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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Natural philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Philosophy of mind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medieval philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="فلسفة القرون الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة القرون الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_medieval" title="Filosofía medieval – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía medieval" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C6%8Fsrl%C9%99r_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="Orta Əsrlər fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta Əsrlər fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="মধ্যযুগীয় দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগীয় দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%83%D0%B0%D1%82_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Урта быуат фәлсәфәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Урта быуат фәлсәфәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Средновековна философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средновековна философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovna_filozofija" title="Srednjovjekovna filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Srednjovjekovna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_medieval" title="Filosofia medieval – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia medieval" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Středověká filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Středověká filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi_i_middelalderen" title="Filosofi i middelalderen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Filosofi i middelalderen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_des_Mittelalters" title="Philosophie des Mittelalters – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie des Mittelalters" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskaja_filosoofia" title="Keskaja filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keskaja filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_medieval" title="Filosofía medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio_de_Mezepoko" title="Filozofio de Mezepoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Filozofio de Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdi_Aroko_filosofia" title="Erdi Aroko filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erdi Aroko filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="فلسفه قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9vale" title="Philosophie médiévale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie médiévale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_medieval" title="Filosofía medieval – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía medieval" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="중세철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafar_zamani" title="Falsafar zamani – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Falsafar zamani" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Միջնադարյան փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջնադարյան փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovna_filozofija" title="Srednjovjekovna filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednjovjekovna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_abad_pertengahan" title="Filsafat abad pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat abad pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_medieval" title="Philosophia medieval – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Philosophia medieval" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%B0aldaheimspeki" title="Miðaldaheimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Miðaldaheimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_medievale" title="Filosofia medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="פילוסופיית ימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיית ימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D2%93%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%80_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ортағасыр философиясы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ортағасыр философиясы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_m%C3%A9dy%C3%A9val" title="Filozofi médyéval – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi médyéval" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_mediaevalis" title="Philosophia mediaevalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia mediaevalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viduram%C5%BEi%C5%B3_filosofija" title="Viduramžių filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viduramžių filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_de_la_eda_medieval" title="Filosofia de la eda medieval – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Filosofia de la eda medieval" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6z%C3%A9pkori_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Középkori filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Középkori filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Средновековна филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Средновековна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middeleeuwse_filosofie" title="Middeleeuwse filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middeleeuwse filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="中世哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelalderens_filosofi" title="Middelalderens filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Middelalderens filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਮੱਧਕਾਲੀ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੱਧਕਾਲੀ ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%93%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="د منځنیو پېړیو فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د منځنیو پېړیو فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midiival_filasafi" title="Midiival filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Midiival filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_%C5%9Bredniowieczna" title="Filozofia średniowieczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia średniowieczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_medieval" title="Filosofia medieval – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia medieval" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_medieval%C4%83" title="Filosofie medievală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie medievală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Средневековая философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средневековая философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_mesjetare" title="Filozofia mesjetare – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia mesjetare" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medieval philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredovek%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Stredoveká filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredoveká filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%AF%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="فەلسەفەی سەدەکانی ناوەڕاست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی سەدەکانی ناوەڕاست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Средњовековна филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњовековна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovna_filozofija" title="Srednjovjekovna filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednjovjekovna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskiajan_filosofia" title="Keskiajan filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskiajan filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medeltidens_filosofi" title="Medeltidens filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medeltidens filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மத்திய கால மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மத்திய கால மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F_felsefesi" title="Orta Çağ felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%87%D1%87%D1%8F" title="Філософія Середньовіччя – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філософія Середньовіччя" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="قرون وسطی کا فلسفہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قرون وسطی کا فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophy during the medieval period</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg/230px-Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg/345px-Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg/460px-Septem-artes-liberales_Herrad-von-Landsberg_Hortus-deliciarum_1180.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1573" data-file-height="2063" /></a><figcaption>Philosophy seated between the seven <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a>; picture from the <i><a href="/wiki/Hortus_deliciarum" title="Hortus deliciarum">Hortus deliciarum</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Herrad_von_Landsberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Herrad von Landsberg">Herrad von Landsberg</a> (12th century).</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Medieval philosophy</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that existed through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the period roughly extending from the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century until after the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in the 13th and 14th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval philosophy, understood as a project of independent philosophical inquiry, began in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, in the middle of the 8th century,<sup id="cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, in the itinerant court of <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>, in the last quarter of the 8th century.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the ancient culture developed in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical period</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and partly by the need to address <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological problems</a> and to integrate sacred <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> with <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> learning. This is one of the defining characteristics in this time period. Understanding God was the focal point of study of the philosophers at that time, Muslim and Christian alike. </p><p>The history of medieval philosophy is traditionally divided into two main periods: the period in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin West">Latin West</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> until the 12th century, when the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> were <a href="/wiki/Recovery_of_Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Recovery of Aristotle">rediscovered</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translated</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">studied upon</a>, and the "golden age" of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries in the Latin West, which witnessed the culmination of the recovery of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy#Ancient_Greek_and_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a>, along with the reception of its <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Arabic commentators</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and significant developments in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. </p><p>The high medieval Scholastic period was disparagingly treated by the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanists" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance humanists">Renaissance humanists</a>, who saw it as a barbaric "middle period" between the Classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the <i>rebirth</i> or <i>renaissance</i> of Classical culture.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historians consider the medieval era to be one of philosophical development, heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>. One of the most notable thinkers of the era, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas of Aquinas">Thomas of Aquinas</a>, never considered himself a philosopher, and criticized philosophers for always "falling short of the true and proper wisdom".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> to <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">simplicity</a> of God, the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">problems of knowledge</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">universals</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_individuation" title="Principle of individuation">individuation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a 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title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a 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</tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 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id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/200px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/300px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/400px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Medieval philosophy places heavy emphasis on the <i>theological</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the possible exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient <a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> writers such as <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> However, their theology used the methods and logical techniques of the ancient philosophers to address difficult theological questions and points of doctrine. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, following <a href="/wiki/Peter_Damian" title="Peter Damian">Peter Damian</a>, argued that philosophy is the handmaiden of theology (<i>philosophia</i> <i>ancilla theologiae</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup> Despite this view of philosophy as the servant of theology, this did not prevent the medievals from developing original and innovative philosophies against the backdrop of their theological projects. For instance, such thinkers as <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_of_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas of Aquinas">Thomas of Aquinas</a> made monumental breakthroughs in the philosophy of temporality and metaphysics, respectively. </p><p>The principles that underlie all the medieval philosophers' work are: </p> <ul><li>The use of logic, <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, and analysis to discover the truth, known as <i>ratio</i>;</li> <li>Respect for the insights of ancient philosophers, in particular Aristotle, and deference to their authority (<i>auctoritas</i>);</li> <li>The obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation (<i>concordia</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3–5">: 3–5 </span></sup></li></ul> <p>One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason. <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> both leaned more on the side of reason.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (March 2024)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Medieval_philosophy#Dubious" title="Talk:Medieval philosophy">discuss</a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> stated that he would never allow his philosophical investigations to go beyond the authority of God.<sup id="cite_ref-Kretzmann2002_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kretzmann2002-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a> attempted to defend against what he saw as partly an assault on faith, with an approach allowing for both faith and reason. The Augustinian solution to the faith/reason problem is to first believe, and then subsequently seek to understand (<i>fides quaerens intellectum</i>). This was the mantra of Christian thinkers, most especially the scholastic philosophers (<a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albert the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, and Thomas Aquinas). </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_medieval_Christian_philosophy">Early medieval Christian philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early medieval Christian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/220px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/330px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/440px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3135" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Champaigne" title="Philippe de Champaigne">Philippe de Champaigne</a>, 17th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The boundaries of the early medieval period are a matter of controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> It is generally agreed that it begins<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> with <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/High_Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="High Medieval">high medieval</a> period. </p><p>After the revival of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Roman empire</a>, Western Europe lapsed into the so-called <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monasteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Monasteries">Monasteries</a> were among the limited number of focal points of formal academic learning, which might be presumed to be a result of a rule of <a href="/wiki/St_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="St Benedict">St Benedict</a>'s in 525, which required monks to read the Bible daily, and his suggestion that at the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a>, a book be given to each monk. In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 45">: 45 </span></sup> </p><p>Early Christian thought, in particular in the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">patristic</a> period, tends to be intuitional and mystical, and is less reliant on reason and logical argument. It also places more emphasis on the sometimes-mystical doctrines of Plato, and less upon the systematic thinking of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period. Scholars relied on translations by <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> into Latin of Aristotle's <i><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></i>, the logical work <i><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></i>, and his Latin translation of Porphyry's <i><a href="/wiki/Isagoge" title="Isagoge">Isagoge</a></i>, a commentary on Aristotle's <i>Categories</i>. </p><p>Two Roman philosophers had a great influence on the development of medieval philosophy: <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>. Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>. He is primarily a theologian and a devotional writer, but much of his writing is philosophical. His thoughts revolve around on <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, the human soul, nature of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>, and salvation. For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority. Some of his writing had an influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern philosophy</a>, such as that of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1967_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1967-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15">: 15 </span></sup> Augustine stated that if I err therefore I exist (Si fallor, sum), which is identical to the <i>cogito</i> of Descartes. <a href="/wiki/Anicius_Manlius_Severinus_Boethius" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius">Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius</a> (480 c.–524) was a Christian philosopher born in Rome to an ancient and influential family. He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>. His influence on the early medieval period was also marked (so much so that it is sometimes called the <i>Boethian period</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> into <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, and translated many of Aristotle's logical works, such as <i>On Interpretation</i>, and the <i>Categories</i>. He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the <i>Isagoge</i> by <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> (a commentary on the Categories). This introduced the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">problem of universals</a> to the medieval world.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1967_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1967-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 114–117">: 114–117 </span></sup> </p><p> The first significant renewal of learning in the West came when <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, advised by <a href="/wiki/Candidus_(floruit_793%E2%80%93802)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candidus (floruit 793–802)">Candidus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Pisa" title="Peter of Pisa">Peter of Pisa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcuin_of_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcuin of York">Alcuin of York</a>, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, and by imperial decree in 787 AD established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> is derived, became centres of medieval learning. </p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg/200px-Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg/300px-Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg/400px-Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="515" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abbo_of_Fleury" title="Abbo of Fleury">Abbo of Fleury</a></figcaption></figure><p><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Scotus_Eriugena" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Scotus Eriugena">Johannes Scotus Eriugena</a> (c. 815 – 877), successor of Alcuin of York as head of the Palace School, was an <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Irish</a> <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>. He is notable for having translated and made commentaries upon the work of <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Dionysius">Pseudo-Dionysius</a>, initially thought to be from the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic age">apostolic age</a>. Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation. Eriugena was called in to settle this dispute. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Paschasius_Radbertus" title="Paschasius Radbertus">Paschasius Radbertus</a> raised an important question about the <a href="/wiki/Real_presence" class="mw-redirect" title="Real presence">real presence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>. Is the <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_bread" title="Sacramental bread">host</a> the same as Christ's historical body? How can it be present at many places and many times? Radbertus argued that Christ's real body is present, veiled by the appearance of bread and wine, and is present at all places and all times, by means of God's incomprehensible power.<sup id="cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 397–406">: 397–406 </span></sup> </p><p>This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship. At <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Fleury" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Fleury">Fleury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodulphus" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodulphus">Theodulphus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Orléans">bishop of Orléans</a>, established a school for young noblemen recommended there by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>. By the mid-ninth century, its library was one of the most comprehensive ever assembled in the West, and scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Lupus_of_Ferri%C3%A8res" class="mw-redirect" title="Lupus of Ferrières">Lupus of Ferrières</a> (d. 862) traveled there to consult its texts. Later, under St. <a href="/wiki/Abbo_of_Fleury" title="Abbo of Fleury">Abbo of Fleury</a> (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.<sup id="cite_ref-Schulman2002_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schulman2002-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Remigius_of_Auxerre" title="Remigius of Auxerre">Remigius of Auxerre</a>, at the beginning of the tenth century, produced glosses or commentaries on the classical texts of <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Donatus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella</a>. The Carolingian period was followed by a small dark age that was followed by a lasting revival of learning in the eleventh century, which owed much to the rediscovery of Greek thought from <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> translations and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Muslim contributions</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s <i>On the soul</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High_Middle_Ages">High Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period from the middle of the eleventh century to the middle of the fourteenth century is known as the 'High medieval' or 'scholastic' period. It is generally agreed to begin with Saint <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> (1033–1109) an <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologian</a>, and church official who is famous as the originator of the <a href="/wiki/Anselm%27s_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Anselm's argument">ontological argument</a> for the existence of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg/175px-Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg/263px-Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg/350px-Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="1158" /></a><figcaption>Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle from <i>Devotional and Philosophical Writings</i>, c. 1330</figcaption></figure> <p>The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally regarded as the high period of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Adelard_of_Bath" title="Adelard of Bath">Adelard of Bath</a> travelled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_of_Moerbeke" title="William of Moerbeke">William of Moerbeke</a>'s translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and in particular of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions they had previously relied on, which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Fryde2000_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fryde2000-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moerbeke's work formed the basis of the major commentaries that followed. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:257px;max-width:257px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/132px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/198px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg/264px-Vicente_salvador_gomez-san_alberto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="605" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:119px;max-width:119px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/117px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/176px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/234px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Left: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Magnus">Albert Magnus</a>. Right: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></div></div></div></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">universities</a> developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a>. The Franciscans were founded by <a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a> in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was <a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a>, a traditionalist who defended the theology of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a> and the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1967_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1967-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 454">: 454 </span></sup> Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can discover truth only when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan writers were <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Auriol" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Auriol">Peter Auriol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>. By contrast, the Dominican order, founded by <a href="/wiki/St_Dominic" class="mw-redirect" title="St Dominic">St Dominic</a> in 1215 placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East, and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and (especially) <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonic</a> and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, though Averroes was influential in the development of Aquinas' philosophy, particularly on <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. </p><p>At the start of the 20th century, historian and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Martin_Grabmann" title="Martin Grabmann">Martin Grabmann</a> was the first scholar to work out the outlines of the ongoing development of thought in scholasticism and to see in Thomas Aquinas a response and development of thought rather than a single, coherently emerged and organic whole. Although Grabmann's works in German are numerous, only <i>Thomas Aquinas</i> (1928) is available in English. However, Grabmann's thought was instrumental in the whole modern understanding of scholasticism and the pivotal role of Aquinas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Topics">Topics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Topics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All the main branches of philosophy today were once a part of Medieval philosophy. Medieval philosophy also included most of the areas originally established by the pagan philosophers of antiquity, in particular Aristotle. However, the discipline now called <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a> was, it is presumed, a unique development of the Medieval era, and many of the problems that define the subject first took shape in the Middle Ages, in forms that are still recognisable today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval philosophy is characteristically theological. Subjects discussed in this period include: </p> <ul><li>The problem of the compatibility of the divine attributes: How are the attributes traditionally ascribed to the Supreme Being, such as unlimited power, knowledge of all things, infinite goodness, existence outside time, immateriality, and so on, logically consistent with one another?</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_free_will" class="mw-redirect" title="Problem of free will">problem of free will</a>: A similar problem was to explain how 'divine foreknowledge' – God's knowledge of what will happen in the future – is compatible with our belief in our own <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>.</li> <li>Questions regarding the immortality of the intellect, the unity or non-unity between the soul and the intellect, and the consequent intellectual basis for believing in the immortality of the soul.</li> <li>The question of whether there can be substances which are non-material, for example, angels.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg/200px-Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg/300px-Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg/400px-Meta-moerbeke_jpeg031-part.jpg 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)#The_Middle_Books_(Zeta,_Eta,_Theta)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Book 7</a> of the Metaphysics: <i>Ens dicitur multipliciter</i> – the word 'being' is predicated in many ways </figcaption></figure> <p>After the 'rediscovery' of Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> in the mid-twelfth century, many scholastics wrote commentaries on this work (in particular <a href="/wiki/Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas">Aquinas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">problem of universals</a> was one of the main problems engaged during that period. Other subjects included: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a> – development of the Aristotelian doctrine that individual things are a compound of material and form (the statue is a compound of granite, and the form sculpted into it)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a> – being qua being</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> – Discussion of causality consisted mostly of commentaries on Aristotle, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a>, <a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a>. The approach to this subject area was uniquely medieval, the rational investigation of the universe being viewed as a way of approaching God. Duns Scotus' proof of the existence of God is based on the notion of causality.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_individuation" title="Principle of individuation">Individuation</a>. The problem of individuation is to explain how we individuate or numerically distinguish the members of any kind for which it is given. The problem arose when it was required to explain how individual <a href="/wiki/Angel" title="Angel">angels</a> of the same species differ from one another. Angels are immaterial, and their numerical difference cannot be explained by the different matter they are made of. The main contributors to this discussion were <a href="/wiki/Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas">Aquinas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_philosophy">Natural philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Natural philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, medieval philosophers were mainly influenced by Aristotle. However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> period. The more mathematical reasoning techniques of William Heytesbury and William of Ockham are indicative of this trend. Other contributors to natural philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Buridan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Buridan">John Buridan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Nicholas of Autrecourt</a>. See also the article on the <a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a>, the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and the developments in the Renaissance and early modern period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The historian of logic <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Maria_Boche%C5%84ski" title="Józef Maria Bocheński">I. M. Bochenski</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regarded the Middle Ages as one of the three great periods in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">history of logic</a>. From the time of <a href="/wiki/Abelard" class="mw-redirect" title="Abelard">Abelard</a> until the middle of the fourteenth century, scholastic writers refined and developed <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a> to a remarkable degree. In the earlier period, writers such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a> wrote commentaries on the works of the <a href="/wiki/Old_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Old logic">Old logic</a> (Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Interpretatione" class="mw-redirect" title="De Interpretatione">On interpretation</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Isagoge" title="Isagoge">Isagoge</a> of <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>). Later, new departments of logical enquiry arose, and new logical and semantic notions were developed. For logical developments in the Middle Ages, see the articles on <a href="/wiki/Insolubilia" title="Insolubilia">insolubilia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obligations" class="mw-redirect" title="Obligations">obligations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Properties of terms">properties of terms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sophismata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sophismata (page does not exist)">sophismata</a>. Other great contributors to medieval logic include <a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Buridan" class="mw-redirect" title="John Buridan">John Buridan</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wyclif" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wyclif">John Wyclif</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter of Spain (author)">Peter of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kilvington" title="Richard Kilvington">Richard Kilvington</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Burley" title="Walter Burley">Walter Burley</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Heytesbury" class="mw-redirect" title="William Heytesbury">William Heytesbury</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mind">Philosophy of mind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Medieval philosophy of mind is based on Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/De_Anima" class="mw-redirect" title="De Anima">De Anima</a>, another work discovered in the Latin West in the twelfth century. It was regarded as a branch of the philosophy of nature. Some of the topics discussed in this area include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_illumination" title="Divine illumination">Divine illumination</a> – The doctrine of Divine illumination was an alternative to <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>. It holds that humans need a special assistance from God in their ordinary thinking. The doctrine is most closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> and his scholastic followers. It reappeared in a different form in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> era.</li> <li>theories of demonstration</li> <li>mental representation – The idea that mental states have 'intentionality'; i.e., <i>despite being a state of the mind, they are able to represent things outside the mind</i> is intrinsic to the modern philosophy of mind. It has its origins in medieval philosophy. (The word 'intentionality' was revived by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a>, who was intending to reflect medieval usage<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Ockham is well known for his theory that language signifies mental states primarily by convention, real things secondarily, whereas the corresponding mental states signify real things of themselves and necessarily.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Writers in this area include <a href="/wiki/Saint_Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Augustine">Saint Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Autrecourt" title="Nicholas of Autrecourt">Nicholas of Autrecourt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abu Nasr al-Farabi:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Abu Nasr al-Farabi</a> is well known in the world of medieval Islamic philosophy and ethics for his distinct approach to writing. Deviating from the traditional path of philosophical documentation, al-Farabi wrote in a simplistic manner. There is little immediate intricacy to be observed in his work. In addition to this, al-Farabi wrote in a narrative style. As opposed to listing theories, he told a story with subtle and implicit themes of original ethical concepts. </p><p>Contributions: </p><p>In his narrative pieces, al-Farabi discussed ethical and philosophical theories with reference to politics, leadership, morals, faith, and civics. Notable works of his include The Attainment of Happiness, in which al-Farabi reasons that conceptions of political science and religion must be built on a foundational understanding of the universe. He advocates that one must first construct notions in relation to universal matters to form just opinions in regard to political philosophy and religion. These two subjects are significant focal points in his work. Much of his writing is deliberated on his perceived conceptions of the juxtaposition and interaction of the aforementioned topics such as his claim that both political and religious figures rest in the same classification as adjacent to a fundamental comprehension of the universe. </p><p>Writers in this area include <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter of Spain (author)">Peter of Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a>. Writers on political theory include <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Wyclif" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wyclif">John Wyclif</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Muslim philosophy">Early Muslim philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholastic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic philosophy">Scholastic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-stanford.edu-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford.edu_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSpade2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Spade, Paul Vincent (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/medieval-philosophy/">"Medieval Philosophy"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_Study_of_Language_and_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Center for the Study of Language and Information">Center for the Study of Language and Information</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medieval+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Center+for+the+Study+of+Language+and+Information&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Spade&rft.aufirst=Paul+Vincent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2018%2Fentries%2Fmedieval-philosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasnau2010" class="citation book cs1">Pasnau, Robert (2010). "Introduction". <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory01pasn"><i>The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory01pasn/page/n14">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76216-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76216-8"><bdi>978-0-521-76216-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Medieval+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-76216-8&rft.aulast=Pasnau&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgehistory01pasn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2004" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Brian (2004). <i>Aquinas</i>. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aquinas&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gracia2003-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gracia2003_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraciaNoone2003" class="citation book cs1">Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Noone, Timothy B. (2003). <i>A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780631216728" title="Special:BookSources/9780631216728"><bdi>9780631216728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Philosophy+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780631216728&rft.aulast=Gracia&rft.aufirst=Jorge+J.+E.&rft.au=Noone%2C+Timothy+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Medieval Philosophy: Essential Readings with Commentary</i>, edited by Gyula Klima, Fritz Allhoff, Anand Jayprakash Vaidya, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kretzmann2002-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kretzmann2002_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKretzmann2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Kretzmann" title="Norman Kretzmann">Kretzmann, Norman</a> (2002). Stump, Eleonore (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Augustine</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521650182" title="Special:BookSources/9780521650182"><bdi>9780521650182</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Augustine&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521650182&rft.aulast=Kretzmann&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyman1967-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hyman1967_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hyman1967_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hyman1967_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymanWalsh1967" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, J.; Walsh, J.J. (1967). <i>Philosophy in the Middle Ages: The Christian, Islamic, and Jewish Traditions</i>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/370638">370638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+The+Christian%2C+Islamic%2C+and+Jewish+Traditions&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F370638&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Walsh%2C+J.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Catarina_Dutilh_Novaes" title="Catarina Dutilh Novaes">Catarina Dutilh Novaes</a> & Stephen Read, <i>The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Logic</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016, <i>Introduction</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schulman2002-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schulman2002_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulman2002" class="citation book cs1">Schulman, Jana K., ed. (2002). <i>The Rise of the Medieval World: 500–1300: A Biographical Dictionary</i>. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313308178" title="Special:BookSources/9780313308178"><bdi>9780313308178</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Medieval+World%3A+500%E2%80%931300%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780313308178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Lyons2007" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Lyons (2007). <i>The House of Wisdom</i>. Bloomsbury.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+House+of+Wisdom&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Jonathan+Lyons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall Clagett, "Medieval Latin Translations from the Arabic of the Elements of Euclid, with Special Emphasis on the Versions of Adelard of Bath," <i>Isis</i> 44: 16–42 (1982).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David C. Lindberg (ed.), <i>Science in the Middle Ages</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, p. 70-72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fryde2000-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fryde2000_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFryde2000" class="citation book cs1">Fryde, Edmund (2000). <i>The Early Palaeologan Renaissance (1261-c.1360)</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004117143" title="Special:BookSources/9789004117143"><bdi>9789004117143</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Palaeologan+Renaissance+%281261-c.1360%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9789004117143&rft.aulast=Fryde&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. M. Bochenski, <i>A History of Formal Logic</i>, Notre dame University Press, 1961, pp. 10–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint</i>, transl. by A.C. Rancurello, D.B. Terrell, and L. McAlister, London: Routledge, 1973. (2nd ed., intr. by Peter Simons, 1995), p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">That is, our idea of a rabbit necessarily represents a rabbit. A mental state 'is a true similitude of the external thing, on account of which it represents (<i>repraesentat</i>) the external thing itself, and stands for it from its nature, just as an utterance denotes things by institution'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterworth1983" class="citation journal cs1">Butterworth, Charles E. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40017707">"Ethics in Medieval Islamic Philosophy"</a>. <i>The Journal of Religious Ethics</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 224–239. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40017707">40017707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Religious+Ethics&rft.atitle=Ethics+in+Medieval+Islamic+Philosophy&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=224-239&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40017707%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Butterworth&rft.aufirst=Charles+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40017707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuerizoliHamelin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Guerizoli, Rodrigo; Hamelin, Guy, eds. (3 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11787-015-0124-x">"Preface: Medieval Logic"</a>. <i>Logica Universalis</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 129–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11787-015-0124-x">10.1007/s11787-015-0124-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1661-8300">1661-8300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Logica+Universalis&rft.atitle=Preface%3A+Medieval+Logic&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=129-131&rft.date=2015-06-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11787-015-0124-x&rft.issn=1661-8300&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11787-015-0124-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomsonKolak2006" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Garrett; Kolak, Daniel (2006). <i>The Longman Standard History of Philosophy</i>. New York: Pearson, Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780321235114" title="Special:BookSources/9780321235114"><bdi>9780321235114</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Longman+Standard+History+of+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pearson%2C+Longman&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780321235114&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=Garrett&rft.au=Kolak%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLagerlund2011" class="citation book cs1">Lagerlund, Henrik, ed. (2011). <i>Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy: Philosophy Between 500 and 1500</i>. Dordrecht: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402097287" title="Special:BookSources/9781402097287"><bdi>9781402097287</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Philosophy%3A+Philosophy+Between+500+and+1500&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781402097287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarenbon2007" class="citation book cs1">Marenbon, John (2007). <i>Medieval Philosophy: An Historical and Philosophical Introduction</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203968765" title="Special:BookSources/9780203968765"><bdi>9780203968765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Philosophy%3A+An+Historical+and+Philosophical+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780203968765&rft.aulast=Marenbon&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaurer1982" class="citation book cs1">Maurer, Armand A. (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalphilosop0000maur"><i>Medieval Philosophy</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Toronto: <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Institute_of_Mediaeval_Studies" title="Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies">Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780888447043" title="Special:BookSources/9780888447043"><bdi>9780888447043</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Philosophy&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pontifical+Institute+of+Mediaeval+Studies&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780888447043&rft.aulast=Maurer&rft.aufirst=Armand+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalphilosop0000maur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasnauVan_Dyke2010" class="citation book cs1">Pasnau, Robert; Van Dyke, Christina, eds. (2010). <i>The Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521762168" title="Special:BookSources/9780521762168"><bdi>9780521762168</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Medieval+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780521762168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasnau2011" class="citation book cs1">Pasnau, Robert (2011). <i>Metaphysical Themes, 1274-1689</i>. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191501791" title="Special:BookSources/9780191501791"><bdi>9780191501791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metaphysical+Themes%2C+1274-1689&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780191501791&rft.aulast=Pasnau&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoedinger1996" class="citation book cs1">Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. (1996). <i>Readings in Medieval Philosophy</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195092929" title="Special:BookSources/9780195092929"><bdi>9780195092929</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+Medieval+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780195092929&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/">London Philosophy Study Guide</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Medieval.htm">Medieval Philosophy</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-philosophy//">"Medieval philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medieval+philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmedieval-philosophy%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary//">"Literary forms of Medieval Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Literary+forms+of+Medieval+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmedieval-literary%2F%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medieval_philosophers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Template talk:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval_Philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Medieval Philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Medieval_philosophers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval philosophers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcuin" title="Alcuin">Alcuin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">11–12th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Laon" title="Anselm of Laon">Anselm of Laon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Saint_Victor" title="Hugh of Saint Victor">Hugh of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_of_Saint_Victor" title="Richard of Saint Victor">Richard of Saint Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscellinus" title="Roscellinus">Roscelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Hales" title="Alexander of Hales">Alexander of Hales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard of Chartres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Gundissalinus" title="Dominicus Gundissalinus">Dominicus Gundissalinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert de la Porrée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Lille" title="Alain de Lille">Alain de Lille</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">13–14th<br />century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scot" title="Michael Scot">Michael Scot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boetius_of_Dacia" title="Boetius of Dacia">Boetius of Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giles_of_Rome" title="Giles of Rome">Giles of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_of_Fontaines" title="Godfrey of Fontaines">Godfrey of Fontaines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durandus_of_Saint-Pour%C3%A7ain" title="Durandus of Saint-Pourçain">Durandus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Aureolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrus Aureolus">Petrus Aureolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Inghen" title="Marsilius of Inghen">Marsilius of Inghen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_of_Saxony_(philosopher)" title="Albert of Saxony (philosopher)">Albert of Saxony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesc_Eiximenis" title="Francesc Eiximenis">Francesc Eiximenis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Ferrer" title="Vincent Ferrer">Vincent Ferrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertus_de_Monte" title="Lambertus de Monte">Lambertus de Monte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hennon" title="John Hennon">John Hennon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Medieval" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud" title="Abraham ibn Daud">Abraham ibn Daud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nachmanides" title="Nachmanides">Nachmanides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gersonides" title="Gersonides">Gersonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas" title="Hasdai Crescas">Hasdai Crescas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Albo" title="Joseph Albo">Joseph Albo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Nazzam" title="Ibrahim al-Nazzam">al-Nazzam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi (Alkindus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brethren_of_Purity" title="Brethren of Purity">Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bishr_Matta_ibn_Yunus" title="Abu Bishr Matta ibn Yunus">Matta ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ya%27qub_al-Sijistani" title="Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani">Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Masarra" title="Ibn Masarra">Ibn Masarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadi_Abd_al-Jabbar" title="Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar">Abd al-Jabbar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Al-Amiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sulayman_Sijistani" title="Abu Sulayman Sijistani">Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamid_al-Din_al-Kirmani" title="Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani">al-Kirmani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">High</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hazm" title="Ibn Hazm">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali (Algazel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_al-Quzat_Hamadani" title="Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani">Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Ibn Rushd (Averroes)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.2em;text-align:center;">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sab%27in" title="Ibn Sab'in">Ibn Sab'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Yahya_ibn_Habash_Suhrawardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi">Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Razi" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Razi">Fakhr al-Din al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid al-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">Athir al-Din al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyya" title="Ibn Taymiyya">Ibn Taymiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle 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scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> 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