013). "LED manufacturing issues concerning gallium nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) technology and wafer scale up challenges". 2013 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting. pp. 13.2.1–13.2.4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIEDM.2013.6724622">10.1109/IEDM.2013.6724622</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-2306-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-2306-9"><bdi>978-1-4799-2306-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23448056">23448056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=LED+manufacturing+issues+concerning+gallium+nitride-on-silicon+%28GaN-on-Si%29+technology+and+wafer+scale+up+challenges&rft.btitle=2013+IEEE+International+Electron+Devices+Meeting&rft.pages=13.2.1-13.2.4&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23448056%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FIEDM.2013.6724622&rft.isbn=978-1-4799-2306-9&rft.aulast=Nunoue&rft.aufirst=Shin-ya&rft.au=Hikosaka%2C+Toshiki&rft.au=Yoshida%2C+Hisashi&rft.au=Tajima%2C+Jumpei&rft.au=Kimura%2C+Shigeya&rft.au=Sugiyama%2C+Naoharu&rft.au=Tachibana%2C+Koichi&rft.au=Shioda%2C+Tomonari&rft.au=Sato%2C+Taisuke&rft.au=Muramoto%2C+Eiji&rft.au=Onomura%2C+Masaaki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Wright, Maury (May 2, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledsmagazine.com/articles/2016/05/samsung-s-tarn-reports-progress-in-csp-and-gan-on-si-leds.html">"Samsung's Tarn reports progress in CSP and GaN-on-Si LEDs"</a>. LEDs Magazine. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://compoundsemiconductor.net/article/99020/Increasing_The_Competitiveness_Of_The_GaN-on-silicon_LED">"Increasing the Competitiveness of the GaN-on-silicon LED"</a>. Compound Semiconductor (30 March 2016). </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledinside.com/news/2015/3/samsung_to_focus_on_silicon_based_led_chip_technology_in_2015">"Samsung To Focus on Silicon-based LED Chip Technology in 2015"</a>. LED Inside (17 March 2015). </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Keeping, Steven. (2013-01-15) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digikey.com/en/articles/techzone/2013/jan/material-and-manufacturing-improvements-enhance-led-efficiency">"Material and Manufacturing Improvements"</a>. DigiKey. Retrieved on 2018-07-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Keeping, Steven (December 12, 2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digikey.com/en/articles/techzone/2014/dec/manufacturers-shift-attention-to-light-quality-to-further-led-market-share-gains">"Manufacturers Shift Attention to Light Quality to Further LED Market Share Gains"</a>. DigiKey. Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Keeping, Steven. (September 24, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digikey.com/en/articles/techzone/2013/sep/will-silicon-substrates-push-led-lighting-into-the-mainstream">"Will Silicon Substrates Push LED Lighting Into the Mainstream?"</a>. DigiKey. Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Keeping, Steven (March 24, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digikey.com/en/articles/techzone/2015/mar/improved-silicon-substrate-leds-address-high-solid-state-lighting-costs">"Improved Silicon-Substrate LEDs Address High Solid-State Lighting Costs"</a>. DigiKey. Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.toshiba-machine.co.jp/en/NEWS/product/20110518_04.html">"Development of the Nano-Imprint Equipment ST50S-LED for High-Brightness LED"</a>. Toshiba Machine (May 18, 2011). Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://electroiq.com/2015/11/the-use-of-sapphire-in-mobile-device-and-led-industries-part-2/">"The use of sapphire in mobile device and LED industries: Part 2"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729111702/https://electroiq.com/2015/11/the-use-of-sapphire-in-mobile-device-and-led-industries-part-2/">Archived</a> July 29, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Solid State Technology (September 26, 2017). Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.appliedmaterials.com/semiconductor/products/epitaxy">"Epitaxy"</a>. Applied Materials. Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-Toshiba-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Toshiba_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Toshiba_74-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLester" class="citation cs2">Lester, Steve, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140712100725/https://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lester_substrate-pkg_tampa2014.pdf">Role of Substrate Choice on LED Pacakaging</a> (PDF), Toshiba America Electronic Components, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lester_substrate-pkg_tampa2014.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 12, 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Role+of+Substrate+Choice+on+LED+Pacakaging&rft.pub=Toshiba+America+Electronic+Components&rft.aulast=Lester&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps1.eere.energy.gov%2Fbuildings%2Fpublications%2Fpdfs%2Fssl%2Flester_substrate-pkg_tampa2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Semiengineering: MOCVD vendors eye new apps </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIzotovSitdikovSoldatkinTuev2014" class="citation journal cs1">Izotov, Sergey; Sitdikov, Anton; Soldatkin, Vasily; Tuev, Vasily; Olisovets, Artem (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.protcy.2014.11.005">"Study of Phosphors for White LEDs"</a>. Procedia Technology. 18: 14–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.protcy.2014.11.005">10.1016/j.protcy.2014.11.005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+Technology&rft.atitle=Study+of+Phosphors+for+White+LEDs&rft.volume=18&rft.pages=14-18&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.protcy.2014.11.005&rft.aulast=Izotov&rft.aufirst=Sergey&rft.au=Sitdikov%2C+Anton&rft.au=Soldatkin%2C+Vasily&rft.au=Tuev%2C+Vasily&rft.au=Olisovets%2C+Artem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.protcy.2014.11.005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphoton.2006.78">"Haitz's law"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_Photonics" title="Nature Photonics">Nature Photonics</a>. 1 (1): 23. 2007. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007NaPho...1...23.">2007NaPho...1...23.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphoton.2006.78">10.1038/nphoton.2006.78</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Photonics&rft.atitle=Haitz%27s+law&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphoton.2006.78&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007NaPho...1...23.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnphoton.2006.78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009180039/http://www.ledcornbulbs.com/LEDlightsapplication/List-of-Top-10-LED-light-manufacturer-in-China-19.html">"List of Top 10 LED light manufacturer in China"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ledcornbulbs.com/LEDlightsapplication/List-of-Top-10-LED-light-manufacturer-in-China-19.html">the original</a> on October 9, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=List+of+Top+10+LED+light+manufacturer+in+China&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledcornbulbs.com%2FLEDlightsapplication%2FList-of-Top-10-LED-light-manufacturer-in-China-19.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2006" class="citation web cs1">Morris, Nick (June 1, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111123210448/http://www.electrooptics.com/features/junjul06/junjul06leds.html">"LED there be light, Nick Morris predicts a bright future for LEDs"</a>. Electrooptics.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electrooptics.com/features/junjul06/junjul06leds.html">the original</a> on November 23, 2011. Retrieved March 4, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Electrooptics.com&rft.atitle=LED+there+be+light%2C+Nick+Morris+predicts+a+bright+future+for+LEDs&rft.date=2006-06-01&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.electrooptics.com%2Ffeatures%2Fjunjul06%2Fjunjul06leds.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/2008/02/27/incandescent-led-cfl-pf-guru_in_mm_0227energy_inl.html">"The LED Illumination Revolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a>. February 27, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=The+LED+Illumination+Revolution&rft.date=2008-02-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2F2008%2F02%2F27%2Fincandescent-led-cfl-pf-guru_in_mm_0227energy_inl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2014/press.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physics 2014"</a> (press release). Nobel Prize Committee, 7 October 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cree.com/news-media/news/article/cree-first-to-break-300-lumens-per-watt-barrier">"Cree First to Break 300 Lumens-Per-Watt Barrier"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180728221801/http://www.cree.com/news-media/news/article/cree-first-to-break-300-lumens-per-watt-barrier">Archived</a> July 28, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cree.com (Match 26, 2014). Retrieved July 31, 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.samsung.com/led/lighting/mid-power-leds/3030-leds/lm301b/">LM301B | SAMSUNG LED | Samsung LED Global Website</a>. Samsung.com. Retrieved on 2018-07-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.samsung.com/led/about-us/news-events/news/news-detail-37/">Samsung Achieves 220 Lumens per Watt with New Mid-Power LED Package</a>. Samsung.com (2017-06-16). Retrieved on 2018-07-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luxnlum.in/led-breakthrough-promises-ultra-efficient-luminaires/">LED breakthrough promises ultra-efficient luminaires | Lux-n-Lum</a>.Retrieved on 2018-04-06. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2010-08-white-super-high-luminous-efficacy.html">"White LEDs with super-high luminous efficacy could satisfy all general lighting needs"</a>. phys.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=phys.org&rft.atitle=White+LEDs+with+super-high+luminous+efficacy+could+satisfy+all+general+lighting+needs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2010-08-white-super-high-luminous-efficacy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=15471">LED bulb efficiency expected to continue improving as cost declines</a>. U.S. Energy Information Administration (March 19, 2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIgoDAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+silicone&pg=PA124">LED Lighting: Technology and Perception</a>. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9"><bdi>978-3-527-41212-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LED+Lighting%3A+Technology+and+Perception&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-02-09&rft.isbn=978-3-527-41212-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIgoDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.led-professional.com/resources-1/articles/hermetic-polymer-free-white-leds-for-harsh-environments">"Hermetic Polymer-Free White LEDs for Harsh Environments"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hermetic+Polymer-Free+White+LEDs+for+Harsh+Environments&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.led-professional.com%2Fresources-1%2Farticles%2Fhermetic-polymer-free-white-leds-for-harsh-environments&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPs_EAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+materials&pg=PA47">From LED to Solid State Lighting: Principles, Materials, Packaging, Characterization, and Applications</a>. John Wiley & Sons. September 28, 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-88147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-88147-7"><bdi>978-1-118-88147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+LED+to+Solid+State+Lighting%3A+Principles%2C+Materials%2C+Packaging%2C+Characterization%2C+and+Applications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2021-09-28&rft.isbn=978-1-118-88147-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtPs_EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bmaterials%26pg%3DPA47&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qqy-EAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+silicone&pg=PA28">Introduction to the Light-Emitting Diode: Real Applications for Industrial Engineers</a>. Springer. May 12, 2023. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-30716-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-30716-4"><bdi>978-3-031-30716-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Light-Emitting+Diode%3A+Real+Applications+for+Industrial+Engineers&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2023-05-12&rft.isbn=978-3-031-30716-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQqy-EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vCZcEAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+silicone&pg=PA21">Reliability of Organic Compounds in Microelectronics and Optoelectronics: From Physics-of-Failure to Physics-of-Degradation</a>. Springer. January 31, 2022. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-81576-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-81576-9"><bdi>978-3-030-81576-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reliability+of+Organic+Compounds+in+Microelectronics+and+Optoelectronics%3A+From+Physics-of-Failure+to+Physics-of-Degradation&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2022-01-31&rft.isbn=978-3-030-81576-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvCZcEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPs_EAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+silicone&pg=PA84">From LED to Solid State Lighting: Principles, Materials, Packaging, Characterization, and Applications</a>. John Wiley & Sons. September 28, 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-88147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-88147-7"><bdi>978-1-118-88147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+LED+to+Solid+State+Lighting%3A+Principles%2C+Materials%2C+Packaging%2C+Characterization%2C+and+Applications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2021-09-28&rft.isbn=978-1-118-88147-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtPs_EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4PNBQAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+silicone&pg=PA280">Fundamentals of Solid-State Lighting: LEDs, OLEDs, and Their Applications in Illumination and Displays</a>. CRC Press. June 3, 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-6112-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-6112-0"><bdi>978-1-4665-6112-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Solid-State+Lighting%3A+LEDs%2C+OLEDs%2C+and+Their+Applications+in+Illumination+and+Displays&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2014-06-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4665-6112-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW4PNBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_95-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bdwA7un2AK0C&dq=led+phosphor+silicone&pg=PA89">LED Packaging for Lighting Applications: Design, Manufacturing, and Testing</a>. John Wiley & Sons. July 5, 2011. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82840-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82840-3"><bdi>978-0-470-82840-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LED+Packaging+for+Lighting+Applications%3A+Design%2C+Manufacturing%2C+and+Testing&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-07-05&rft.isbn=978-0-470-82840-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbdwA7un2AK0C%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIgoDAAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led+silicone&pg=PA106">LED Lighting: Technology and Perception</a>. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9"><bdi>978-3-527-41212-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LED+Lighting%3A+Technology+and+Perception&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-02-09&rft.isbn=978-3-527-41212-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIgoDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChungNam2020" class="citation journal cs1">Chung, Woon Jin; Nam, Yoon Hee (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.0142001JSS">"Review—A Review on Phosphor in Glass as a High Power LED Color Converter"</a>. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology. 9 (1): 016010. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020JSSST...9a6010C">2020JSSST...9a6010C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F2.0142001JSS">10.1149/2.0142001JSS</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ECS+Journal+of+Solid+State+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Review%E2%80%94A+Review+on+Phosphor+in+Glass+as+a+High+Power+LED+Color+Converter&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=016010&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F2.0142001JSS&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020JSSST...9a6010C&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Woon+Jin&rft.au=Nam%2C+Yoon+Hee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1149%2F2.0142001JSS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Spec%20Sheets/LEDi%20Philips%20806K58RP827-B22d%20Prince.htm">"Philips LED 60W 806lm Retrofit with Remote Phosphor"</a>. lamptech.co.uk. Retrieved January 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lamptech.co.uk&rft.atitle=Philips+LED+60W+806lm+Retrofit+with+Remote+Phosphor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lamptech.co.uk%2FSpec%2520Sheets%2FLEDi%2520Philips%2520806K58RP827-B22d%2520Prince.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WE2zEAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+degradation&pg=PA32-IA13">Light-Emitting Diodes (4th Edition, 2023)</a>. E. Fred Schubert. March 11, 2023. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-7-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-7-3"><bdi>978-0-9863826-7-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light-Emitting+Diodes+%284th+Edition%2C+2023%29&rft.pub=E.+Fred+Schubert&rft.date=2023-03-11&rft.isbn=978-0-9863826-7-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWE2zEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bdegradation%26pg%3DPA32-IA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QnbUDAAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led+silicone&pg=PA184">Reliability Investigation of LED Devices for Public Light Applications</a>. Elsevier. March 9, 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101092-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101092-1"><bdi>978-0-08-101092-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reliability+Investigation+of+LED+Devices+for+Public+Light+Applications&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2017-03-09&rft.isbn=978-0-08-101092-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQnbUDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRoreBF61o4C&dq=led+phosphor+degradation&pg=PA523">Solid State Lighting Reliability: Components to Systems</a>. Springer. September 6, 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3067-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-3067-4"><bdi>978-1-4614-3067-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+State+Lighting+Reliability%3A+Components+to+Systems&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012-09-06&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-3067-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRoreBF61o4C%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bdegradation%26pg%3DPA523&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ba4sDwAAQBAJ&q=led+phosphor+degradation">Solid State Lighting Reliability Part 2: Components to Systems</a>. Springer. July 11, 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-58175-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-58175-0"><bdi>978-3-319-58175-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Solid+State+Lighting+Reliability+Part+2%3A+Components+to+Systems&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-07-11&rft.isbn=978-3-319-58175-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dba4sDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bdegradation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=algLBgAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led&pg=PA353">Light-Emitting Diodes (2nd Edition, 2006)</a>. E. Fred Schubert. January 2006. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-1-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-1-1"><bdi>978-0-9863826-1-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light-Emitting+Diodes+%282nd+Edition%2C+2006%29&rft.pub=E.+Fred+Schubert&rft.date=2006-01&rft.isbn=978-0-9863826-1-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DalgLBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%26pg%3DPA353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t0mZDgAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led&pg=PA127">Nitride Semiconductor Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Materials, Technologies, and Applications</a>. Woodhead. October 24, 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101943-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101943-6"><bdi>978-0-08-101943-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nitride+Semiconductor+Light-Emitting+Diodes+%28LEDs%29%3A+Materials%2C+Technologies%2C+and+Applications&rft.pub=Woodhead&rft.date=2017-10-24&rft.isbn=978-0-08-101943-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt0mZDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIgoDAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+materials&pg=PA73">LED Lighting: Technology and Perception</a>. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9"><bdi>978-3-527-41212-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LED+Lighting%3A+Technology+and+Perception&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-02-09&rft.isbn=978-3-527-41212-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIgoDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bmaterials%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W4PNBQAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led&pg=PA284">Fundamentals of Solid-State Lighting: LEDs, OLEDs, and Their Applications in Illumination and Displays</a>. CRC Press. June 3, 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-6112-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-6112-0"><bdi>978-1-4665-6112-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Solid-State+Lighting%3A+LEDs%2C+OLEDs%2C+and+Their+Applications+in+Illumination+and+Displays&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2014-06-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4665-6112-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW4PNBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%26pg%3DPA284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_WUkDwAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led+silicone&pg=PA422">III-Nitride Based Light Emitting Diodes and Applications</a>. Springer. May 18, 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-3755-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-10-3755-9"><bdi>978-981-10-3755-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=III-Nitride+Based+Light+Emitting+Diodes+and+Applications&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-05-18&rft.isbn=978-981-10-3755-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_WUkDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%2Bsilicone%26pg%3DPA422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.led-professional.com/resources-1/articles/new-glass-based-phosphors-for-white-light-emitting-diodes">"New Glass-Based Phosphors for White Light-Emitting Diodes"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Glass-Based+Phosphors+for+White+Light-Emitting+Diodes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.led-professional.com%2Fresources-1%2Farticles%2Fnew-glass-based-phosphors-for-white-light-emitting-diodes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPs_EAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+coating&pg=PA45">From LED to Solid State Lighting: Principles, Materials, Packaging, Characterization, and Applications</a>. John Wiley & Sons. September 28, 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-88147-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-88147-7"><bdi>978-1-118-88147-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+LED+to+Solid+State+Lighting%3A+Principles%2C+Materials%2C+Packaging%2C+Characterization%2C+and+Applications&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2021-09-28&rft.isbn=978-1-118-88147-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtPs_EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bcoating%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIgoDAAAQBAJ&dq=led+phosphor+powder&pg=PA105">LED Lighting: Technology and Perception</a>. John Wiley & Sons. February 9, 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-41212-9"><bdi>978-3-527-41212-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=LED+Lighting%3A+Technology+and+Perception&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015-02-09&rft.isbn=978-3-527-41212-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIgoDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dled%2Bphosphor%2Bpowder%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxworth2024" class="citation web cs1">Coxworth, Ben (June 18, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newatlas.com/electronics/q-pixel-microled-display/">"All-in-one polychromatic LEDs replace RGB for radically sharper screens"</a>. New Atlas. Retrieved June 21, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Atlas&rft.atitle=All-in-one+polychromatic+LEDs+replace+RGB+for+radically+sharper+screens&rft.date=2024-06-18&rft.aulast=Coxworth&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewatlas.com%2Felectronics%2Fq-pixel-microled-display%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pears1-112"><a href="#cite_ref-pears1_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearsall2010" class="citation book cs1">Pearsall, Thomas (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817005021/https://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/photonics-essentials-second-edition-pearsall/9780071629355.html">Photonics Essentials, 2nd edition</a>. McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-162935-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-162935-5"><bdi>978-0-07-162935-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mheducation.com/highered/product/photonics-essentials-second-edition-pearsall/9780071629355.html">the original</a> on August 17, 2021. Retrieved February 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Photonics+Essentials%2C+2nd+edition&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-07-162935-5&rft.aulast=Pearsall&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mheducation.com%2Fhighered%2Fproduct%2Fphotonics-essentials-second-edition-pearsall%2F9780071629355.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/led-basics">"LED Basics | Department of Energy"</a>. www.energy.gov. Retrieved October 22, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.energy.gov&rft.atitle=LED+Basics+%7C+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fssl%2Fled-basics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://optiwave.com/resources/applications-resources/optical-system-led-spectral-distribution/">"LED Spectral Distribution"</a>. optiwave.com. July 25, 2013. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=optiwave.com&rft.atitle=LED+Spectral+Distribution&rft.date=2013-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foptiwave.com%2Fresources%2Fapplications-resources%2Foptical-system-led-spectral-distribution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooke,_Mike2010" class="citation journal cs1">Cooke, Mike (April–May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130515030549/http://www.semiconductor-today.com/features/SemiconductorToday%20-%20Going%20deep%20for%20UV%20sterilization%20LEDs.pdf">"Going Deep for UV Sterilization LEDs"</a> (PDF). Semiconductor Today. 5 (3): 82. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.semiconductor-today.com/features/SemiconductorToday%20-%20Going%20deep%20for%20UV%20sterilization%20LEDs.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 15, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Semiconductor+Today&rft.atitle=Going+Deep+for+UV+Sterilization+LEDs&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=82&rft.date=2010-04%2F2010-05&rft.au=Cooke%2C+Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.semiconductor-today.com%2Ffeatures%2FSemiconductorToday%2520-%2520Going%2520deep%2520for%2520UV%2520sterilization%2520LEDs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-water_sterilization-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-water_sterilization_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-water_sterilization_116-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoriHamamotoTakahashiNakano2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mori, M.; Hamamoto, A.; Takahashi, A.; Nakano, M.; Wakikawa, N.; Tachibana, S.; Ikehara, T.; Nakaya, Y.; Akutagawa, M.; Kinouchi, Y. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11517-007-0263-1">"Development of a new water sterilization device with a 365 nm UV-LED"</a>. Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing. 45 (12): 1237–1241. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11517-007-0263-1">10.1007/s11517-007-0263-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17978842">17978842</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2821545">2821545</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medical+%26+Biological+Engineering+%26+Computing&rft.atitle=Development+of+a+new+water+sterilization+device+with+a+365+nm+UV-LED&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1237-1241&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2821545%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17978842&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11517-007-0263-1&rft.aulast=Mori&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hamamoto%2C+A.&rft.au=Takahashi%2C+A.&rft.au=Nakano%2C+M.&rft.au=Wakikawa%2C+N.&rft.au=Tachibana%2C+S.&rft.au=Ikehara%2C+T.&rft.au=Nakaya%2C+Y.&rft.au=Akutagawa%2C+M.&rft.au=Kinouchi%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11517-007-0263-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aln-117"><a href="#cite_ref-aln_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaniyasuKasuMakimoto2006" class="citation journal cs1">Taniyasu, Y.; Kasu, M.; Makimoto, T. (2006). "An aluminium nitride light-emitting diode with a wavelength of 210 nanometres". Nature. 441 (7091): 325–328. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..325T">2006Natur.441..325T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04760">10.1038/nature04760</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16710416">16710416</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4373542">4373542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=An+aluminium+nitride+light-emitting+diode+with+a+wavelength+of+210+nanometres&rft.volume=441&rft.issue=7091&rft.pages=325-328&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04760&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4373542%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16710416&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.441..325T&rft.aulast=Taniyasu&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Kasu%2C+M.&rft.au=Makimoto%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BN-118"><a href="#cite_ref-BN_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubotaWatanabeTsudaTaniguchi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kubota, Y.; Watanabe, K.; Tsuda, O.; Taniguchi, T. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1144216">"Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Hexagonal Boron Nitride Synthesized at Atmospheric Pressure"</a>. Science. 317 (5840): 932–934. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...317..932K">2007Sci...317..932K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1144216">10.1126/science.1144216</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17702939">17702939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Deep+Ultraviolet+Light-Emitting+Hexagonal+Boron+Nitride+Synthesized+at+Atmospheric+Pressure&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5840&rft.pages=932-934&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17702939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1144216&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...317..932K&rft.aulast=Kubota&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+K.&rft.au=Tsuda%2C+O.&rft.au=Taniguchi%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1144216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bn2-119"><a href="#cite_ref-bn2_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatanabeTaniguchiKanda2004" class="citation journal cs1">Watanabe, K.; Taniguchi, T.; Kanda, H. (2004). "Direct-bandgap properties and evidence for ultraviolet lasing of hexagonal boron nitride single crystal". Nature Materials. 3 (6): 404–409. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004NatMa...3..404W">2004NatMa...3..404W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmat1134">10.1038/nmat1134</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15156198">15156198</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23563849">23563849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Materials&rft.atitle=Direct-bandgap+properties+and+evidence+for+ultraviolet+lasing+of+hexagonal+boron+nitride+single+crystal&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=404-409&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmat1134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23563849%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15156198&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004NatMa...3..404W&rft.aulast=Watanabe&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Taniguchi%2C+T.&rft.au=Kanda%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dia-120"><a href="#cite_ref-dia_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoizumiWatanabeHasegawaKanda2001" class="citation journal cs1">Koizumi, S.; Watanabe, K.; Hasegawa, M.; Kanda, H. (2001). "Ultraviolet Emission from a Diamond pn Junction". Science. 292 (5523): 1899–1901. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...292.1899K">2001Sci...292.1899K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1060258">10.1126/science.1060258</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11397942">11397942</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10675358">10675358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ultraviolet+Emission+from+a+Diamond+pn+Junction&rft.volume=292&rft.issue=5523&rft.pages=1899-1901&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1060258&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10675358%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11397942&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Sci...292.1899K&rft.aulast=Koizumi&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+K.&rft.au=Hasegawa%2C+M.&rft.au=Kanda%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledinside.com/news/2014/11/seeing_red_with_pfs_phosphor">"Seeing Red with PFS Phosphor"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seeing+Red+with+PFS+Phosphor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledinside.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2F11%2Fseeing_red_with_pfs_phosphor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledsmagazine.com/architectural-lighting/retail-hospitality/article/16696629/ge-lighting-manufactures-pfs-red-phosphor-for-led-display-backlight-applications">"GE Lighting manufactures PFS red phosphor for LED display backlight applications"</a>. March 31, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GE+Lighting+manufactures+PFS+red+phosphor+for+LED+display+backlight+applications&rft.date=2015-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledsmagazine.com%2Farchitectural-lighting%2Fretail-hospitality%2Farticle%2F16696629%2Fge-lighting-manufactures-pfs-red-phosphor-for-led-display-backlight-applications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphyGarcia-SantamariaSetlurSista2015" class="citation journal cs1">Murphy, James E.; Garcia-Santamaria, Florencio; Setlur, Anant A.; Sista, Srinivas (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sid.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sdtp.10406">"62.4: PFS, K2SiF6:Mn4+: The Red-line Emitting LED Phosphor behind GE's TriGain Technology™ Platform"</a>. Sid Symposium Digest of Technical Papers. 46: 927–930. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsdtp.10406">10.1002/sdtp.10406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sid+Symposium+Digest+of+Technical+Papers&rft.atitle=62.4%3A+PFS%2C+K%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3ESiF%3Csub%3E6%3C%2Fsub%3E%3AMn%3Csup%3E4%2B%3C%2Fsup%3E%3A+The+Red-line+Emitting+LED+Phosphor+behind+GE%27s+TriGain+Technology%E2%84%A2+Platform&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=927-930&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fsdtp.10406&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft.au=Garcia-Santamaria%2C+Florencio&rft.au=Setlur%2C+Anant+A.&rft.au=Sista%2C+Srinivas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsid.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2Fsdtp.10406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuttaLiotta2018" class="citation journal cs1">Dutta, Partha S.; Liotta, Kathryn M. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F2.0251801jss">"Full Spectrum White LEDs of Any Color Temperature with Color Rendering Index Higher Than 90 Using a Single Broad-Band Phosphor"</a>. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology. 7: R3194–R3198. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F2.0251801jss">10.1149/2.0251801jss</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:103600941">103600941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ECS+Journal+of+Solid+State+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Full+Spectrum+White+LEDs+of+Any+Color+Temperature+with+Color+Rendering+Index+Higher+Than+90+Using+a+Single+Broad-Band+Phosphor&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=R3194-R3198&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F2.0251801jss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A103600941%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dutta&rft.aufirst=Partha+S.&rft.au=Liotta%2C+Kathryn+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1149%252F2.0251801jss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoParkKimSchubert2017" class="citation journal cs1">Cho, Jaehee; Park, Jun Hyuk; Kim, Jong Kyu; Schubert, E. Fred (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lpor.201600147">"White light-emitting diodes: History, progress, and future"</a>. Laser & Photonics Reviews. 11 (2): 1600147. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017LPRv...1100147C">2017LPRv...1100147C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Flpor.201600147">10.1002/lpor.201600147</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1863-8880">1863-8880</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53645208">53645208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Laser+%26+Photonics+Reviews&rft.atitle=White+light-emitting+diodes%3A+History%2C+progress%2C+and+future&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1600147&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Flpor.201600147&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53645208%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1863-8880&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017LPRv...1100147C&rft.aulast=Cho&rft.aufirst=Jaehee&rft.au=Park%2C+Jun+Hyuk&rft.au=Kim%2C+Jong+Kyu&rft.au=Schubert%2C+E.+Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2Flpor.201600147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEFKDwAAQBAJ&dq=ce+yag+led&pg=PA36">Light-Emitting Diodes (3rd Edition, 2018)</a>. E. Fred Schubert. February 3, 2018. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-6-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9863826-6-6"><bdi>978-0-9863826-6-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light-Emitting+Diodes+%283rd+Edition%2C+2018%29&rft.pub=E.+Fred+Schubert&rft.date=2018-02-03&rft.isbn=978-0-9863826-6-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGEFKDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dce%2Byag%2Bled%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aJyCDAAAQBAJ&dq=growing+ce+yag&pg=PA113">Additive Manufacturing and Strategic Technologies in Advanced Ceramics</a>. John Wiley & Sons. August 16, 2016. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-23600-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-23600-9"><bdi>978-1-119-23600-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Additive+Manufacturing+and+Strategic+Technologies+in+Advanced+Ceramics&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016-08-16&rft.isbn=978-1-119-23600-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaJyCDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgrowing%2Bce%2Byag%26pg%3DPA113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorenoContreras2007" class="citation journal cs1">Moreno, I.; Contreras, U. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOE.15.003607">"Color distribution from multicolor LED arrays"</a>. Optics Express. 15 (6): 3607–3618. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007OExpr..15.3607M">2007OExpr..15.3607M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOE.15.003607">10.1364/OE.15.003607</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19532605">19532605</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35468615">35468615</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optics+Express&rft.atitle=Color+distribution+from+multicolor+LED+arrays&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=3607-3618&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FOE.15.003607&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35468615%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19532605&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007OExpr..15.3607M&rft.aulast=Moreno&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Contreras%2C+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1364%252FOE.15.003607&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYehHuangLuYang" class="citation web cs1">Yeh, Dong-Ming; Huang, Chi-Feng; Lu, Chih-Feng; Yang, Chih-Chung. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spie.org/newsroom/1069-making-white-light-emitting-diodes-without-phosphors?SSO=1">"Making white-light-emitting diodes without phosphors | SPIE Homepage: SPIE"</a>. spie.org. Retrieved April 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=spie.org&rft.atitle=Making+white-light-emitting+diodes+without+phosphors+%7C+SPIE+Homepage%3A+SPIE&rft.aulast=Yeh&rft.aufirst=Dong-Ming&rft.au=Huang%2C+Chi-Feng&rft.au=Lu%2C+Chih-Feng&rft.au=Yang%2C+Chih-Chung&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspie.org%2Fnewsroom%2F1069-making-white-light-emitting-diodes-without-phosphors%3FSSO%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCabrera2019" class="citation book cs1">Cabrera, Rowan (2019). Electronic Devices and Circuits. EDTECH. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1839473838" title="Special:BookSources/978-1839473838"><bdi>978-1839473838</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electronic+Devices+and+Circuits&rft.pub=EDTECH&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1839473838&rft.aulast=Cabrera&rft.aufirst=Rowan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchubertKim2005" class="citation journal cs1">Schubert, E. Fred; Kim, Jong Kyu (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160205165109/https://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/Reprints/2005%20Schubert%20and%20Kim%20(Science)%20Solid-state%20light%20sources%20getting%20smart.pdf">"Solid-State Light Sources Getting Smart"</a> (PDF). Science. 308 (5726): 1274–1278. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...308.1274S">2005Sci...308.1274S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1108712">10.1126/science.1108712</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15919985">15919985</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6354382">6354382</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecse.rpi.edu/~schubert/Reprints/2005%20Schubert%20and%20Kim%20(Science)%20Solid-state%20light%20sources%20getting%20smart.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 5, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Solid-State+Light+Sources+Getting+Smart&rft.volume=308&rft.issue=5726&rft.pages=1274-1278&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1108712&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6354382%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15919985&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Sci...308.1274S&rft.aulast=Schubert&rft.aufirst=E.+Fred&rft.au=Kim%2C+Jong+Kyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecse.rpi.edu%2F~schubert%2FReprints%2F2005%2520Schubert%2520and%2520Kim%2520%28Science%29%2520Solid-state%2520light%2520sources%2520getting%2520smart.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNimzHailerJensen2012" class="citation journal cs1">Nimz, Thomas; Hailer, Fredrik; Jensen, Kevin (November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140429162806/http://www.mazet.de/en/english-documents/english/featured-articles/sensors-and-feedback-control-of-multi-color-led-systems-1/download#.UX7VXYIcUZI">"Sensors and Feedback Control of Multicolor LED Systems"</a>. Led Professional Review: Trends & Technologie for Future Lighting Solutions (34). LED Professional: 2–5. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1993-890X">1993-890X</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mazet.de/en/english-documents/english/featured-articles/sensors-and-feedback-control-of-multi-color-led-systems-1/download#.UX7VXYIcUZI">the original</a> (PDF) on April 29, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Led+Professional+Review%3A+Trends+%26+Technologie+for+Future+Lighting+Solutions&rft.atitle=Sensors+and+Feedback+Control+of+Multicolor+LED+Systems&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=2-5&rft.date=2012-11&rft.issn=1993-890X&rft.aulast=Nimz&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Hailer%2C+Fredrik&rft.au=Jensen%2C+Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mazet.de%2Fen%2Fenglish-documents%2Fenglish%2Ffeatured-articles%2Fsensors-and-feedback-control-of-multi-color-led-systems-1%2Fdownload%23.UX7VXYIcUZI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanabe,_S.Fujita,_S.Yoshihara,_S.Sakamoto,_A.2005" class="citation book cs1">Tanabe, S.; Fujita, S.; Yoshihara, S.; Sakamoto, A.; Yamamoto, S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511182527/http://lib.semi.ac.cn:8080/tsh/dzzy/wsqk/SPIE/vol5941/594112.pdf">"YAG glass-ceramic phosphor for white LED (II): Luminescence characteristics"</a> (PDF). In Ferguson, Ian T; Carrano, John C; Taguchi, Tsunemasa; Ashdown, Ian E (eds.). Fifth International Conference on Solid State Lighting. Vol. 5941. p. 594112. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005SPIE.5941..193T">2005SPIE.5941..193T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.614681">10.1117/12.614681</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38290951">38290951</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.semi.ac.cn:8080/tsh/dzzy/wsqk/SPIE/vol5941/594112.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 11, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=YAG+glass-ceramic+phosphor+for+white+LED+%28II%29%3A+Luminescence+characteristics&rft.btitle=Fifth+International+Conference+on+Solid+State+Lighting&rft.pages=594112&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38290951%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.614681&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005SPIE.5941..193T&rft.au=Tanabe%2C+S.&rft.au=Fujita%2C+S.&rft.au=Yoshihara%2C+S.&rft.au=Sakamoto%2C+A.&rft.au=Yamamoto%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flib.semi.ac.cn%3A8080%2Ftsh%2Fdzzy%2Fwsqk%2FSPIE%2Fvol5941%2F594112.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOhno,_Y.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ohno, Y. (2004). Ferguson, Ian T; Narendran, Nadarajah; Denbaars, Steven P; Carrano, John C (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511182632/http://lib.semi.ac.cn:8080/tsh/dzzy/wsqk/SPIE/vol5530/5530-88.pdf">"Color rendering and luminous efficacy of white LED spectra"</a> (PDF). Proc. SPIE. Fourth International Conference on Solid State Lighting. 5530: 89. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004SPIE.5530...88O">2004SPIE.5530...88O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.565757">10.1117/12.565757</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122777225">122777225</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.semi.ac.cn:8080/tsh/dzzy/wsqk/SPIE/vol5530/5530-88.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on May 11, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+SPIE&rft.atitle=Color+rendering+and+luminous+efficacy+of+white+LED+spectra&rft.volume=5530&rft.pages=89&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122777225%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.565757&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004SPIE.5530...88O&rft.au=Ohno%2C+Y.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flib.semi.ac.cn%3A8080%2Ftsh%2Fdzzy%2Fwsqk%2FSPIE%2Fvol5530%2F5530-88.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-electronicdesign.com-135"><a href="#cite_ref-electronicdesign.com_135-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://electronicdesign.com/europe-news/next-generation-gan-si-white-leds-suppress-costs">Next-Generation GaN-on-Si White LEDs Suppress Costs</a>, Electronic Design, 19 November 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isuppli.com/Semiconductor-Value-Chain/News/Pages/GaN-on-Silicon-LEDs-Forecast-to-Increase-Market-Share-to-40Percent-by-2020.aspx">GaN-on-Silicon LEDs Forecast to Increase Market Share to 40 Percent by 2020</a>, iSuppli, 4 December 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.agcled.com/blog/all-you-want-to-know-about-rgbw-led-light.html">"All You Want to Know about RGBW LED Light"</a>. AGC Lighting.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AGC+Lighting&rft.atitle=All+You+Want+to+Know+about+RGBW+LED+Light&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.agcled.com%2Fblog%2Fall-you-want-to-know-about-rgbw-led-light.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://support.enlightedinc.com/hc/en-us/articles/360031886233-Tunable-White-Application-Note">"Tunable White Application Note"</a>. enlightedinc.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=enlightedinc.com&rft.atitle=Tunable+White+Application+Note&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.enlightedinc.com%2Fhc%2Fen-us%2Farticles%2F360031886233-Tunable-White-Application-Note&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leducation.org/green-light-can-maximize/">"2021 How Green Light Can Maximize the Quality of Tunable White – LEDucation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2021+How+Green+Light+Can+Maximize+the+Quality+of+Tunable+White+%E2%80%93+LEDucation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fleducation.org%2Fgreen-light-can-maximize%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EG.COL.T-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EG.COL.T_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EG.COL.T_140-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/understanding-led-color-tunable-products">"Understanding LED Color-Tunable Products"</a>. Energy.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=Understanding+LED+Color-Tunable+Products&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fssl%2Funderstanding-led-color-tunable-products&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitaker,_Tim2002" class="citation web cs1">Whitaker, Tim (December 6, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://optics.org/cws/article/research/16534">"Joint venture to make ZnSe white LEDs"</a>. Retrieved January 3, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joint+venture+to+make+ZnSe+white+LEDs&rft.date=2002-12-06&rft.au=Whitaker%2C+Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foptics.org%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fresearch%2F16534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurroughesBradleyBrownMarks1990" class="citation journal cs1">Burroughes, J. H.; Bradley, D. D. C.; Brown, A. R.; Marks, R. N.; MacKay, K.; Friend, R. H.; Burns, P. L.; Holmes, A. B. (1990). "Light-emitting diodes based on conjugated polymers". Nature. 347 (6293): 539–541. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990Natur.347..539B">1990Natur.347..539B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F347539a0">10.1038/347539a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43158308">43158308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Light-emitting+diodes+based+on+conjugated+polymers&rft.volume=347&rft.issue=6293&rft.pages=539-541&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43158308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F347539a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990Natur.347..539B&rft.aulast=Burroughes&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft.au=Bradley%2C+D.+D.+C.&rft.au=Brown%2C+A.+R.&rft.au=Marks%2C+R.+N.&rft.au=MacKay%2C+K.&rft.au=Friend%2C+R.+H.&rft.au=Burns%2C+P.+L.&rft.au=Holmes%2C+A.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OLEDSolidState-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OLEDSolidState_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OLEDSolidState_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhoJavedMarkMaier2008" class="citation conference cs1">Kho, Mu-Jeong; Javed, T.; Mark, R.; Maier, E.; David, C (March 4, 2008). Final Report: OLED Solid State Lighting. Kodak European Research. Cambridge Science Park, Cambridge, UK.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Final+Report%3A+OLED+Solid+State+Lighting&rft.place=Cambridge+Science+Park%2C+Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.date=2008-03-04&rft.aulast=Kho&rft.aufirst=Mu-Jeong&rft.au=Javed%2C+T.&rft.au=Mark%2C+R.&rft.au=Maier%2C+E.&rft.au=David%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bardsley-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bardsley_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bardsley_144-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardsley2004" class="citation journal cs1">Bardsley, J. N. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1232213">"International OLED Technology Roadmap"</a>. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 10 (1): 3–4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004IJSTQ..10....3B">2004IJSTQ..10....3B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJSTQE.2004.824077">10.1109/JSTQE.2004.824077</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30084021">30084021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Journal+of+Selected+Topics+in+Quantum+Electronics&rft.atitle=International+OLED+Technology+Roadmap&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-4&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30084021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJSTQE.2004.824077&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004IJSTQ..10....3B&rft.aulast=Bardsley&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1232213&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHebnerWuMarcyLu1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hebner, T. R.; Wu, C. C.; Marcy, D.; Lu, M. H.; Sturm, J. C. (1998). "Ink-jet printing of doped polymers for organic light emitting devices". Applied Physics Letters. 72 (5): 519. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApPhL..72..519H">1998ApPhL..72..519H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.120807">10.1063/1.120807</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119648364">119648364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Ink-jet+printing+of+doped+polymers+for+organic+light+emitting+devices&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=519&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119648364%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.120807&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ApPhL..72..519H&rft.aulast=Hebner&rft.aufirst=T.+R.&rft.au=Wu%2C+C.+C.&rft.au=Marcy%2C+D.&rft.au=Lu%2C+M.+H.&rft.au=Sturm%2C+J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBharathanYang1998" class="citation journal cs1">Bharathan, J.; Yang, Y. (1998). "Polymer electroluminescent devices processed by inkjet printing: I. Polymer light-emitting logo". Applied Physics Letters. 72 (21): 2660. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApPhL..72.2660B">1998ApPhL..72.2660B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.121090">10.1063/1.121090</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44128025">44128025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Polymer+electroluminescent+devices+processed+by+inkjet+printing%3A+I.+Polymer+light-emitting+logo&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2660&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44128025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.121090&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ApPhL..72.2660B&rft.aulast=Bharathan&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Yang%2C+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGustafssonCaoTreacyKlavetter1992" class="citation journal cs1">Gustafsson, G.; Cao, Y.; Treacy, G. M.; Klavetter, F.; Colaneri, N.; Heeger, A. J. (1992). "Flexible light-emitting diodes made from soluble conducting polymers". Nature. 357 (6378): 477–479. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Natur.357..477G">1992Natur.357..477G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F357477a0">10.1038/357477a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4366944">4366944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Flexible+light-emitting+diodes+made+from+soluble+conducting+polymers&rft.volume=357&rft.issue=6378&rft.pages=477-479&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4366944%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F357477a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992Natur.357..477G&rft.aulast=Gustafsson&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Cao%2C+Y.&rft.au=Treacy%2C+G.+M.&rft.au=Klavetter%2C+F.&rft.au=Colaneri%2C+N.&rft.au=Heeger%2C+A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elektor.com/magazines/2008/february/power-to-the-leds.350167.lynkx">LED-design</a>. Elektor.com. Retrieved on March 16, 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120831112624/http://www.elektor.com/magazines/2008/february/power-to-the-leds.350167.lynkx">Archived</a> August 31, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ams-osram.com/products/leds/ir-leds/osram-radial-t1-34-sfh-4546">"OSRAM Radial T1 3/4, SFH 4546 IR LEDs - ams-osram - ams"</a>. ams-osram. Retrieved September 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ams-osram&rft.atitle=OSRAM+Radial+T1+3%2F4%2C+SFH+4546+IR+LEDs+-+ams-osram+-+ams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fams-osram.com%2Fproducts%2Fleds%2Fir-leds%2Fosram-radial-t1-34-sfh-4546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vcclite.com/product/lth5mm12vfr4100/">"LED Through Hole 5mm (T-1 3/4) Red Built-in resistor 635 nm 4500 mcd 12V"</a>. VCC. Retrieved September 19, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VCC&rft.atitle=LED+Through+Hole+5mm+%28T-1+3%2F4%29+Red+Built-in+resistor+635+nm+4500+mcd+12V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvcclite.com%2Fproduct%2Flth5mm12vfr4100%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080725033952/http://www.luminus.com/content1044">"Luminus Products"</a>. Luminus Devices. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminus.com/content1044">the original</a> on July 25, 2008. Retrieved October 21, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Luminus+Products&rft.pub=Luminus+Devices&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.luminus.com%2Fcontent1044&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100331100545/http://www.luminus.com/stuff/contentmgr/files/0/7c8547b3575bcecc577525b80d210ac7/misc/pds_001314_rev_03__cst_90_w_product_datasheet_illumination.pdf">"Luminus Products CST-90 Series Datasheet"</a> (PDF). Luminus Devices. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.luminus.com/stuff/contentmgr/files/0/7c8547b3575bcecc577525b80d210ac7/misc/pds_001314_rev_03__cst_90_w_product_datasheet_illumination.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 31, 2010. Retrieved October 25, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Luminus+Products+CST-90+Series+Datasheet&rft.pub=Luminus+Devices&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.luminus.com%2Fstuff%2Fcontentmgr%2Ffiles%2F0%2F7c8547b3575bcecc577525b80d210ac7%2Fmisc%2Fpds_001314_rev_03__cst_90_w_product_datasheet_illumination.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xlamp_Xp-G_Led-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xlamp_Xp-G_Led_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xlamp_Xp-G_Led_153-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120313082324/http://www.cree.com/products/xlamp_xpg.asp">"Xlamp Xp-G Led"</a>. Cree.com. <a href="/wiki/Cree,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Cree, Inc.">Cree, Inc.</a> Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cree.com/products/xlamp_xpg.asp">the original</a> on March 13, 2012. Retrieved March 16, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cree.com&rft.atitle=Xlamp+Xp-G+Led&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cree.com%2Fproducts%2Fxlamp_xpg.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nichia.co.jp/en/about_nichia/2010/2010_110201.html">High Power Point Source White Led NVSx219A</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210729062935/https://www.nichia.co.jp/en/about_nichia/2010/2010_110201.html">Archived</a> July 29, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Nichia.co.jp, November 2, 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015021634/http://www.ledsmagazine.com/news/3/11/14">"Seoul Semiconductor launches AC LED lighting source Acrich"</a>. LEDS Magazine. November 17, 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ledsmagazine.com/news/3/11/14">the original</a> on October 15, 2007. Retrieved February 17, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seoul+Semiconductor+launches+AC+LED+lighting+source+Acrich&rft.pub=LEDS+Magazine&rft.date=2006-11-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledsmagazine.com%2Fnews%2F3%2F11%2F14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IDA-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IDA_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IDA_156-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130116003035/http://darksky.org/assets/documents/Reports/IDA-Blue-Rich-Light-White-Paper.pdf">Visibility, Environmental, and Astronomical Issues Associated with Blue-Rich White Outdoor Lighting</a> (PDF). International Dark-Sky Association. May 4, 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.darksky.org/assets/documents/Reports/IDA-Blue-Rich-Light-White-Paper.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on January 16, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visibility%2C+Environmental%2C+and+Astronomical+Issues+Associated+with+Blue-Rich+White+Outdoor+Lighting&rft.pub=International+Dark-Sky+Association&rft.date=2010-05-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darksky.org%2Fassets%2Fdocuments%2FReports%2FIDA-Blue-Rich-Light-White-Paper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOskay2011" class="citation web cs1">Oskay, Windell (June 22, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.evilmadscientist.com/2011/does-this-led-sound-funny-to-you/">"Does this LED sound funny to you?"</a>. Evil Mad Scientist Laboratories. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230924100327/https://www.evilmadscientist.com/2011/does-this-led-sound-funny-to-you/">Archived</a> from the original on September 24, 2023. Retrieved January 30, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Evil+Mad+Scientist+Laboratories&rft.atitle=Does+this+LED+sound+funny+to+you%3F&rft.date=2011-06-22&rft.aulast=Oskay&rft.aufirst=Windell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.evilmadscientist.com%2F2011%2Fdoes-this-led-sound-funny-to-you%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTim's_Blog2024" class="citation web cs1">Tim's Blog (January 14, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpldcpu.wordpress.com/2024/01/14/revisiting-candle-flicker-leds-now-with-integrated-timer/">"Revisiting Candle Flicker-LEDs: Now with integrated Timer"</a>. cpldcpu.wordpress.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240129164612/https://cpldcpu.wordpress.com/2024/01/14/revisiting-candle-flicker-leds-now-with-integrated-timer/">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved January 30, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cpldcpu.wordpress.com&rft.atitle=Revisiting+Candle+Flicker-LEDs%3A+Now+with+integrated+Timer&rft.date=2024-01-14&rft.au=Tim%27s+Blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpldcpu.wordpress.com%2F2024%2F01%2F14%2Frevisiting-candle-flicker-leds-now-with-integrated-timer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTing2011" class="citation book cs1">Ting, Hua-Nong (June 17, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qk1hmpEQVxIC&pg=PA349">5th Kuala Lumpur International Conference on Biomedical Engineering 2011: BIOMED 2011, 20–23 June 2011, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783642217296" title="Special:BookSources/9783642217296"><bdi>9783642217296</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=5th+Kuala+Lumpur+International+Conference+on+Biomedical+Engineering+2011%3A+BIOMED+2011%2C+20%E2%80%9323+June+2011%2C+Kuala+Lumpur%2C+Malaysia&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011-06-17&rft.isbn=9783642217296&rft.aulast=Ting&rft.aufirst=Hua-Nong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqk1hmpEQVxIC%26pg%3DPA349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ledinside.com/knowledge/2015/2/the_next_generation_of_led_filament_bulbs">"The Next Generation of LED Filament Bulbs"</a>. LEDInside.com. Trendforce. Retrieved October 26, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LEDInside.com&rft.atitle=The+Next+Generation+of+LED+Filament+Bulbs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledinside.com%2Fknowledge%2F2015%2F2%2Fthe_next_generation_of_led_filament_bulbs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Archived at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/H_XiunR-cAQ">Ghostarchive</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151122213511/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_XiunR-cAQ">Wayback Machine</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_XiunR-cAQ">"LED Filaments"</a>. <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. April 5, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=LED+Filaments&rft.date=2015-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DH_XiunR-cAQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lO_lCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths: Including Actinides</a>. Elsevier Science. August 1, 2016. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-63705-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-63705-5"><bdi>978-0-444-63705-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+on+the+Physics+and+Chemistry+of+Rare+Earths%3A+Including+Actinides&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2016-08-01&rft.isbn=978-0-444-63705-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlO_lCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.shineretrofits.com/lighting-center/corn-lamps">"Corn Lamps: What Are They & Where Can I Use Them?"</a>. Shine Retrofits. September 1, 2016. Retrieved December 30, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Corn+Lamps%3A+What+Are+They+%26+Where+Can+I+Use+Them%3F&rft.pub=Shine+Retrofits&rft.date=2016-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.shineretrofits.com%2Flighting-center%2Fcorn-lamps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090505080533/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl/comparing.html">"Solid-State Lighting: Comparing LEDs to Traditional Light Sources"</a>. eere.energy.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl/comparing.html">the original</a> on May 5, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eere.energy.gov&rft.atitle=Solid-State+Lighting%3A+Comparing+LEDs+to+Traditional+Light+Sources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.eere.energy.gov%2Fbuildings%2Fssl%2Fcomparing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205040334/http://www.dialight.com/Assets/Brochures_And_Catalogs/Indication/MDEI5980603.pdf">"Dialight Micro LED SMD LED "598 SERIES" Datasheet"</a> (PDF). Dialight.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dialight.com/Assets/Brochures_And_Catalogs/Indication/MDEI5980603.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on February 5, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dialight.com&rft.atitle=Dialight+Micro+LED+SMD+LED+%22598+SERIES%22+Datasheet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dialight.com%2FAssets%2FBrochures_And_Catalogs%2FIndication%2FMDEI5980603.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ledmuseum.org/">The LED Museum</a>. Retrieved on March 16, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-stevenson-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stevenson_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stevenson_167-1">b</a> Stevenson, Richard (August 2009), "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090805082614/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/semiconductors/optoelectronics/the-leds-dark-secret">The LED's Dark Secret: Solid-state lighting will not supplant the lightbulb until it can overcome the mysterious malady known as droop</a>". IEEE Spectrum. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthey,_James_A." class="citation web cs1">Worthey, James A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jimworthey.com/jimtalk2006feb.html">"How White Light Works"</a>. LRO Lighting Research Symposium, Light and Color. Retrieved October 6, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LRO+Lighting+Research+Symposium%2C+Light+and+Color&rft.atitle=How+White+Light+Works&rft.au=Worthey%2C+James+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jimworthey.com%2Fjimtalk2006feb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarraZinger2004" class="citation book cs1">Narra, Prathyusha; Zinger, D.S. (2004). "An effective LED dimming approach". Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE Industry Applications Conference, 2004. 39th IAS Annual Meeting. Vol. 3. pp. 1671–1676. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FIAS.2004.1348695">10.1109/IAS.2004.1348695</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7803-8486-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7803-8486-6"><bdi>978-0-7803-8486-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16372401">16372401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+effective+LED+dimming+approach&rft.btitle=Conference+Record+of+the+2004+IEEE+Industry+Applications+Conference%2C+2004.+39th+IAS+Annual+Meeting&rft.pages=1671-1676&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16372401%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FIAS.2004.1348695&rft.isbn=978-0-7803-8486-6&rft.aulast=Narra&rft.aufirst=Prathyusha&rft.au=Zinger%2C+D.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.avagotech.com/docs/AV02-1555EN">"Data Sheet — HLMP-1301, T-1 (3 mm) Diffused LED Lamps"</a>. Avago Technologies. Retrieved May 30, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Sheet+%E2%80%94+HLMP-1301%2C+T-1+%283+mm%29+Diffused+LED+Lamps&rft.pub=Avago+Technologies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avagotech.com%2Fdocs%2FAV02-1555EN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHecht,_E.2002" class="citation book cs1">Hecht, E. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/optics00ehec">Optics</a> (4 ed.). Addison Wesley. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/optics00ehec/page/n596">591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510818-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510818-7"><bdi>978-0-19-510818-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Optics&rft.pages=591&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510818-7&rft.au=Hecht%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foptics00ehec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.larsonelectronics.com/a-5-led-light-bars-for-off-road-illumination.aspx">"LED Light Bars For Off Road Illumination"</a>. Larson Electronics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Larson+Electronics&rft.atitle=LED+Light+Bars+For+Off+Road+Illumination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.larsonelectronics.com%2Fa-5-led-light-bars-for-off-road-illumination.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledsmagazine.com/articles/print/volume-6/issue-2/features/led-design-forum-avoiding-thermal-runaway-when-driving-multiple-led-strings-magazine.html">"LED Design Forum: Avoiding thermal runaway when driving multiple LED strings"</a>. LEDs Magazine. April 20, 2009. Retrieved January 17, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LEDs+Magazine&rft.atitle=LED+Design+Forum%3A+Avoiding+thermal+runaway+when+driving+multiple+LED+strings&rft.date=2009-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledsmagazine.com%2Farticles%2Fprint%2Fvolume-6%2Fissue-2%2Ffeatures%2Fled-design-forum-avoiding-thermal-runaway-when-driving-multiple-led-strings-magazine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eere-174"><a href="#cite_ref-eere_174-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090410145015/http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl/lifetime.html">"Lifetime of White LEDs"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl/lifetime.html">the original</a> on April 10, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lifetime+of+White+LEDs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.eere.energy.gov%2Fbuildings%2Fssl%2Flifetime.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988">, US Department of Energy </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lifetime_white_leds_aug16_r1.pdf">Lifetime of White LEDs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160528075610/http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lifetime_white_leds_aug16_r1.pdf">Archived</a> May 28, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. US Department of Energy. (PDF). Retrieved on March 16, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171114184333/http://energy.ltgovernors.com/in-depth-advantages-of-led-lighting.html">"In depth: Advantages of LED Lighting"</a>. energy.ltgovernors.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://energy.ltgovernors.com/in-depth-advantages-of-led-lighting.html">the original</a> on November 14, 2017. Retrieved July 27, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=energy.ltgovernors.com&rft.atitle=In+depth%3A+Advantages+of+LED+Lighting&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenergy.ltgovernors.com%2Fin-depth-advantages-of-led-lighting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternSchellenberger2020" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Maike Lorena; Schellenberger, Martin (March 31, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10845-020-01563-4">"Fully convolutional networks for chip-wise defect detection employing photoluminescence images"</a>. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing. 32 (1): 113–126. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.02451">1910.02451</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10845-020-01563-4">10.1007/s10845-020-01563-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0956-5515">0956-5515</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:254655125">254655125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intelligent+Manufacturing&rft.atitle=Fully+convolutional+networks+for+chip-wise+defect+detection+employing+photoluminescence+images&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=113-126&rft.date=2020-03-31&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1910.02451&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A254655125%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0956-5515&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10845-020-01563-4&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Maike+Lorena&rft.au=Schellenberger%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10845-020-01563-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoqueBradleyFanFan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hoque, Md Ashraful; Bradley, Robert Kelley; Fan, Jiajie; Fan, Xuejun (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10854-019-02393-8">"Effects of humidity and phosphor on silicone/Phosphor composite in white light-emitting diode package"</a>. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics. 30 (23): 20471–20478. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10854-019-02393-8">10.1007/s10854-019-02393-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Materials+Science%3A+Materials+in+Electronics&rft.atitle=Effects+of+humidity+and+phosphor+on+silicone%2FPhosphor+composite+in+white+light-emitting+diode+package&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=20471-20478&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10854-019-02393-8&rft.aulast=Hoque&rft.aufirst=Md+Ashraful&rft.au=Bradley%2C+Robert+Kelley&rft.au=Fan%2C+Jiajie&rft.au=Fan%2C+Xuejun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10854-019-02393-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.led-professional.com/resources-1/articles/3-pad-led-flip-chip-cob">"3-Pad LED Flip Chip COB"</a>. LED professional - LED Lighting Technology, Application Magazine. Retrieved February 15, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LED+professional+-+LED+Lighting+Technology%2C+Application+Magazine&rft.atitle=3-Pad+LED+Flip+Chip+COB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.led-professional.com%2Fresources-1%2Farticles%2F3-pad-led-flip-chip-cob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.osram-os.com/media/_en/Graphics/00041987_0.pdf">OSRAM: green LED</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-dia2-181"><a href="#cite_ref-dia2_181-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoizumiWatanabeHasegawaKanda2001" class="citation journal cs1">Koizumi, S.; Watanabe, K; Hasegawa, M; Kanda, H (2001). "Ultraviolet Emission from a Diamond pn Junction". Science. 292 (5523): 1899–2701. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Sci...292.1899K">2001Sci...292.1899K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1060258">10.1126/science.1060258</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11397942">11397942</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ultraviolet+Emission+from+a+Diamond+pn+Junction&rft.volume=292&rft.issue=5523&rft.pages=1899-2701&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11397942&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1060258&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001Sci...292.1899K&rft.aulast=Koizumi&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+K&rft.au=Hasegawa%2C+M&rft.au=Kanda%2C+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BN2-182"><a href="#cite_ref-BN2_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubotaWatanabeTsudaTaniguchi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kubota, Y.; Watanabe, K.; Tsuda, O.; Taniguchi, T. (2007). "Deep Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Hexagonal Boron Nitride Synthesized at Atmospheric Pressure". Science. 317 (5840): 932–934. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...317..932K">2007Sci...317..932K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1144216">10.1126/science.1144216</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17702939">17702939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Deep+Ultraviolet+Light-Emitting+Hexagonal+Boron+Nitride+Synthesized+at+Atmospheric+Pressure&rft.volume=317&rft.issue=5840&rft.pages=932-934&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17702939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1144216&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...317..932K&rft.aulast=Kubota&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft.au=Watanabe%2C+K.&rft.au=Tsuda%2C+O.&rft.au=Taniguchi%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bn22-183"><a href="#cite_ref-bn22_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatanabeTaniguchiKanda2004" class="citation journal cs1">Watanabe, Kenji; Taniguchi, Takashi; Kanda, Hisao (2004). "Direct-bandgap properties and evidence for ultraviolet lasing of hexagonal boron nitride single crystal". Nature Materials. 3 (6): 404–409. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004NatMa...3..404W">2004NatMa...3..404W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmat1134">10.1038/nmat1134</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15156198">15156198</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Materials&rft.atitle=Direct-bandgap+properties+and+evidence+for+ultraviolet+lasing+of+hexagonal+boron+nitride+single+crystal&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=404-409&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15156198&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmat1134&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004NatMa...3..404W&rft.aulast=Watanabe&rft.aufirst=Kenji&rft.au=Taniguchi%2C+Takashi&rft.au=Kanda%2C+Hisao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-aln2-184"><a href="#cite_ref-aln2_184-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaniyasuKasuMakimoto2006" class="citation journal cs1">Taniyasu, Yoshitaka; Kasu, Makoto; Makimoto, Toshiki (2006). "An aluminium nitride light-emitting diode with a wavelength of 210 nanometres". Nature. 441 (7091): 325–328. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.441..325T">2006Natur.441..325T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04760">10.1038/nature04760</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16710416">16710416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=An+aluminium+nitride+light-emitting+diode+with+a+wavelength+of+210+nanometres&rft.volume=441&rft.issue=7091&rft.pages=325-328&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16710416&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature04760&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.441..325T&rft.aulast=Taniyasu&rft.aufirst=Yoshitaka&rft.au=Kasu%2C+Makoto&rft.au=Makimoto%2C+Toshiki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/24926">"LEDs move into the ultraviolet"</a>. physicsworld.com. May 17, 2006. Retrieved August 13, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=LEDs+move+into+the+ultraviolet&rft.date=2006-05-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fcws%2Farticle%2Fnews%2F24926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="/wiki/European_Photonics_Industry_Consortium" title="European Photonics Industry Consortium">European Photonics Industry Consortium</a> (EPIC). This includes use in data communications over <a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">fiber optics</a> as well as "broadcast" data or signaling. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Mims, Forrest M. III. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.instesre.org/papers/Snowmass/MimsSnowmass.htm">"An Inexpensive and Accurate Student Sun Photometer with Light-Emitting Diodes as Spectrally Selective Detectors"</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.drexel.edu/~dbrooks/globe/special_measurements/water_vapor.htm">"Water Vapor Measurements with LED Detectors"</a>. cs.drexel.edu (2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Dziekan, Mike (February 6, 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soamsci.org/tcs/weeklyIssues_2009/2009-02-06/feature1/index.html">"Using Light-Emitting Diodes as Sensors"</a>. soamsci.or. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130531090631/http://www.soamsci.org/tcs/weeklyIssues_2009/2009-02-06/feature1/index.html">Archived</a> May 31, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-EzraWangWilburnXiaoyang_Li2008" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Ezra, Moshe; Wang, Jiaping; Wilburn, Bennett; Xiaoyang Li; Le Ma (2008). "An LED-only BRDF measurement device". 2008 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. pp. 1–8. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.165.484">10.1.1.165.484</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCVPR.2008.4587766">10.1109/CVPR.2008.4587766</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-2242-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-2242-5"><bdi>978-1-4244-2242-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206591080">206591080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+LED-only+BRDF+measurement+device&rft.btitle=2008+IEEE+Conference+on+Computer+Vision+and+Pattern+Recognition&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.165.484%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206591080%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FCVPR.2008.4587766&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-2242-5&rft.aulast=Ben-Ezra&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft.au=Wang%2C+Jiaping&rft.au=Wilburn%2C+Bennett&rft.au=Xiaoyang+Li&rft.au=Le+Ma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Bantis, Filippos, Sonia Smirnakou, Theoharis Ouzounis, Athanasios Koukounaras, Nikolaos Ntagkas, and Kalliopi Radoglou. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.plantgrower.org/uploads/6/5/5/4/65545169/1-s2.0-s0304423818301420-main.pdf">Current status and recent achievements in the field of horticulture with the use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs).</a>" Scientia horticulturae 235 (2018): 437-451. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Miler N., Kulus D., Woźny A., Rymarz D., Hajzer M., Wierzbowski K., Nelke R., Szeffs L., 2019. Application of wide-spectrum light-emitting diodes in micropropagation of popular ornamental plant species: A study on plant quality and cost reduction. In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology – Plant 55: 99-108. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-018-9939-5">https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-018-9939-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Tymoszuk A., Kulus D., Błażejewska A., Nadolan K., Kulpińska A., Pietrzykowski K., 2023. Application of wide-spectrum light-emitting diodes in the indoor production of cucumber and tomato seedlings. Acta Agrobotanica 76: 762. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.5586/aa.762">https://doi.org/10.5586/aa.762</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Tymoszuk A., Kulus D., Kowalska J., Kulpińska A., Pańka D., Jeske M., Antkowiak M. 2024. Light spectrum affects growth, metabolite profile, and resistance against fungal phytopathogens of Solanum lycopersicum L. seedlings. Journal of Plant Protection Research 64(2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.24425/jppr.2024.150247">https://doi.org/10.24425/jppr.2024.150247</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Kulus D., Woźny A., 2020. Influence of light conditions on the morphogenetic and biochemical response of selected ornamental plant species under in vitro conditions: A mini-review. BioTechnologia 101(1): 75-83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.5114/bta.2020.92930">http://doi.org/10.5114/bta.2020.92930</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lightingprize.org/">"L-Prize U.S. Department of Energy"</a>, L-Prize Website, August 3, 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=led-there-be-light">LED There Be Light</a>, Scientific American, March 18, 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenberg2007" class="citation news cs1">Eisenberg, Anne (June 24, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/24/business/yourmoney/24novel.html">"In Pursuit of Perfect TV Color, With L.E.D.'s and Lasers"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved April 4, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Pursuit+of+Perfect+TV+Color%2C+With+L.E.D.%27s+and+Lasers&rft.date=2007-06-24&rft.aulast=Eisenberg&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F06%2F24%2Fbusiness%2Fyourmoney%2F24novel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2011-192/">"CDC – NIOSH Publications and Products – Impact: NIOSH Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Cap Lamp Improves Illumination and Decreases Injury Risk for Underground Miners"</a>. cdc.gov. 2011. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26616%2FNIOSHPUB2011192">10.26616/NIOSHPUB2011192</a>. Retrieved May 3, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=CDC+%E2%80%93+NIOSH+Publications+and+Products+%E2%80%93+Impact%3A+NIOSH+Light-Emitting+Diode+%28LED%29+Cap+Lamp+Improves+Illumination+and+Decreases+Injury+Risk+for+Underground+Miners&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26616%2FNIOSHPUB2011192&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Fdocs%2F2011-192%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaneway2014" class="citation news cs1">Janeway, Kimberly (December 12, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/news/2014/12/led-lightbulbs-that-promise-to-help-you-sleep/index.htm">"LED lightbulbs that promise to help you sleep"</a>. Consumer Reports. Retrieved May 10, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Consumer+Reports&rft.atitle=LED+lightbulbs+that+promise+to+help+you+sleep&rft.date=2014-12-12&rft.aulast=Janeway&rft.aufirst=Kimberly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.consumerreports.org%2Fcro%2Fnews%2F2014%2F12%2Fled-lightbulbs-that-promise-to-help-you-sleep%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081013083802/http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/Spinoff2008/hm_3.html">"LED Device Illuminates New Path to Healing"</a> (Press release). nasa.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/Spinoff2008/hm_3.html">the original</a> on October 13, 2008. Retrieved January 30, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LED+Device+Illuminates+New+Path+to+Healing&rft.pub=nasa.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sti.nasa.gov%2Ftto%2FSpinoff2008%2Fhm_3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFudin,_M._S.Mynbaev,_K._D.Aifantis,_K._E.Lipsanen_H.2014" class="citation journal cs1">Fudin, M. S.; Mynbaev, K. D.; Aifantis, K. E.; Lipsanen H.; Bougrov, V. E.; Romanov, A. E. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ntv.ifmo.ru/en/article/11192/chastotnye_harakteristiki_sovremennyh_svetodiodnyh_lyuminofornyh_materialov.htm">"Frequency characteristics of modern LED phosphor materials"</a>. Scientific and Technical Journal of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics. 14 (6).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+and+Technical+Journal+of+Information+Technologies%2C+Mechanics+and+Optics&rft.atitle=Frequency+characteristics+of+modern+LED+phosphor+materials&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Fudin%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Mynbaev%2C+K.+D.&rft.au=Aifantis%2C+K.+E.&rft.au=Lipsanen+H.&rft.au=Bougrov%2C+V.+E.&rft.au=Romanov%2C+A.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fntv.ifmo.ru%2Fen%2Farticle%2F11192%2Fchastotnye_harakteristiki_sovremennyh_svetodiodnyh_lyuminofornyh_materialov.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2008" class="citation news cs1">Green, Hank (October 9, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081212050729/http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/2194/74/">"Transmitting Data Through LED Light Bulbs"</a>. EcoGeek. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/2194/74/">the original</a> on December 12, 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Transmitting+Data+Through+LED+Light+Bulbs&rft.date=2008-10-09&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Hank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecogeek.org%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F2194%2F74%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-204"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_204-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimitrovHaas2015" class="citation book cs1">Dimitrov, Svilen; Haas, Harald (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/principles-of-led-light-communications/0528063BAA6863F6B6D61F6FF69F37CB">Principles of LED Light Communications: Towards Networked Li-Fi</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781107278929">10.1017/cbo9781107278929</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04942-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04942-0"><bdi>978-1-107-04942-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+LED+Light+Communications%3A+Towards+Networked+Li-Fi&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781107278929&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04942-0&rft.aulast=Dimitrov&rft.aufirst=Svilen&rft.au=Haas%2C+Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fprinciples-of-led-light-communications%2F0528063BAA6863F6B6D61F6FF69F37CB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSampathReedMoeGarrett2009" class="citation cs2">Sampath, A. V.; Reed, M. L.; Moe, C.; Garrett, G. A.; Readinger, E. D.; Sarney, W. L.; Shen, H.; Wraback, M.; Chua, C. (December 1, 2009), "The effects of increasing AlN mole fraction on the performance of AlGaN active regions containing nanometer scale compositionally imhomogeneities", Advanced High Speed Devices, Selected Topics in Electronics and Systems, vol. 51, World Scientific, pp. 69–76, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789814287876_0007">10.1142/9789814287876_0007</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814287869" title="Special:BookSources/9789814287869"><bdi>9789814287869</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+High+Speed+Devices&rft.atitle=The+effects+of+increasing+AlN+mole+fraction+on+the+performance+of+AlGaN+active+regions+containing+nanometer+scale+compositionally+imhomogeneities&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=69-76&rft.date=2009-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789814287876_0007&rft.isbn=9789814287869&rft.aulast=Sampath&rft.aufirst=A.+V.&rft.au=Reed%2C+M.+L.&rft.au=Moe%2C+C.&rft.au=Garrett%2C+G.+A.&rft.au=Readinger%2C+E.+D.&rft.au=Sarney%2C+W.+L.&rft.au=Shen%2C+H.&rft.au=Wraback%2C+M.&rft.au=Chua%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_206-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiaoThomidisKaoMoustakas2011" class="citation journal cs1">Liao, Yitao; Thomidis, Christos; Kao, Chen-kai; Moustakas, Theodore D. (February 21, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3559842">"AlGaN based deep ultraviolet light emitting diodes with high internal quantum efficiency grown by molecular beam epitaxy"</a>. Applied Physics Letters. 98 (8): 081110. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApPhL..98h1110L">2011ApPhL..98h1110L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3559842">10.1063/1.3559842</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-6951">0003-6951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=AlGaN+based+deep+ultraviolet+light+emitting+diodes+with+high+internal+quantum+efficiency+grown+by+molecular+beam+epitaxy&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=081110&rft.date=2011-02-21&rft.issn=0003-6951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3559842&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011ApPhL..98h1110L&rft.aulast=Liao&rft.aufirst=Yitao&rft.au=Thomidis%2C+Christos&rft.au=Kao%2C+Chen-kai&rft.au=Moustakas%2C+Theodore+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.3559842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_207-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_207-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_207-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_207-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCabaloDeLuciaGoadLacis2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cabalo, Jerry; DeLucia, Marla; Goad, Aime; Lacis, John; Narayanan, Fiona; Sickenberger, David (October 2, 2008). Carrano, John C.; Zukauskas, Arturas (eds.). "Overview of the TAC-BIO detector". Optically Based Biological and Chemical Detection for Defence IV. 7116. International Society for Optics and Photonics: 71160D. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SPIE.7116E..0DC">2008SPIE.7116E..0DC</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.799843">10.1117/12.799843</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108562187">108562187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optically+Based+Biological+and+Chemical+Detection+for+Defence+IV&rft.atitle=Overview+of+the+TAC-BIO+detector&rft.volume=7116&rft.pages=71160D&rft.date=2008-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A108562187%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.799843&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008SPIE.7116E..0DC&rft.aulast=Cabalo&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft.au=DeLucia%2C+Marla&rft.au=Goad%2C+Aime&rft.au=Lacis%2C+John&rft.au=Narayanan%2C+Fiona&rft.au=Sickenberger%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoldmaeCabaloDe_LuciaNarayanan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Poldmae, Aime; Cabalo, Jerry; De Lucia, Marla; Narayanan, Fiona; Strauch III, Lester; Sickenberger, David (September 28, 2006). Carrano, John C.; Zukauskas, Arturas (eds.). "Biological aerosol detection with the tactical biological (TAC-BIO) detector". Optically Based Biological and Chemical Detection for Defence III. 6398. SPIE: 63980E. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.687944">10.1117/12.687944</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:136864366">136864366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optically+Based+Biological+and+Chemical+Detection+for+Defence+III&rft.atitle=Biological+aerosol+detection+with+the+tactical+biological+%28TAC-BIO%29+detector&rft.volume=6398&rft.pages=63980E&rft.date=2006-09-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.687944&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A136864366%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Poldmae&rft.aufirst=Aime&rft.au=Cabalo%2C+Jerry&rft.au=De+Lucia%2C+Marla&rft.au=Narayanan%2C+Fiona&rft.au=Strauch+III%2C+Lester&rft.au=Sickenberger%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.army.mil/article/141363/army_advances_bio_threat_detector">"Army advances bio-threat detector"</a>. www.army.mil. January 22, 2015. Retrieved October 10, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.army.mil&rft.atitle=Army+advances+bio-threat+detector&rft.date=2015-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.army.mil%2Farticle%2F141363%2Farmy_advances_bio_threat_detector&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKesavanKilperWilliamsonAlstadt2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kesavan, Jana; Kilper, Gary; Williamson, Mike; Alstadt, Valerie; Dimmock, Anne; Bascom, Rebecca (February 1, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4209%2Faaqr.2017.10.0371">"Laboratory validation and initial field testing of an unobtrusive bioaerosol detector for health care settings"</a>. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 19 (2): 331–344. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4209%2Faaqr.2017.10.0371">10.4209/aaqr.2017.10.0371</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1680-8584">1680-8584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aerosol+and+Air+Quality+Research&rft.atitle=Laboratory+validation+and+initial+field+testing+of+an+unobtrusive+bioaerosol+detector+for+health+care+settings&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=331-344&rft.date=2019-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4209%2Faaqr.2017.10.0371&rft.issn=1680-8584&rft.aulast=Kesavan&rft.aufirst=Jana&rft.au=Kilper%2C+Gary&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Mike&rft.au=Alstadt%2C+Valerie&rft.au=Dimmock%2C+Anne&rft.au=Bascom%2C+Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4209%252Faaqr.2017.10.0371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDietz,_P._H.Yerazunis,_W._S.Leigh,_D._L.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Dietz, P. H.; Yerazunis, W. S.; Leigh, D. L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merl.com/publications/TR2003-035/">"Very Low-Cost Sensing and Communication Using Bidirectional LEDs"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Very+Low-Cost+Sensing+and+Communication+Using+Bidirectional+LEDs&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Dietz%2C+P.+H.&rft.au=Yerazunis%2C+W.+S.&rft.au=Leigh%2C+D.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merl.com%2Fpublications%2FTR2003-035%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoins,_G._D.Yorio,_N._C.Sanwo,_M._M.Brown,_C._S.1997" class="citation journal cs1">Goins, G. D.; Yorio, N. C.; Sanwo, M. M.; Brown, C. S. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjxb%2F48.7.1407">"Photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield of wheat plants grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with and without supplemental blue lighting"</a>. Journal of Experimental Botany. 48 (7): 1407–1413. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjxb%2F48.7.1407">10.1093/jxb/48.7.1407</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11541074">11541074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Botany&rft.atitle=Photomorphogenesis%2C+photosynthesis%2C+and+seed+yield+of+wheat+plants+grown+under+red+light-emitting+diodes+%28LEDs%29+with+and+without+supplemental+blue+lighting&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1407-1413&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjxb%2F48.7.1407&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11541074&rft.au=Goins%2C+G.+D.&rft.au=Yorio%2C+N.+C.&rft.au=Sanwo%2C+M.+M.&rft.au=Brown%2C+C.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjxb%252F48.7.1407&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiWangYiLiu2020" class="citation book cs1">Li, Jinmin; Wang, Junxi; Yi, Xiaoyan; Liu, Zhiqiang; Wei, Tongbo; Yan, Jianchang; Xue, Bin (August 31, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Smn6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA248">III-Nitrides Light Emitting Diodes: Technology and Applications</a>. Springer Nature. p. 248. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-15-7949-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-15-7949-3"><bdi>978-981-15-7949-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=III-Nitrides+Light+Emitting+Diodes%3A+Technology+and+Applications&rft.pages=248&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2020-08-31&rft.isbn=978-981-15-7949-3&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Jinmin&rft.au=Wang%2C+Junxi&rft.au=Yi%2C+Xiaoyan&rft.au=Liu%2C+Zhiqiang&rft.au=Wei%2C+Tongbo&rft.au=Yan%2C+Jianchang&rft.au=Xue%2C+Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSmn6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaskaShurZhang2006" class="citation book cs1">Gaska, R.; Shur, M. S.; Zhang, J. (October 2006). "Physics and Applications of Deep UV LEDs". 2006 8th International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated Circuit Technology Proceedings. pp. 842–844. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICSICT.2006.306525">10.1109/ICSICT.2006.306525</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4244-0160-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4244-0160-7"><bdi>1-4244-0160-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17258357">17258357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Physics+and+Applications+of+Deep+UV+LEDs&rft.btitle=2006+8th+International+Conference+on+Solid-State+and+Integrated+Circuit+Technology+Proceedings&rft.pages=842-844&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17258357%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICSICT.2006.306525&rft.isbn=1-4244-0160-7&rft.aulast=Gaska&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Shur%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_215-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/led-rd-challenges">"LED R&D Challenges"</a>. Energy.gov. Retrieved March 13, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=LED+R%26D+Challenges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fssl%2Fled-rd-challenges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/ssl/downloads/july-2015-postings">"JULY 2015 POSTINGS"</a>. Energy.gov. Retrieved March 13, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=JULY+2015+POSTINGS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fssl%2Fdownloads%2Fjuly-2015-postings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digikey.com/us/en/techzone/lighting/resources/articles/identifying-the-causes-of-led-efficiency-droop.html">Identifying the Causes of LED Efficiency Droop</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131213073051/http://www.digikey.com/us/en/techzone/lighting/resources/articles/identifying-the-causes-of-led-efficiency-droop.html">Archived</a> 13 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, By Steven Keeping, Digi-Key Corporation Tech Zone </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIveland,_Justin2013" class="citation web cs1">Iveland, Justin; et al. (April 23, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/04/130423102328.htm">"Cause of LED Efficiency Droop Finally Revealed"</a>. Physical Review Letters, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters%2C+2013&rft.atitle=Cause+of+LED+Efficiency+Droop+Finally+Revealed&rft.date=2013-04-23&rft.au=Iveland%2C+Justin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2013%2F04%2F130423102328.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiRomanovYangRichter2017" class="citation journal cs1">Di, Dawei; Romanov, Alexander S.; Yang, Le; Richter, Johannes M.; Rivett, Jasmine P. H.; Jones, Saul; Thomas, Tudor H.; Abdi Jalebi, Mojtaba; Friend, Richard H.; Linnolahti, Mikko; Bochmann, Manfred (April 14, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/63288/1/Accepted_manuscript.pdf">"High-performance light-emitting diodes based on carbene-metal-amides"</a> (PDF). Science. 356 (6334): 159–163. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.08868">1606.08868</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Sci...356..159D">2017Sci...356..159D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aah4345">10.1126/science.aah4345</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28360136">28360136</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206651900">206651900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=High-performance+light-emitting+diodes+based+on+carbene-metal-amides&rft.volume=356&rft.issue=6334&rft.pages=159-163&rft.date=2017-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206651900%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Sci...356..159D&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1606.08868&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aah4345&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28360136&rft.aulast=Di&rft.aufirst=Dawei&rft.au=Romanov%2C+Alexander+S.&rft.au=Yang%2C+Le&rft.au=Richter%2C+Johannes+M.&rft.au=Rivett%2C+Jasmine+P.+H.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Saul&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Tudor+H.&rft.au=Abdi+Jalebi%2C+Mojtaba&rft.au=Friend%2C+Richard+H.&rft.au=Linnolahti%2C+Mikko&rft.au=Bochmann%2C+Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fueaeprints.uea.ac.uk%2F63288%2F1%2FAccepted_manuscript.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-220">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_220-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_220-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArminMeredith2018" class="citation journal cs1">Armin, Ardalan; Meredith, Paul (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-06923-y">"LED technology breaks performance barrier"</a>. Nature. 562 (7726): 197–198. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.562..197M">2018Natur.562..197M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-06923-y">10.1038/d41586-018-06923-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30305755">30305755</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=LED+technology+breaks+performance+barrier&rft.volume=562&rft.issue=7726&rft.pages=197-198&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30305755&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-018-06923-y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.562..197M&rft.aulast=Armin&rft.aufirst=Ardalan&rft.au=Meredith%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fd41586-018-06923-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_221-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaoWangTianGuo2018" class="citation journal cs1">Cao, Yu; Wang, Nana; Tian, He; Guo, Jingshu; Wei, Yingqiang; Chen, Hong; Miao, Yanfeng; Zou, Wei; Pan, Kang; He, Yarong; Cao, Hui (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0576-2">"Perovskite light-emitting diodes based on spontaneously formed submicrometre-scale structures"</a>. Nature. 562 (7726): 249–253. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.562..249C">2018Natur.562..249C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0576-2">10.1038/s41586-018-0576-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30305742">30305742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Perovskite+light-emitting+diodes+based+on+spontaneously+formed+submicrometre-scale+structures&rft.volume=562&rft.issue=7726&rft.pages=249-253&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0576-2&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30305742&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.562..249C&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Yu&rft.au=Wang%2C+Nana&rft.au=Tian%2C+He&rft.au=Guo%2C+Jingshu&rft.au=Wei%2C+Yingqiang&rft.au=Chen%2C+Hong&rft.au=Miao%2C+Yanfeng&rft.au=Zou%2C+Wei&rft.au=Pan%2C+Kang&rft.au=He%2C+Yarong&rft.au=Cao%2C+Hui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41586-018-0576-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoSongLeeKim2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cho, Sang-Hwan; Song, Young-Woo; Lee, Joon-gu; Kim, Yoon-Chang; Lee, Jong Hyuk; Ha, Jaeheung; Oh, Jong-Suk; Lee, So Young; Lee, Sun Young; Hwang, Kyu Hwan; Zang, Dong-Sik (August 18, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOE.16.012632">"Weak-microcavity organic light-emitting diodes with improved light out-coupling"</a>. Optics Express. 16 (17): 12632–12639. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008OExpr..1612632C">2008OExpr..1612632C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOE.16.012632">10.1364/OE.16.012632</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-4087">1094-4087</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18711500">18711500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Optics+Express&rft.atitle=Weak-microcavity+organic+light-emitting+diodes+with+improved+light+out-coupling&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=12632-12639&rft.date=2008-08-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1364%2FOE.16.012632&rft.issn=1094-4087&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18711500&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008OExpr..1612632C&rft.aulast=Cho&rft.aufirst=Sang-Hwan&rft.au=Song%2C+Young-Woo&rft.au=Lee%2C+Joon-gu&rft.au=Kim%2C+Yoon-Chang&rft.au=Lee%2C+Jong+Hyuk&rft.au=Ha%2C+Jaeheung&rft.au=Oh%2C+Jong-Suk&rft.au=Lee%2C+So+Young&rft.au=Lee%2C+Sun+Young&rft.au=Hwang%2C+Kyu+Hwan&rft.au=Zang%2C+Dong-Sik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1364%252FOE.16.012632&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinXingQuande_Arquer2018" class="citation journal cs1">Lin, Kebin; Xing, Jun; Quan, Li Na; de Arquer, F. Pelayo García; Gong, Xiwen; Lu, Jianxun; Xie, Liqiang; Zhao, Weijie; Zhang, Di; Yan, Chuanzhong; Li, Wenqiang (October 2018). "Perovskite light-emitting diodes with external quantum efficiency exceeding 20 per cent". Nature. 562 (7726): 245–248. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.562..245L">2018Natur.562..245L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0575-3">10.1038/s41586-018-0575-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10356%2F141016">10356/141016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30305741">30305741</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52958604">52958604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Perovskite+light-emitting+diodes+with+external+quantum+efficiency+exceeding+20+per+cent&rft.volume=562&rft.issue=7726&rft.pages=245-248&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10356%2F141016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52958604%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.562..245L&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-018-0575-3&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30305741&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Kebin&rft.au=Xing%2C+Jun&rft.au=Quan%2C+Li+Na&rft.au=de+Arquer%2C+F.+Pelayo+Garc%C3%ADa&rft.au=Gong%2C+Xiwen&rft.au=Lu%2C+Jianxun&rft.au=Xie%2C+Liqiang&rft.au=Zhao%2C+Weijie&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Di&rft.au=Yan%2C+Chuanzhong&rft.au=Li%2C+Wenqiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BlueLEDAhealthHazard-224"><a href="#cite_ref-BlueLEDAhealthHazard_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://texyt.com/bright+blue+leds+annoyance+health+risks">"Blue LEDs: A health hazard?"</a>. texyt.com. January 15, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Blue+LEDs%3A+A+health+hazard%3F&rft.date=2007-01-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftexyt.com%2Fbright%2Bblue%2Bleds%2Bannoyance%2Bhealth%2Brisks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radioprotection.org/articles/radiopro/abs/2017/04/radiopro170025/radiopro170025.html">Some evidences that white LEDs are toxic for human at domestic radiance?</a>. Radioprotection (2017-09-12). Retrieved on 2018-07-31. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Point, S. and Barlier-Salsi, A. (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180614144321/http://www.sfrp.asso.fr/medias/sfrp/documents/Divers/Fiche%20lampes%20%C3%A0%20Led%20SFRP%20-%20Anglais%20_%2006-2018%20(2).pdf">LEDs lighting and retinal damage</a>, technical information sheets, SFRP </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledsmagazine.com/articles/2012/11/led-based-products-must-meet-photobiological-safety-standards-part-2-magazine.html">"LED Based Products Must Meet Photobilogical Safety Standards: Part 2"</a>. ledsmagazine.com. November 29, 2011. Retrieved January 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ledsmagazine.com&rft.atitle=LED+Based+Products+Must+Meet+Photobilogical+Safety+Standards%3A+Part+2&rft.date=2011-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledsmagazine.com%2Farticles%2F2012%2F11%2Fled-based-products-must-meet-photobiological-safety-standards-part-2-magazine.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Limetal2011-228"><a href="#cite_ref-Limetal2011_228-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimKangOgunseitanSchoenung2011" class="citation journal cs1">Lim, S. R.; Kang, D.; Ogunseitan, O. A.; Schoenung, J. M. (2011). "Potential Environmental Impacts of Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Metallic Resources, Toxicity, and Hazardous Waste Classification". Environmental Science & Technology. 45 (1): 320–327. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EnST...45..320L">2011EnST...45..320L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes101052q">10.1021/es101052q</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21138290">21138290</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Potential+Environmental+Impacts+of+Light-Emitting+Diodes+%28LEDs%29%3A+Metallic+Resources%2C+Toxicity%2C+and+Hazardous+Waste+Classification&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=320-327&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21138290&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fes101052q&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011EnST...45..320L&rft.aulast=Lim&rft.aufirst=S.+R.&rft.au=Kang%2C+D.&rft.au=Ogunseitan%2C+O.+A.&rft.au=Schoenung%2C+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190119121117/https://www.ledroadwaylighting.com/fr/nouvelles/612-response-to-the-american-medical-association-statement-on-high-intensity-street-lighting.html">"Response to the AMA Statement on High Intensity Street Lighting"</a>. ledroadwaylighting.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ledroadwaylighting.com/fr/nouvelles/612-response-to-the-american-medical-association-statement-on-high-intensity-street-lighting.html">the original</a> on January 19, 2019. Retrieved January 17, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ledroadwaylighting.com&rft.atitle=Response+to+the+AMA+Statement+on+High+Intensity+Street+Lighting&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ledroadwaylighting.com%2Ffr%2Fnouvelles%2F612-response-to-the-american-medical-association-statement-on-high-intensity-street-lighting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokstad2014" class="citation web cs1">Stokstad, Erik (October 7, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/leds-good-prizes-bad-insects">"LEDs: Good for prizes, bad for insects"</a>. Science. Retrieved October 7, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=LEDs%3A+Good+for+prizes%2C+bad+for+insects&rft.date=2014-10-07&rft.aulast=Stokstad&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fleds-good-prizes-bad-insects&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawsonBader2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pawson, S. M.; Bader, M. K.-F. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F14-0468.1">"LED Lighting Increases the Ecological Impact of Light Pollution Irrespective of Color Temperature"</a>. Ecological Applications. 24 (7): 1561–1568. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EcoAp..24.1561P">2014EcoAp..24.1561P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1890%2F14-0468.1">10.1890/14-0468.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29210222">29210222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Applications&rft.atitle=LED+Lighting+Increases+the+Ecological+Impact+of+Light+Pollution+Irrespective+of+Color+Temperature&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1561-1568&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29210222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1890%2F14-0468.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014EcoAp..24.1561P&rft.aulast=Pawson&rft.aufirst=S.+M.&rft.au=Bader%2C+M.+K.-F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1890%252F14-0468.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolakovic2018" class="citation web cs1">Polakovic, Gary (June 12, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.usc.edu/144389/usc-scientist-database-reduce-effects-of-led-light-on-animals/">"Scientist's new database can help protect wildlife from harmful hues of LED lights"</a>. USC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200519125811/https://news.usc.edu/144389/usc-scientist-database-reduce-effects-of-led-light-on-animals/">Archived</a> from the original on May 19, 2020. Retrieved December 16, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USC+News&rft.atitle=Scientist%27s+new+database+can+help+protect+wildlife+from+harmful+hues+of+LED+lights&rft.date=2018-06-12&rft.aulast=Polakovic&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.usc.edu%2F144389%2Fusc-scientist-database-reduce-effects-of-led-light-on-animals%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://conserveturtles.org/information-sea-turtles-threats-artificial-lighting/">"Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Artificial Lighting"</a>. Sea Turtle Conservancy. Retrieved December 16, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sea+Turtle+Conservancy&rft.atitle=Information+About+Sea+Turtles%3A+Threats+from+Artificial+Lighting&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fconserveturtles.org%2Finformation-sea-turtles-threats-artificial-lighting%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/ConsumerNews/led-traffic-lights-unusual-potentially-deadly-winter-problem/story?id=9506449">"Stoplights' Unusual, Potentially Deadly Winter Problem"</a>. ABC News. January 8, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231212132630/https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/ConsumerNews/led-traffic-lights-unusual-potentially-deadly-winter-problem/story?id=9506449">Archived</a> from the original on December 12, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stoplights%27+Unusual%2C+Potentially+Deadly+Winter+Problem&rft.pub=ABC+News&rft.date=2010-01-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FGMA%2FConsumerNews%2Fled-traffic-lights-unusual-potentially-deadly-winter-problem%2Fstory%3Fid%3D9506449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkley2009" class="citation web cs1">Markley, Stephen (December 17, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cars.com/articles/2009/12/led-traffic-lights-cant-melt-snow-ice/">"LED Traffic Lights Can't Melt Snow, Ice"</a>. Cars.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190606011840/https://www.cars.com/articles/2009/12/led-traffic-lights-cant-melt-snow-ice/">Archived</a> from the original on June 6, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cars.com&rft.atitle=LED+Traffic+Lights+Can%27t+Melt+Snow%2C+Ice&rft.date=2009-12-17&rft.aulast=Markley&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cars.com%2Farticles%2F2009%2F12%2Fled-traffic-lights-cant-melt-snow-ice%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_L._Heiserman1968" class="citation book cs1">David L. Heiserman (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Electronics-World/60s/1968/Electronics-World-1968-01.pdf">Light -Emitting Diodes</a> (PDF). Electronics World.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light+-Emitting+Diodes&rft.pub=Electronics+World&rft.date=1968&rft.au=David+L.+Heiserman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldradiohistory.com%2FArchive-Electronics-World%2F60s%2F1968%2FElectronics-World-1968-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShuji_NakamuraGerhard_FasolStephen_J_Pearton2000" class="citation book cs1">Shuji Nakamura; Gerhard Fasol; Stephen J Pearton (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AHyMBJ_LMykC">The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story</a>. Springer Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-66505-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-66505-2"><bdi>978-3-540-66505-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blue+Laser+Diode%3A+The+Complete+Story&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-540-66505-2&rft.au=Shuji+Nakamura&rft.au=Gerhard+Fasol&rft.au=Stephen+J+Pearton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAHyMBJ_LMykC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALight-emitting+diode" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121015224322/http://www.dlip.de/?p=99">Building a do-it-yourself LED</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.sparkfun.com/datasheets/Components/LED/changingLED.pdf">Color cycling LED in a single two pin package</a>,</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4y7p9R2No-4">Educational video on LEDs</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Light-emitting_diodes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Light-emitting diodes">Light-emitting diodes</a> and <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Light-emitting_diodes_(SMD)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Light-emitting diodes (SMD)">Light-emitting diodes (SMD)</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/light-emitting_diode" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:light-emitting diode">light-emitting diode</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lighting" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Artificial_light_sources" title="Template:Artificial light sources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Artificial_light_sources" title="Template talk:Artificial light sources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Artificial_light_sources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Artificial light sources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lighting" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">Lighting</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accent_lighting" title="Accent lighting">Accent lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_rendering_index" title="Color rendering index">Color rendering index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glare_(vision)" title="Glare (vision)">Glare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_fixture" title="Light fixture">Light fixture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution_in_Hawaii" title="Light pollution in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution_in_Hong_Kong" title="Light pollution in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightbulb_socket" title="Lightbulb socket">Lightbulb socket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bi-pin_lamp_base" title="Bi-pin lamp base">Bi-pin lamp base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_screw" title="Edison screw">Edison screw</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_efficacy" title="Luminous efficacy">Luminous efficacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_lighting" title="Task lighting">Task lighting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods of generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">Incandescent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">Regular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison_light_bulb" title="Edison light bulb">Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halogen_lamp" title="Halogen lamp">Halogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nernst_lamp" title="Nernst lamp">Nernst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Luminescence" title="Luminescence">Luminescent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cathodoluminescence" title="Cathodoluminescence">Cathodoluminescent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron-stimulated_luminescence" title="Electron-stimulated luminescence">Electron-stimulated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemiluminescence" title="Chemiluminescence">Chemiluminescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemiluminescence" title="Electrochemiluminescence">Electrochemiluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroluminescence" title="Electroluminescence">Electroluminescent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-induced_polymer_electroluminescent_technology" title="Field-induced polymer electroluminescent technology">field-induced polymer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">Fluorescent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">Fluorescent lamp</a> (<a href="/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp" title="Compact fluorescent lamp">compact</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_lamp#Magnetic_induction_lamps" title="Induction lamp">Fluorescent induction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoluminescence" title="Photoluminescence">Photoluminescent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Headlamp#Laser" title="Headlamp">Laser headlamp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioluminescence" title="Radioluminescence">Radioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_lighting" title="Solid-state lighting">Solid-state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamp</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbide_lamp" title="Carbide lamp">Acetylene/Carbide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argand_lamp" title="Argand lamp">Argand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campfire" title="Campfire">Campfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">Candle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcel_lamp" title="Carcel lamp">Carcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diya_(lamp)" title="Diya (lamp)">Diya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flare" title="Flare">Flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">Gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene_lamp" title="Kerosene lamp">Kerosene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petromax" title="Petromax">Petromax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lantern" title="Lantern">Lantern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fanous" title="Fanous">Fanous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_lantern" title="Paper lantern">Paper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limelight" title="Limelight">Limelight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luchina" title="Luchina">Luchina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_torch" title="Magnesium torch">Magnesium torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_lamp" title="Oil lamp">Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rushlight" title="Rushlight">Rushlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_lamp" title="Safety lamp">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilley_lamp" title="Tilley lamp">Tilley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torch" title="Torch">Torch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">Electric arc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc_lamp#Carbon_arc_lamp" title="Arc lamp">Carbon arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klieg_light" title="Klieg light">Klieg light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yablochkov_candle" title="Yablochkov candle">Yablochkov candle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-discharge_lamp" title="Gas-discharge lamp">Gas discharge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_arc_lamp" title="Deuterium arc lamp">Deuterium arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lighting" title="Neon lighting">Neon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_lamp" title="Plasma lamp">Plasma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_lamp" title="Sulfur lamp">Sulfur</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp" title="Xenon arc lamp">Xenon arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashtube#Xenon" title="Flashtube">Xenon flash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/High-intensity_discharge_lamp" title="High-intensity discharge lamp">High-intensity discharge (HID)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-vapor_lamp" title="Mercury-vapor lamp">Mercury-vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-halide_lamp" title="Metal-halide lamp">Metal-halide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_metal-halide_lamp" title="Ceramic metal-halide lamp">ceramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrargyrum_medium-arc_iodide_lamp" title="Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide lamp">Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide (HMI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrargyrum_quartz_iodide" title="Hydrargyrum quartz iodide">Hydrargyrum quartz iodide (HQI)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-vapor_lamp" title="Sodium-vapor lamp">Sodium vapor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light_fixture" title="Light fixture">Stationary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb#Common_shape_codes" title="Incandescent light bulb">Reflector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ellipsoidal_reflector_spotlight" title="Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight">Ellipsoidal reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifaceted_reflector" title="Multifaceted reflector">Multifaceted reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabolic_aluminized_reflector" title="Parabolic aluminized reflector">Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_obstruction_lighting" title="Aviation obstruction lighting">Aviation obstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balanced-arm_lamp" title="Balanced-arm lamp">Balanced-arm lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandelier" title="Chandelier">Chandelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_light" title="Emergency light">Emergency light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">Gas lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gooseneck_lamp" title="Gooseneck lamp">Gooseneck lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_street_lighting" title="Intelligent street lighting">Intelligent street lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_tube" title="Light tube">Light tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightlight" title="Nightlight">Nightlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lighting" title="Neon lighting">Neon lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendant_light" title="Pendant light">Pendant light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recessed_light" title="Recessed light">Recessed light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconce_(light_fixture)" title="Sconce (light fixture)">Sconce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_light" title="Street light">Street light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_street_lighting_in_the_United_States" title="History of street lighting in the United States">in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torch%C3%A8re" title="Torchère">Torchère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Track_lighting" title="Track lighting">Track lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troffer" title="Troffer">Troffer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_lighting" title="Bicycle lighting">Bicycle lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashlight" title="Flashlight">Flashlight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanically_powered_flashlight" title="Mechanically powered flashlight">Mechanically powered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_light" title="Tactical light">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glow_stick" title="Glow stick">Glow stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headlamp" title="Headlamp">Headlamp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Headlamp_(outdoor)" title="Headlamp (outdoor)">outdoor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lantern" title="Lantern">Lantern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_pointer" title="Laser pointer">Laser pointer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation_light" title="Navigation light">Navigation light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Searchlight" title="Searchlight">Searchlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting" title="Automotive lighting">Automotive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_automotive_light_bulb_types" title="List of automotive light bulb types">Automotive light bulb types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daytime_running_lamp" title="Daytime running lamp">Daytime running lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headlamp" title="Headlamp">Headlamp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_headlamp" title="Hidden headlamp">hidden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-intensity_discharge_lamp" title="High-intensity discharge lamp">high-intensity discharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabolic_aluminized_reflector" title="Parabolic aluminized reflector">sealed beam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting#Rear_position_lights_(tail_lights)" title="Automotive lighting">Rear position lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting#Reversing_(backup)_lights" title="Automotive lighting">Reversing lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_reflector" title="Safety reflector">Safety reflector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retroreflector" title="Retroreflector">retroreflector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting#Stop_lights_(brake_lights)" title="Automotive lighting">Stop lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_lighting#Turn_signals" title="Automotive lighting">Turn signals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trafficators" title="Trafficators">trafficators</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Display</li><li><a href="/wiki/Holiday_lighting_technology" title="Holiday lighting technology">Decorative</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aroma_lamp" title="Aroma lamp">Aroma lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blacklight" title="Blacklight">Blacklight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_light" title="Bubble light">Bubble light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_lights" title="Christmas lights">Christmas lights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crackle_tube" title="Crackle tube">Crackle tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DJ_lighting" title="DJ lighting">DJ lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroluminescent_wire" title="Electroluminescent wire">Electroluminescent wire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_lamp" title="Lava lamp">Lava lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquee_(structure)" title="Marquee (structure)">Marquee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_globe" title="Plasma globe">Plasma globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strobe_light" title="Strobe light">Strobe light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stage_lighting" title="Stage lighting">Theatrical</a></li><li>Cinematic</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stage_lighting_instrument#Floodlights" title="Stage lighting instrument">Floodlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Footlight" title="Footlight">Footlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">Gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoop_(theater)" title="Scoop (theater)">Scoop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotlight_(theatre_lighting)" title="Spotlight (theatre lighting)">Spotlight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ellipsoidal_reflector_spotlight" title="Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight">ellipsoidal reflector</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_lighting_instrument" title="Stage lighting instrument">Stage lighting instrument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Industrial</li><li>Scientific</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germicidal_lamp" title="Germicidal lamp">Germicidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grow_light" title="Grow light">Grow light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_lamp" title="Infrared lamp">Infrared lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroboscope" title="Stroboscope">Stroboscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanning_lamp" title="Tanning lamp">Tanning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_illumination" title="Battlefield illumination">Battlefield illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_art" title="Light art">Light art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_gemstones" title="Luminous gemstones">Luminous gemstones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_light_sources" title="List of light sources">Sources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reflected_light_sources" title="List of reflected light sources">Reflected</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Display_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Display_technology" title="Template:Display technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Display_technology" title="Template talk:Display technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Display_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Display technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Display_technology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Display_device" title="Display device">Display technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Display_device#video_display" title="Display device">Video displays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Past generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eidophor" title="Eidophor">Eidophor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tube</a> (CRT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jumbotron" title="Jumbotron">Jumbotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroluminescent_display" title="Electroluminescent display">Electroluminescent display</a> (ELD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rear-projection_television" title="Rear-projection television">Rear-projection display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">Plasma display panel</a> (PDP) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternate_lighting_of_surfaces" title="Alternate lighting of surfaces">ALiS</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Current generation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display" title="Quantum dot display">Quantum dot display</a> (QLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E_Ink" title="E Ink">E Ink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyricon" title="Gyricon">Gyricon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED_display" title="LED display">Light-emitting diode display</a> (LED) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AMOLED" title="AMOLED">Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode</a> (AMOLED)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_display" title="Liquid-crystal display">Liquid-crystal display</a> (LCD) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TFT_LCD" title="TFT LCD">TFT</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twisted_nematic_field_effect" title="Twisted nematic field effect">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPS_panel" title="IPS panel">IPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED-backlit_LCD" title="LED-backlit LCD">LED-backlit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_phase_mode_LCD" title="Blue phase mode LCD">Blue Phase</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Light_Processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Light Processing">Digital Light Processing</a> (DLP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal_on_silicon" title="Liquid crystal on silicon">Liquid crystal on silicon</a> (LCoS)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Next_generation_of_display_technology" title="Next generation of display technology">Next generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MicroLED" title="MicroLED">microLED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_display#Self-emissive_quantum_dot_diodes" title="Quantum dot display">Electroluminescent Quantum Dots</a> (ELQD/QD-LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic light-emitting transistor</a> (OLET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-conduction_electron-emitter_display" title="Surface-conduction electron-emitter display">Surface-conduction electron-emitter display</a> (SED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-emission_display" title="Field-emission display">Field-emission display</a> (FED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_TV" title="Laser TV">Laser TV</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_laser" title="Quantum dot laser">Quantum dot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid-crystal_laser" title="Liquid-crystal laser">Liquid crystal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Microelectromechanical systems">MEMS</a> display <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interferometric_modulator_display" title="Interferometric modulator display">IMoD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-multiplexed_optical_shutter" title="Time-multiplexed optical shutter">TMOS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric_liquid_crystal_display" title="Ferroelectric liquid crystal display">Ferroelectric liquid crystal display</a> (FLCD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick-film_dielectric_electroluminescent_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology">Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology</a> (TDEL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-powered_phosphor_display" title="Laser-powered phosphor display">Laser-powered phosphor display</a> (LPD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-video</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">Electromechanical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flip-disc_display" title="Flip-disc display">Flip-dot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-flap_display" title="Split-flap display">Split-flap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_display#Eggcrate_displays" title="Text display">Eggcrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_display" title="Fiber-optic display">Fiber-optic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display" title="Vacuum fluorescent display">Vacuum fluorescent display</a> (VFD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_electrochemical_cell" title="Light-emitting electrochemical cell">Light-emitting electrochemical cell</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightguide_display" title="Lightguide display">Lightguide display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot-matrix_display" title="Dot-matrix display">Dot-matrix display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven-segment_display" title="Seven-segment display">Seven-segment display</a> (SSD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight-segment_display" title="Eight-segment display">Eight-segment display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine-segment_display" title="Nine-segment display">Nine-segment display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen-segment_display" title="Fourteen-segment display">Fourteen-segment display</a> (FSD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteen-segment_display" title="Sixteen-segment display">Sixteen-segment display</a> (SISD)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/3D_display" title="3D display">3D display</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autostereoscopy" title="Autostereoscopy">Autostereoscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiscopy" title="Multiscopy">Multiscopic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Hologram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_display" title="Holographic display">Holographic display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_holography" title="Computer-generated holography">Computer-generated holography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_display" title="Volumetric display">Volumetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog_display" title="Fog display">Fog display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Static media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_sign" title="Neon sign">Neon sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_(projection)" title="Transparency (projection)">Transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_lighting_display" title="Laser lighting display">Laser beam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display capabilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Display_Identification_Data" title="Extended Display Identification Data">EDID</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CEA-861" class="mw-redirect" title="CEA-861">CEA-861</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DisplayID" title="DisplayID">DisplayID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always-on_display" title="Always-on display">Always-on display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/See-through_display" title="See-through display">See-through display</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scan_line" title="Scan line">Scan line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_display_technology" title="History of display technology">History of display technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-screen_television_technology" title="Large-screen television technology">Large-screen television technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimum_HDTV_viewing_distance" title="Optimum HDTV viewing distance">Optimum HDTV viewing distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-dynamic-range_television" title="High-dynamic-range television">High Dynamic Range</a> (HDR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Light_Output" title="Color Light Output">Color Light Output</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_display" title="Flexible display">Flexible display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_CRT,_LCD,_plasma,_and_OLED_displays" title="Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays">Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_display_technology" title="Comparison of display technology">Comparison of display technology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electronic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electronic_components" title="Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electronic_components" title="Template talk:Electronic components"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic_components" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electronic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMOS_logic" title="PMOS logic">PMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BiCMOS" title="BiCMOS">BiCMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bio-FET" title="Bio-FET">BioFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_field-effect_transistor" title="Chemical field-effect transistor">Chemical field-effect transistor</a> (ChemFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">Complementary MOS</a> (CMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depletion-load_NMOS_logic" title="Depletion-load NMOS logic">Depletion-load NMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FinFET" class="mw-redirect" title="FinFET">Fin field-effect transistor</a> (FinFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating-gate_MOSFET" title="Floating-gate MOSFET">Floating-gate MOSFET</a> (FGMOS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulated-gate_bipolar_transistor" title="Insulated-gate bipolar transistor">Insulated-gate bipolar transistor</a> (IGBT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISFET" title="ISFET">ISFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LDMOS" title="LDMOS">LDMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigate_device" title="Multigate device">Multi-gate field-effect transistor</a> (MuGFET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_transistor" title="Thin-film transistor">Thin-film transistor</a> (TFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMOS" title="VMOS">VMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET#UMOS" title="Power MOSFET">UMOS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Other transistors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darlington_transistor" title="Darlington transistor">Darlington transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused junction transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">Field-effect transistor</a> (FET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JFET" title="JFET">Junction Gate FET (JFET)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_field-effect_transistor" title="Organic field-effect transistor">Organic FET (OFET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-emitting_transistor" title="Light-emitting transistor">Light-emitting transistor</a> (LET) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_light-emitting_transistor" title="Organic light-emitting transistor">Organic LET (OLET)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode_transistor" title="Pentode transistor">Pentode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_unijunction_transistor" title="Programmable unijunction transistor">Programmable unijunction transistor</a> (PUT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_transistor" title="Static induction transistor">Static induction transistor</a> (SIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode_transistor" title="Tetrode transistor">Tetrode transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unijunction_transistor" title="Unijunction transistor">Unijunction transistor</a> (UJT)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_diode" title="Avalanche diode">Avalanche diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-current_diode" title="Constant-current diode">Constant-current diode</a> (CLD, CRD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunn_diode" title="Gunn diode">Gunn diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_diode" title="Laser diode">Laser diode</a> (LD)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Light-emitting diode</a> (LED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OLED" title="OLED">Organic light-emitting diode</a> (OLED)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PIN_diode" title="PIN diode">PIN diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Step_recovery_diode" title="Step recovery diode">Step recovery diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zener_diode" title="Zener diode">Zener diode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other devices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIAC" title="DIAC">DIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterostructure_barrier_varactor" title="Heterostructure barrier varactor">Heterostructure barrier varactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_emitting_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light emitting capacitor">Light emitting capacitor</a> (LEC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memistor" title="Memistor">Memistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memristor" title="Memristor">Memristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memtransistor" title="Memtransistor">Memtransistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide_varistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide varistor">Metal-oxide varistor</a> (MOV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> (MOS IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_semiconductor" title="Organic semiconductor">Organic semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">Photodetector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_CMOS" title="RF CMOS">RF CMOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon_controlled_rectifier" title="Silicon controlled rectifier">Silicon controlled rectifier</a> (SCR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solaristor" title="Solaristor">Solaristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_induction_thyristor" title="Static induction thyristor">Static induction thyristor</a> (SITh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trancitor" title="Trancitor">Trancitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIAC" title="TRIAC">TRIAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">Voltage regulators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regulator" title="Linear regulator">Linear regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator" title="Low-dropout regulator">Low-dropout regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Switching regulator">Switching regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck_converter" title="Buck converter">Buck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boost_converter" title="Boost converter">Boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buck%E2%80%93boost_converter" title="Buck–boost converter">Buck–boost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split-pi_topology" title="Split-pi topology">Split-pi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%86uk_converter" title="Ćuk converter">Ćuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-ended_primary-inductor_converter" title="Single-ended primary-inductor converter">SEPIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_pump" title="Charge pump">Charge pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_capacitor" title="Switched capacitor">Switched capacitor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_tube" title="Acorn tube">Acorn tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tetrode" title="Beam tetrode">Beam tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-wire_barretter" title="Hot-wire barretter">Barretter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compactron" title="Compactron">Compactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_diode" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleming_valve" title="Fleming valve">Fleming valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Neutron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonode" title="Nonode">Nonode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuvistor" title="Nuvistor">Nuvistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentagrid_converter" title="Pentagrid converter">Pentagrid</a> (Hexode, Heptode, Octode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentode" title="Pentode">Pentode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photomultiplier_tube" title="Photomultiplier tube">Photomultiplier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototube" title="Phototube">Phototube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrode" title="Tetrode">Tetrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">Triode</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">RF</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward-wave_oscillator" title="Backward-wave oscillator">Backward-wave oscillator</a> (BWO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">Cavity magnetron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossed-field_amplifier" title="Crossed-field amplifier">Crossed-field amplifier</a> (CFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyrotron" title="Gyrotron">Gyrotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_output_tube" title="Inductive output tube">Inductive output tube</a> (IOT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klystron" title="Klystron">Klystron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maser" title="Maser">Maser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutton_tube" title="Sutton tube">Sutton tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a> (TWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_tube" title="X-ray tube">X-ray tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">Cathode-ray tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_deflection_tube" title="Beam deflection tube">Beam deflection tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charactron" title="Charactron">Charactron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_eye_tube" title="Magic eye tube">Magic eye tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoscope" title="Monoscope">Monoscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selectron_tube" title="Selectron tube">Selectron tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_tube" title="Storage tube">Storage tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochotron" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochotron">Trochotron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-filled_tube" title="Gas-filled tube">Gas-filled tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_cathode" title="Cold cathode">Cold cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossatron" title="Crossatron">Crossatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dekatron" title="Dekatron">Dekatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignitron" title="Ignitron">Ignitron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krytron" title="Krytron">Krytron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-arc_valve" title="Mercury-arc valve">Mercury-arc valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lamp" title="Neon lamp">Neon lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixie_tube" title="Nixie tube">Nixie tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyratron" title="Thyratron">Thyratron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigatron" title="Trigatron">Trigatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage-regulator_tube" title="Voltage-regulator tube">Voltage-regulator tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Adjustable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentiometer" title="Potentiometer">Potentiometer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_potentiometer" title="Digital potentiometer">digital</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_capacitor" title="Variable capacitor">Variable capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varicap" title="Varicap">Varicap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Passive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Connector <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_and_video_interfaces_and_connectors" title="Audio and video interfaces and connectors">audio and video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets" title="AC power plugs and sockets">electrical power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RF_connector" title="RF connector">RF</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolytic_detector" title="Electrolytic detector">Electrolytic detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferrite_core" title="Ferrite core">Ferrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifuse" title="Antifuse">Antifuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resettable_fuse" title="Resettable fuse">resettable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EFUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="EFUSE">eFUSE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermistor" title="Thermistor">Thermistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varistor" title="Varistor">Varistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wollaston_wire" title="Wollaston wire">Wollaston wire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_reactance" title="Electrical reactance">Reactive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor_types" title="Capacitor types">types</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_resonator" title="Ceramic resonator">Ceramic resonator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">Crystal oscillator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametron" title="Parametron">Parametron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">Relay</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reed_relay" title="Reed relay">reed relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_relay" title="Mercury relay">mercury relay</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25504#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4125154-4">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01033269">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116356&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&oldid=1257498423">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&oldid=1257498423</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Light-emitting_diodes" title="Category:Light-emitting diodes">Light-emitting diodes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:LED_lamps" title="Category:LED lamps">LED lamps</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Optical_diodes" title="Category:Optical diodes">Optical diodes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Display_technology" title="Category:Display technology">Display technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Signage" title="Category:Signage">Signage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_inventions" title="Category:20th-century inventions">20th-century inventions</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru)" title="Category:CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)">CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_periodical_ignored" title="Category:CS1 errors: periodical ignored">CS1 errors: periodical ignored</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_split_from_September_2024" title="Category:Articles to be split from September 2024">Articles to be split from September 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_split" title="Category:All articles to be split">All articles to be split</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_October_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_October_2020" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2020">Articles needing additional references from October 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2016" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_vague_or_ambiguous_time" title="Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time">All articles with vague or ambiguous time</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vague_or_ambiguous_time_from_October_2022" title="Category:Vague or ambiguous time from October 2022">Vague or ambiguous time from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_prone_to_spam_from_July_2013" title="Category:Articles prone to spam from July 2013">Articles prone to spam from July 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_American_English_from_October_2015" title="Category:Use American English from October 2015">Use American English from October 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_American_English" title="Category:All Wikipedia articles written in American English">All Wikipedia articles written in American English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_March_2013" title="Category:Use mdy dates from March 2013">Use mdy dates from March 2013</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 November 2024, at 06:02 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light-emitting_diode&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-vmhgq","wgBackendResponseTime":223,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.279","walltime":"2.579","ppvisitednodes":{"value":16424,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":549625,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13261,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":31,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":760599,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2191.301 1 -total"," 58.61% 1284.301 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.75% 454.692 62 Template:Cite_journal"," 16.01% 350.805 64 Template:Cite_web"," 8.87% 194.390 41 Template:Cite_book"," 5.64% 123.638 6 Template:Navbox"," 4.42% 96.911 1 Template:Artificial_light_sources"," 4.06% 88.991 11 Template:Citation_needed"," 3.83% 83.983 1 Template:Short_description"," 3.82% 83.805 1 Template:About"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.417","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":9056395,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","220","15.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","11.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","9.6"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","8.2"],["gsub","100","6.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","4.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","4.1"],["(for generator)","60","4.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","4.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","4.1"],["[others]","420","28.8"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-ftnxr","timestamp":"20241122140512","ttl":726901,"transientcontent":true}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Light-emitting diode","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Light-emitting_diode","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q25504","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q25504","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-08-01T05:24:14Z","dateModified":"2024-11-15T06:02:56Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/cb\/RBG-LED.jpg","headline":"semiconductor and solid state light source"}</script> </body> </html>