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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaiśeṣika"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Vaiśeṣika</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaiśeṣika-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mīmāṃsā" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mīmāṃsā"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Mīmāṃsā</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mīmāṃsā-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vedānta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedānta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Vedānta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedānta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.6</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heterodox_or_Śramaṇic_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heterodox_or_Śramaṇic_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heterodox_or_Śramaṇic_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jain_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jain_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Jain philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jain_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cārvāka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cārvāka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Cārvāka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cārvāka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ājīvika" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ājīvika"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Ājīvika</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ājīvika-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ajñana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ajñana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.4</span> <span>Ajñana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ajñana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhist_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Buddhist philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhist_modernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhist_modernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Buddhist modernism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhist_modernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sikh_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sikh_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Sikh philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sikh_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Indian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Indian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Modern Indian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Indian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asian_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asian_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>East Asian philosophies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-East_Asian_philosophies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle East Asian philosophies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-East_Asian_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Confucianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Confucianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Legalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mohism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mohism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Mohism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mohism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Taoism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_East_Asian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_East_Asian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Modern East Asian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_East_Asian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Chinese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Japanese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>North Korean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntheses_of_Eastern_and_Western_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntheses_of_Eastern_and_Western_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntheses_of_Eastern_and_Western_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntheses_of_Eastern_and_Western_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern philosophy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 60 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-60" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">60 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oosterse_filosofie" title="Oosterse filosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oosterse filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فلسفة شرقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة شرقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_oriental" title="Filosofía oriental – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía oriental" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C9%99rq_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99si" title="Şərq fəlsəfəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şərq fəlsəfəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="شرق فلسفه‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="شرق فلسفه‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রাচ্য দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচ্য দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang-i%C3%BB%E2%81%BF_tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tang-iûⁿ tiat-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tang-iûⁿ tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8B%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%BB%D0%B5" title="Көнсығыш фәлсәфәһе – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Көнсығыш фәлсәфәһе" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Източна философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Източна философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh_ar_Reter" title="Prederouriezh ar Reter – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Prederouriezh ar Reter" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_oriental" title="Filosofia oriental – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia oriental" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDchodn%C3%AD_filozofie" title="Východní filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Východní filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98stlig_filosofi" title="Østlig filosofi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Østlig filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96stliche_Philosophie" title="Östliche Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Östliche Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_filosoofia" title="Ida filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ida filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ανατολική φιλοσοφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανατολική φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_oriental" title="Filosofía oriental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía oriental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orienta_filozofio" title="Orienta filozofio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Orienta filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekialdeko_filosofia" title="Ekialdeko filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekialdeko filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82" title="فلسفه شرق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه شرق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_orientale" title="Philosophie orientale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie orientale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="동양 철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동양 철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafar_Gabas" title="Falsafar Gabas – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Falsafar Gabas" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D6%80%D6%87%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հին Արևելյան փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Արևելյան փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isto%C4%8Dnja%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Istočnjačka filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Istočnjačka filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_Timur" title="Filsafat Timur – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat Timur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austr%C3%A6n_heimspeki" title="Austræn heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Austræn heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_orientali" title="Filosofie orientali – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofie orientali" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פילוסופיה מזרחית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה מזרחית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi_oryantal" title="Filozofi oryantal – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi oryantal" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_urientela" title="Filosofia urientela – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Filosofia urientela" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_Orientalis" title="Philosophia Orientalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia Orientalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryt%C5%B3_filosofija" title="Rytų filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rytų filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keleti_filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Keleti filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Keleti filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Источна филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Источна филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah_Timur" title="Falsafah Timur – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah Timur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oosterse_filosofie" title="Oosterse filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oosterse filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पूर्वीय दर्शन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="पूर्वीय दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पूर्वीय दर्शन – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="पूर्वीय दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%B4%8B%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="東洋哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="東洋哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98stlig_filosofi" title="Østlig filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Østlig filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharq_falsafasi" title="Sharq falsafasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sharq falsafasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%8A%DA%81%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="ختيځه فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ختيځه فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iistan_filasafi" title="Iistan filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Iistan filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_oriental" title="Filosofia oriental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia oriental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Восточная философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Восточная философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDchodn%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Východná filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Východná filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vzhodna_filozofija" title="Vzhodna filozofija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vzhodna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%86%DA%98%DA%BE%DB%95%DA%B5%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="فەلسەفەی ڕۆژھەڵاتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی ڕۆژھەڵاتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isto%C4%8Dna_filozofija" title="Istočna filozofija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istočna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isto%C4%8Dna_filozofija" title="Istočna filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Istočna filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%C3%A4mainen_filosofia" title="Itämainen filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Itämainen filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96sterl%C3%A4ndsk_filosofi" title="Österländsk filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Österländsk filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silanganing_pilosopiya" title="Silanganing pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Silanganing pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="கிழக்கத்திய மெய்யியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கிழக்கத்திய மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81" title="ปรัชญาตะวันออก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญาตะวันออก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do%C4%9Fu_felsefesi" title="Doğu felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doğu felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%85%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Східна філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Східна філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc_ph%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_%C4%90%C3%B4ng" title="Triết học phương Đông – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học phương Đông" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="東方哲學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="東方哲學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q307043#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Eastern_philosophy" title="Category:Eastern philosophy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.15em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eastern philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">China</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><b><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a></b><br /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></b><br /> <i>Persons</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li></ul> <p><i>Topics</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Face_(sociological_concept)" title="Face (sociological concept)">Face</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanxi" title="Guanxi">Guanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Unity of knowledge and action</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_Good_Human_Nature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of Good Human Nature (page does not exist)">Theory of Good Human Nature</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Good_Human_Nature" class="extiw" title="simple:Theory of Good Human Nature">simple</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_Evil_Human_Nature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of Evil Human Nature (page does not exist)">Theory of Evil Human Nature</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Evil_Human_Nature" class="extiw" title="simple:Theory of Evil Human Nature">simple</a>]</span></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Neo_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo Confucianism">Neo Confucianism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a></b><br /> <i>Persons</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li></ul> <p><i>Topics</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Yin yang">Yin yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li></ul> <p><b>Military and Strategy</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Han Buddhism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tientai" class="mw-redirect" title="Tientai">Tientai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Guifeng Zongmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">East Asian Mādhyamaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Chan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chan">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_(Tibetan_Buddhist_school)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)">Sakya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyingma" title="Nyingma">Nyingma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsongkhapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Tenets_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Tenets system">Four Tenets system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangtong-Shentong" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangtong-Shentong">Rangtong-Shentong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika-Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li></ul> <p><b>General topics</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">India</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><b><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika (orthodox)</a></b><br /> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Vedic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic philosophy">Vedic philosophy</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agastya" title="Agastya">Agastya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra" title="Ashtavakra">Ashtavakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vashistha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vashistha">Vashistha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mimamsa</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Advaita">Advaita</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras#Author_and_chronology" title="Brahma Sutras">Badarayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vivekananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurobindo" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></b></i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras#Author_and_chronology" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Gotama</a></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangesha Upadhyaya</a></li></ul> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></b></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika (heterodox)</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmir Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li></ul> <p><b>Tamil</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Valluvam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li></ul> <p><b>General topics</b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism#Indian_atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li>Atman <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman (Hinduism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Buddhism)" title="Ātman (Buddhism)">Ātman (Buddhism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ātman (Jainism)">Ātman (Jainism)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(illusion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya (illusion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jainism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umaswati" title="Umaswati">Umaswati</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li></ul> <p><i>Traditions</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamika" class="mw-redirect" title="Madhyamika">Madhyamika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Topics</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Maitrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">Emptiness</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><b>Traditions</b><br /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Buddhism">Japanese Buddhism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Sōtō school">Sōtō school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogen">Dogen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinzai_school" title="Rinzai school">Rinzai school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisai" title="Eisai">Eisai</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shingon">Shingon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kukai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kukai">Kukai</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Confucianism">Japanese Confucianism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fujiwara_Seika" title="Fujiwara Seika">Fujiwara Seika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan">Hayashi Razan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakae_T%C5%8Dju" title="Nakae Tōju">Nakae Tōju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/It%C5%8D_Jinsai" title="Itō Jinsai">Itō Jinsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogy%C5%AB_Sorai" title="Ogyū Sorai">Ogyū Sorai</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motoori_Norinaga" title="Motoori Norinaga">Motoori Norinaga</a></li></ul> <p><b>Modern Thought</b><br /> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Statism</a></b><br /> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0 0.6em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><b>Traditions</b><br /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korean Buddhism</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wonhyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uisang" title="Uisang">Uisang</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hwaeom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwaeom">Hwaeom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uicheon" title="Uicheon">Uicheon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheontae" title="Cheontae">Cheontae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Seon</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></b><br /> <i>Persons</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%8Fng_To-j%C5%8Fn" class="mw-redirect" title="Chŏng To-jŏn">Chŏng To-jŏn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seo_Gyeongdeok" class="mw-redirect" title="Seo Gyeongdeok">Seo Gyeongdeok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Eonjeok" title="Yi Eonjeok">Yi Eonjeok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Hwang" title="Yi Hwang">Yi Hwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_I" title="Yi I">Yi I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Ik" title="Yi Ik">Yi Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bak_Jiwon_(born_1737)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bak Jiwon (born 1737)">Bak Jiwon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeong_Yak-yong" title="Jeong Yak-yong">Jeong Yak-yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Jeong-hui" title="Kim Jeong-hui">Kim Jeong-hui</a></li></ul> <p><i>Topics</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silhak" title="Silhak">Silhak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seohak" title="Seohak">Seohak</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Donghak" title="Donghak">Donghak</a></b><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choe_Je-u" title="Choe Je-u">Choe Je-u</a></li></ul> <p><b>Modern Thought</b><br /> <i>Persons</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li></ul> <p><i>Topics</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minjung_theology" title="Minjung theology">Minjung theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" 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<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Eastern philosophy</b> (also called <b>Asian philosophy</b> or <b>Oriental philosophy</b>) includes the various <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophies</a> that originated in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese philosophy</a>; which are dominant in East Asia,<sup id="cite_ref-Source1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Source1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>), which are dominant in <a href="/wiki/Indian_Subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Subcontinent">South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_philosophy">Indian philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Indian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian philosophy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg/180px-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg/270px-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg/360px-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1054" data-file-height="1190" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a>, the Tamil philosopher of the post-<a href="/wiki/Sangam_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam era">Sangam era</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> refers to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient</a> philosophical traditions (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <i lang="sa"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">dárśana</i></span></i>; 'world views', 'teachings')<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> may have roots dating back to the times of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Hindu schools developed what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" merging orthodox <a href="/wiki/Brahmanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanical">Brahmanical</a> and unorthodox elements from Buddhism and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hindu thought also spread east to the Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Srivijaya empire">Srivijaya empire</a> and the Cambodian <a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer Empire</a>. These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. Hinduism is the dominant religion, or way of life,<sup id="cite_ref-definition_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-definition-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>. It includes <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENath200131_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENath200131-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among numerous <a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">other traditions</a>, and a wide spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">laws and prescriptions</a> of "daily morality" based on <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>, and societal norms. Hinduism is a categorization of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid, common set of beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgis201062_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgis201062-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hinduism, with about one billion followers<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the <a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">world's third-largest religion</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Hinduism has been called the "<a href="/wiki/Oldest_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldest religion">oldest religion</a>" in the world and is traditionally called <i><a href="/wiki/San%C4%81tan%C4%AB" title="Sanātanī"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Sanātana Dharma</i></span></a></i>, "the eternal <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">law</a>" or the "eternal way";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowker2000_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowker2000-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2001xiii_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2001xiii-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnott19985_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnott19985-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> beyond human origins.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnott19985_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnott19985-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion<sup id="cite_ref-Lockard_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lockard-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or synthesis<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hiltebeitel-synthesis_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiltebeitel-synthesis-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of various Indian cultures and traditions,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200750_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200750-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with diverse roots<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and no single founder.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period#Later_Vedic_period_(c._1000_–_c._600_BCE)" title="Vedic period">later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE)</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Important Indian philosophical concepts include <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">samsara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a>. Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (<a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramana</a>) and logic and investigated topics such as <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>-<a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunyata">Sunyata</a>-<a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a>), reliable means of knowledge (<a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramanas</a>), value system (<a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">axiology</a>) and other topics.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indian philosophy also covered topics such as political philosophy as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a> c. 4th century BCE and the philosophy of love as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkural">Kural literature</a> of the post-<a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a> between c. 1st century BCE and 5th century CE, written by the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> poet-philosopher <a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a>, is believed by many scholars to be based on <a href="/wiki/Jain" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain">Jain</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohan_Lal19924333–4334_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohan_Lal19924333–4334-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973156–171_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973156–171-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundaram,_1990xiii–xvii,_Appendix_note_on_verse_1103_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESundaram,_1990xiii–xvii,_Appendix_note_on_verse_1103-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> philosophies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaushik_Roy2012152–154,_context:_144–154_(Chapter:_Hinduism_and_the_Ethics_of_Warfare_in_South_Asia)_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaushik_Roy2012152–154,_context:_144–154_(Chapter:_Hinduism_and_the_Ethics_of_Warfare_in_South_Asia)-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwamiji_Iraianban199713_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwamiji_Iraianban199713-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson,_2009_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson,_2009-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPillai,_201575_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPillai,_201575-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later developments include the development of <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a> and Iranian-Islamic influences. Buddhism mostly disappeared from India after the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent">Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent</a>, surviving in the Himalayan regions and south India.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early modern period saw the flourishing of <a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a> (the 'new reason') under philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a> (c. 1460–1540) who founded the tradition, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jayarama_Pancanana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jayarama Pancanana (page does not exist)">Jayarama Pancanana</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahadeva_Punatamakara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahadeva Punatamakara (page does not exist)">Mahadeva Punatamakara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yashovijaya" title="Yashovijaya">Yashovijaya</a> (who formulated a Jain response).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthodox_schools">Orthodox schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Orthodox schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principal Indian philosophical schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox – <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">āstika or nāstika</a> – depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> are a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>; and whether the school believes in afterlife and <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are six major schools of orthodox Indian <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>—<a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a>, and five major heterodox schools—<a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ajivika" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivika">Ajivika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="Cārvāka">Cārvāka</a>. However, there are other methods of classification; <a href="/wiki/Vidyaranya" title="Vidyaranya">Vidyaranya</a> for instance identifies sixteen schools of Hindu Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Śaiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a> traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-cowell_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cowell-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nicholson_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholson-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> literature called <i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana</a>-sastras</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-kp_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kp-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pbil_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbil-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hindu history</a>, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gupta period">Gupta period</a> "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mīmāṃsā, it became obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (<a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as <i>Navya Nyaya</i> "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sāmkhya_and_Yoga"><span id="S.C4.81mkhya_and_Yoga"></span>Sāmkhya and Yoga</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sāmkhya and Yoga"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Sāmkhya</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualist</a> philosophical tradition based on the <a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhyakarika</a> (c. 320–540 CE),<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga school</a> was a closely related tradition emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Hinduism" title="Dhyana in Hinduism">meditation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaivalya" title="Kaivalya">liberation</a> whose major text is the <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga sutras</a> (c. 400 CE).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Elements of proto-Samkhya ideas can, however, be traced back to the period of the early <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the main differences between the two closely related schools was that Yoga allowed for the existence of a God, while most <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Sāmkhya</a> thinkers criticized this idea.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sāmkhya <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> accepts three of six <a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">pramanas</a> (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge; <i>pratyakṣa</i> (<a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>), <i>anumāṇa</i> (<a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a>) and <i>śabda</i> (word/testimony of reliable sources).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The school developed a complex theoretical exposition of the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">matter</a>. Sāmkhya sources argue that the universe consists of two realities, <a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">puruṣa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">prakṛti</a> (<a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>). </p><p>As shown by the <i><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra</a></i> (c. 14th century CE), Sāmkhya continued to develop throughout the medieval period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nyāya"><span id="Ny.C4.81ya"></span>Nyāya</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nyāya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">The Nyāya</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> explores <a href="/wiki/Pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Pramāṇa">sources of knowledge</a> (<i>Pramāṇa</i>) and is based on the <i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> (circa 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyāya</a> holds that human suffering arises out of ignorance and liberation arises through correct knowledge. Therefore, they sought to investigate the sources of correct knowledge or epistemology. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyāya</a> traditionally accepts four <i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramanas</a></i> as reliable means of gaining knowledge – <i>Pratyakṣa</i> (perception), <i>Anumāṇa</i> (inference), <i>Upamāṇa</i> (comparison and analogy) and <i>Śabda</i> (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyāya</a> also traditionally defended a form of philosophical <a href="/wiki/Realism_(philosophical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Realism (philosophical)">realism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> was a very influential text in Indian philosophy, laying the foundations for classical Indian epistemological debates between the different philosophical schools. It includes, for example, the classic Hindu rejoinders against Buddhist not-self (<a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">anatta</a>) arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work also famously argues against a creator God (<a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a debate which became central to Hinduism in the medieval period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vaiśeṣika"><span id="Vai.C5.9Be.E1.B9.A3ika"></span>Vaiśeṣika</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vaiśeṣika"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaiśeṣika</a> is a naturalist school of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>, which accepts only two sources of knowledge, perception, and inference.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to <i>paramāṇu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>), which are indestructible (<i>anitya</i>), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called "small" (<i>aṇu</i>). Whatever we experience is a composite of these atoms.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vaiśeṣika organized all objects of experience into what they called <i>padārtha</i>s (literally: 'the meaning of a word') which included six categories; <i>dravya</i> (substance), <i>guṇa</i> (quality), <i>karma</i> (activity), <i>sāmānya</i> (generality), <i>viśeṣa</i> (particularity) and <i>samavāya</i> (inherence). Later <i>Vaiśeṣika</i>s (<i>Śrīdhara</i> and Udayana and <i>Śivāditya</i>) added one more category <i><a href="/wiki/Abhava" title="Abhava">abhava</a></i> (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as <i>artha</i> (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as <i>budhyapekṣam</i> (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mīmāṃsā"><span id="M.C4.ABm.C4.81.E1.B9.83s.C4.81"></span>Mīmāṃsā</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mīmāṃsā"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a> is a school of ritual <a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">orthopraxy</a> and is known for its <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutical</a> study and interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_2006_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver_Leaman_2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this tradition, the study of <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i> as ritual and social duty was paramount. They also held that the Vedas were "eternal, authorless, [and] infallible" and that Vedic injunctions and <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> in rituals are prescriptive actions of primary importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_2006_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver_Leaman_2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a> which influenced other Indian schools.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They primarily held that the purpose of language was to correctly <i>prescribe</i> proper actions, rituals, and correct <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a> (duty or virtue).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mīmāṃsā is also mainly atheistic, holding that the evidence for the existence of God is insufficient and that the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the names, mantras and their power.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is the <a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mīmāṃsā Sūtra</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a> and major Mīmāṃsā scholars include <a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a> (c. 7th century) and <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">fl.</a> roughly 700). The Mīmāṃsā school strongly influenced <a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedānta</a>, which was also known as <i>Uttara-Mīmāṃsā</i>; however, while Mīmāṃsā emphasized <i>karmakāṇḍa</i>, or the study of ritual actions, using the four early <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, the Vedānta schools emphasized <i>jñanakāṇḍa</i>, the study of knowledge, using the later parts of Vedas like the <a href="/wiki/Upani%E1%B9%A3ads" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaniṣads">Upaniṣads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_2006_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oliver_Leaman_2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vedānta"><span id="Ved.C4.81nta"></span>Vedānta</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vedānta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/177px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg" decoding="async" width="177" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/266px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/354px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5146" data-file-height="7262" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> (8th century CE) the main exponent of <a href="/wiki/Advaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Advaita">Advaita</a> Vedānta</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ved%C4%81nta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedānta">Vedānta</a> (meaning "end of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>") or <i>Uttara-Mīmāṃsā</i>, are a group of traditions which focus on the philosophical issues found in the <a href="/wiki/Prasthanatrayi" title="Prasthanatrayi">Prasthanatrayi</a> (the three sources), which are the <i><a href="/wiki/Principal_Upanishads" title="Principal Upanishads">Principal Upanishads</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ved%C4%81nta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedānta">Vedānta</a> sees the Vedas, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a>, as a reliable source of knowledge. </p><p>The central concern for these schools is the nature of and the relationship between <i><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></i> (ultimate reality, universal consciousness), <i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a></i> (individual soul) and <i><a href="/wiki/Prakriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakriti">Prakriti</a></i> (empirical world). </p><p>The sub-traditions of <a href="/wiki/Ved%C4%81nta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedānta">Vedānta</a> include <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a> (non-dualism), <a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a> (qualified non-dualism), <a href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</a> (dualism), and <a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a> (difference and non-difference).<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the popularity of the <a href="/wiki/Bhakti_movement" title="Bhakti movement">bhakti movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ved%C4%81nta" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedānta">Vedānta</a> came to be the dominant current of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> in the post-medieval period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other">Other</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the classical enumeration of Indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools, there are other schools that are sometimes seen as orthodox. These include:<sup id="cite_ref-cowell_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cowell-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pasupata" class="mw-redirect" title="Pasupata">Paśupata</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> school of Shaivism founded by <a href="/wiki/Lakulisha" title="Lakulisha">Lakulisha</a> (≈2nd century CE).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Śaiva Siddhānta</a>, a school of dualistic <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> which was strongly influenced by Samkhya.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijña</a> (recognition) school of <a href="/wiki/Utpaladeva" title="Utpaladeva">Utpaladeva</a> (10th century) and <a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a> (975–1025 CE), a form of non-dual Shaiva <a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantra</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a>, the mercurial school</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of <a href="/wiki/Spho%E1%B9%ADa" title="Sphoṭa">Sphoṭa</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heterodox_or_Śramaṇic_schools"><span id="Heterodox_or_.C5.9Arama.E1.B9.87ic_schools"></span>Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Heterodox or Śramaṇic schools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></div> <p>The nāstika or heterodox schools are associated with the non-Vedic <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇic</a> traditions that existed in India since before the 6th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-reginaldray247_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reginaldray247-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa movement</a> gave rise to a diverse range of non-Vedic ideas, ranging from accepting or denying the concepts of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">atman</a>, atomism, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, extreme asceticism, strict <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">ahimsa</a> (non-violence) and <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable philosophies that arose from <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇic</a> movement were <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">early Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="Cārvāka">Cārvāka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jain_philosophy">Jain philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jain philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a> deals extensively with the problems of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divinity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> is essentially a <a href="/wiki/Transtheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transtheistic">transtheistic</a> religion of ancient India.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 182">: 182 </span></sup> It continues the ancient <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Śramaṇa</i></span></a> tradition, which co-existed with the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic tradition</a> since ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">mind-body dualism</a>, denial of a <a href="/wiki/Creator_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Creator god">creative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omnipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnipotent">omnipotent</a> God, <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">karma</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_non-creationism" title="Jainism and non-creationism">eternal and uncreated universe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">non-violence</a>, the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">multiple facets of truth</a>, and morality based on <a href="/wiki/Moksa_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moksa (Jainism)">liberation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(Jainism)" title="Jīva (Jainism)">soul</a>. Jain philosophy attempts to explain the rationale of being and existence, the nature of the Universe and its constituents, the nature of the bondage and the means to achieve liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has often been described as an <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> movement for its strong emphasis on self-control, austerities, and renunciation.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been called a model of philosophical <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of the soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions, and that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The contribution of the Jains in the development of Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain philosophical concepts like <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">Ahimsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">Karma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moksa_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moksa (Jainism)">Moksa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samsara_(Jainism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara (Jainism)">Samsara</a>, and the like are common with other <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a> like <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in various forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Zydenbos_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zydenbos-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Jainism traces its philosophy from teachings of <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankaras</a>, various Jain philosophers from <a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umasvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Umasvati">Umasvati</a> in ancient times to <a href="/wiki/Yashovijaya" title="Yashovijaya">Yasovijaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a> in recent times have contributed to Indian philosophical discourse in uniquely Jain ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cārvāka"><span id="C.C4.81rv.C4.81ka"></span>Cārvāka</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cārvāka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a> or Lokāyata was an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheistic</a> philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">scepticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, who rejected the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and all associated supernatural doctrines.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Cārvāka deemed the Vedas to be tainted by the three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology.<sup id="cite_ref-page4_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-page4-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They declared the Vedas to be incoherent rhapsodies invented by humans whose only usefulness was to provide a livelihood to priests.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking the concept of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">liberation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a>, and accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a> or demerit through karma.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They believed the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the "reasoning of fools".<sup id="cite_ref-page4_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-page4-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cārvāka <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> holds perception as the primary source of knowledge while rejecting inference which can be invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary texts of <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Barhaspatya_sutras" title="Barhaspatya sutras">Barhaspatya sutras</a> (c. 600 BCE) have been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ājīvika"><span id=".C4.80j.C4.ABvika"></span>Ājīvika</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ājīvika"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Makkhali_Gosala" title="Makkhali Gosala">Makkhali Gosala</a>, it was a <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa movement</a> and a major rival of <a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">early Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources of ancient Hindu Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the Ajivikas.<sup id="cite_ref-Basham,_A.L._1951_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basham,_A.L._1951-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ājīvika school is known for its <i>Niyati</i> doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.<sup id="cite_ref-Basham,_A.L._1951_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Basham,_A.L._1951-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-james22_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-james22-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ājīvika considered the <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a> doctrine as a fallacy.<sup id="cite_ref-philtarajiv_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philtarajiv-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ājīvikas were atheists<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and rejected the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, but they believed that in every living being is an <i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">ātman</a></i> – a central premise of Hinduism and Jainism.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ajñana"><span id="Aj.C3.B1ana"></span>Ajñana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ajñana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a> was a Śramaṇa school of radical Indian skepticism and a rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions;<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were seen as sophists who specialized in refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own. <a href="/wiki/Jayar%C4%81%C5%9Bi_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa">Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa</a> (fl. c. 800), the author of the skeptical work entitled <i>Tattvopaplavasiṃha</i> ("The Lion that Devours All Categories"/"The Upsetting of All Principles"), has been seen as an important Ajñana philosopher.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhist_philosophies">Buddhist philosophies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Buddhist philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda_university.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/220px-Nalanda_university.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/330px-Nalanda_university.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/440px-Nalanda_university.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption>The Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/220px--Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="24" data-mwtitle="Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery,_2013.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery,_2013.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3b/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm/Monks_debating_at_Sera_monastery%2C_2013.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Monks debating at <a href="/wiki/Sera_monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sera monastery">Sera monastery</a>, Tibet, 2013</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> begins with the thought of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> (fl. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and is preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts#Texts_of_the_Early_schools" title="Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>. It generally refers to the philosophical investigations that developed among various <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist schools">Buddhist schools</a> in India and later spread throughout Asia through the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>. Buddhist thought is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It is the dominant philosophical tradition in <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and Southeast Asian countries like <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>'s main concern is soteriological, defined as freedom from <a href="/wiki/Dukkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukkha">dukkha</a> (unease).<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because <a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">ignorance</a> of the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering, Buddhist thinkers concerned themselves with philosophical questions related to epistemology and the use of reason.<sup id="cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key Buddhist concepts include the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a> (not-self) a critique of a fixed <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a>, the transience of all things (<a href="/wiki/Anicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anicca">Anicca</a>), and a certain <a href="/wiki/The_unanswered_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="The unanswered questions">skepticism about metaphysical questions</a>. Buddhist thinkers in India and subsequently in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> have covered topics as varied as <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of time">philosophy of time</a>. </p><p>Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed '<a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a>'. <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> developed the theories of <a href="/wiki/Shunyata" class="mw-redirect" title="Shunyata">Shunyata</a> (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology or <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a> (c. 480–540) school of <a href="/wiki/Pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87a" class="mw-redirect" title="Pramāṇa">Pramāṇa</a> promoted a complex form of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist logic">Buddhist logic</a>. This tradition contributed to what has been called an "epistemological turn" in Indian philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the work of <a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a>, this tradition of Buddhist logic has become the major epistemological system used in <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Buddhist">Tibetan Buddhist</a> philosophy and debate.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan Buddhist">Tibetan Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian Buddhist">East Asian Buddhist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theravada_Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravada Buddhist">Theravada Buddhist</a> traditions. In Tibet, the Indian tradition continued to be developed under the work of thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tsongkhapa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ju_Mipham" class="mw-redirect" title="Ju Mipham">Ju Mipham</a>. In <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>, new developments were led by <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">East Asian Yogacara</a> thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramartha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wŏnhyo</a> and East Asian Madhyamaka thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a>. New sinitic schools also arose, like <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a>, defended by figures like <a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>, which included philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Guifeng Zongmi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhist_modernism">Buddhist modernism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Buddhist modernism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy#Modern_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy § Modern philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg/220px-Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg/330px-Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg/440px-Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> and <a href="/wiki/DT_Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="DT Suzuki">DT Suzuki</a> during his visit to China in 1934</figcaption></figure> <p>The modern period saw the rise of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a> under Western influences and the development of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western Buddhism</a> with influences from modern psychology and Western philosophy. Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a> (1864–1933) and the American convert <a href="/wiki/Henry_Steel_Olcott" title="Henry Steel Olcott">Henry Steel Olcott</a>, the Chinese modernists <a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a> (1890–1947) and <a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a> (1906–2005), Zen scholar <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D.T. Suzuki</a>, and the Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Gend%C3%BCn_Ch%C3%B6phel" title="Gendün Chöphel">Gendün Chöphel</a> (1903–1951). Buddhist modernism refers to "forms of Buddhism that have emerged out of engagement with the dominant cultural and intellectual forces of modernity."<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forces which influenced modernists like <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dhammapala" class="mw-redirect" title="Anagarika Dhammapala">Dhammapala</a> and Yin Shun included Enlightenment values and Western science. A <a href="/wiki/Neo-Buddhist_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Buddhist movement">Neo-Buddhist movement</a> was founded by the influential Indian <a href="/wiki/Dalit" title="Dalit">Dalit</a> leader <a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a> in the 1950s who emphasized social and political reform.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Buddhist modernism includes various movements like <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a>. Chinese <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">humanistic Buddhism</a> or "Buddhism for Human Life" (Chinese: 人生佛教; pinyin: rénshēng fójiào) which was to be free of supernatural beliefs has also been an influential form of modern Buddhism in Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-mbingenheimer.net_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mbingenheimer.net-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sikh_philosophy">Sikh philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sikh philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sikh_religious_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh religious philosophy">Sikh religious philosophy</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> is an Indian religion developed by <a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> (1469–1539) in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab (region)">Punjab region</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Era</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Their main sacred text is the <i><a href="/wiki/Guru_Granth_Sahib" title="Guru Granth Sahib">Guru Granth Sahib</a>.</i> The fundamental beliefs include constant spiritual meditation of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">God</a>'s name, being guided by the Guru instead of yielding to capriciousness, living a householder's life instead of monasticism, truthful action to <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a> (righteousness, moral duty), equality of all human beings, and believing in God's grace.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Key concepts include <i><a href="/wiki/Simran_(Sanskrit_word)" class="mw-redirect" title="Simran (Sanskrit word)">Simran</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Selfless_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfless service">Seva</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pillars_of_Sikhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Pillars of Sikhism">Three Pillars of Sikhism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Five_Thieves" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Thieves">Five Thieves</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Indian_philosophy">Modern Indian philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Modern Indian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg/220px-Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg/330px-Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg/440px-Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1123" /></a><figcaption>From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Virchand_Gandhi" title="Virchand Gandhi">Virchand Gandhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._Bonet_Maury" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Bonet Maury">G. Bonet Maury</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_World%27s_Religions" title="Parliament of the World's Religions">Parliament of World Religions</a>, 1893</figcaption></figure> <p>In response to <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> and their contact with <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, 19th-century Indians developed new ways of thinking now termed <a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a> and Hindu modernism. Their ideas focused on the universality of Indian philosophy (particularly Vedanta) and the unity of different religions. It was during this period that Hindu modernists presented a single idealized and united "<a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>." exemplified by the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were also influenced by Western ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these movements was that of the <a href="/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj" title="Brahmo Samaj">Brahmo Samaj</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ram_Mohan_Roy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ram Mohan Roy">Ram Mohan Roy</a> (1772–1833).<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a> (1863–1902) was very influential in developing the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Hindu reform movements</a> and in bringing the worldview to the West.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the work of Indians like Vivekananda as well as westerners such as the proponents of the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical society</a>, modern Hindu thought also influenced western culture.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_West" title="Hinduism in the West">Hinduism in the West</a></div> <p>The political thought of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Hindu nationalism</a> is also another important current in modern Indian thought. The work of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deendayal_Upadhyaya" title="Deendayal Upadhyaya">Deendayal Upadhyaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krishna_Chandra_Bhattacharya" title="Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya">Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan</a> has had a large impact on modern Indian philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> also had its modern interpreters and defenders, such as <a href="/wiki/Virchand_Gandhi" title="Virchand Gandhi">Virchand Gandhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Champat_Rai_Jain" title="Champat Rai Jain">Champat Rai Jain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shrimad_Rajchandra" title="Shrimad Rajchandra">Shrimad Rajchandra</a> (well known as a spiritual guide of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="East_Asian_philosophies">East Asian philosophies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: East Asian philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Pyd.jpg/220px-Pyd.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Pyd.jpg/330px-Pyd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Pyd.jpg/440px-Pyd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption>One of the main halls of the <i><a href="/wiki/Guozijian" title="Guozijian">Guozijian</a></i> (Imperial College) in downtown <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, the highest institution of higher learning in pre-modern China</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese">Chinese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>East Asian philosophical thought began in <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Ancient_China" title="History of China">Ancient China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> begins during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a> dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the "<a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>" flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pe_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pe-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major Chinese philosophical schools (<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>) as well as numerous less influential schools (<a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Yin_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Yin Yang">School of Yin Yang</a>). These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political, and ethical theories which, along with <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, had a direct influence on the rest of <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">the East Asian cultural sphere</a>. Buddhism began arriving in China during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BCE–220 CE), through a <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">gradual Silk road transmission</a> and gradually developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confucianism">Confucianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Confucianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konfuzius-1770.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/163px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg" decoding="async" width="163" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/244px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/325px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> (孔教, <i>Kǒngjiào</i> — "Confucius' doctrine"), also known as "Ruism" (<i>Rújiào</i> — "doctrine of the scholars"), is a Chinese philosophical system with ritual, moral, and religious applications.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tradition developed around the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (<i>Kǒng Fūzǐ</i>, 孔夫子, "Master Kong", 551–479 BCE) who saw himself as transmitting the values and theology of the ancestors before him.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other influential classical Confucian philosophers include <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xun Kuang</a> who famously disagreed on the innate moral nature of humans. </p><p>Confucianism focuses on humanistic values like familial and social harmony, <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a> (孝, <i>xiào</i>), <i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Rén</a></i> (仁, "benevolence" or "humaneness") and <i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Lǐ</a></i> (禮/礼) which is a system of ritual norms that determines how a person should act to be in harmony with the law of Heaven. Confucianism traditionally holds that these values are based on the transcendent principle known as <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Heaven</a> (<i>Tiān</i> 天), and also includes the belief in spirits or gods (<i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shén</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confucianism was a major ideology of the imperial state during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BCE–220 CE) and was revived as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907). During later Chinese dynasties like <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1297) and the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean <a href="/wiki/Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon dynasty">Joseon dynasty</a> (1392–1897) a resurgent <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> led by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> (1130–1200) and <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. Beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucian_classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian classics">Confucian classics</a> were the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_exams" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial exams">imperial exams</a> and became the core philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Scholar-officials" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholar-officials">scholar-official class</a>. Confucianism suffered setbacks during the 20th century, but is recently undergoing a revival, which is termed <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, East Asian cultures and countries in the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">cultural sphere</a> are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of China">Mainland China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Hong_Kong" title="Culture of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Macau" title="Culture of Macau">Macau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Japan" title="Culture of Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Korea" title="Culture of Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Taiwan" title="Culture of Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Vietnam" title="Culture of Vietnam">Vietnam</a> as well as various overseas territories settled predominantly by <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Overseas Chinese</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Singapore" title="Culture of Singapore">Singapore</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legalism">Legalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> (法家，<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>Fǎjiā;</i> school of "methods" or "standards")<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a philosophical tradition which focused on laws, realpolitik, and bureaucratic management.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Largely ignoring <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> or idealized views of how society should be, they focused on the pragmatic <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> through the power of the <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocrat</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. Their goal was to achieve increased order, security, and stability.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were initially influenced by Mohist ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key figure of this school was administrator and political philosopher <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> (c. 400–337 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another central figure, <a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a> (390–338 BCE), was a leading statesman and reformer who transformed the <a href="/wiki/Qin_(state)" title="Qin (state)">Qin state</a> into the dominant power that conquered the rest of China in 221 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shen's successor <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a> (c. 280–233 BCE) synthesized the thought of the other Legalists in his <a href="/wiki/Eponym" title="Eponym">eponymous</a> text, the <i><a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a>,</i> one of the most influential Legalist texts which was used by successive Chinese statesmen and rulers as a guide for statesmanship and bureaucratic organization of the imperial state.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mohism">Mohism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mohism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> (墨家，<i>Mòjiā</i>; "School of Mo"), was founded by <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> (c. 470–391 BCE) and his students. It was a major school of thought and rival of Confucianism and Taoism during the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> periods (c. 770–221 BCE). The main text of the school is the <a href="/wiki/Mozi_(book)" title="Mozi (book)"><i>Mozi</i> (book)</a>. The administrative thought of Mohism was later absorbed by Legalism, their ethics absorbed into Confucianism and its books were also merged into the <a href="/wiki/Taoist_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist canon">Taoist canon</a>, as Mohism all but disappeared as an independent school after the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> era. </p><p>Mohism is best known for the idea of "impartial care" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 兼愛; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>jiān ài</i>; literally: "inclusive love/care").<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Master Mo, persons should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to them. Mo also advocated impartial <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> in government which should be based on talent, not blood relations. Mozi was against Confucian ritualism, instead emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic</a> survival through farming, <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">statecraft</a>. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize the general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the <i>Will of Heaven</i>, but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>. </p><p>Mohism was also associated with and influenced by a separate philosophical school known as the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a> (<i>Míngjiā</i>; also known as 'Logicians'), that focused on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taoism">Taoism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Taoism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg/231px-WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg" decoding="async" width="231" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg/347px-WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg/462px-WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4110" data-file-height="2846" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a>, embroidery, 1860–1880</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist philosophy</a></div> <p>Taoism (or Daoism) is a term for various philosophies and religious systems that emphasize harmony with the <i><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 道; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>Dào</i>; literally: "the Way") which is seen as the principle which is the source, pattern, and substance of everything that exists.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Taoism tends to emphasize virtues such as <i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a></i> (effortless action), <i><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">ziran</a></i> (naturalness), <a href="/wiki/Pu_(Daoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu (Daoism)"><i>pu</i></a> (simplicity), and spontaneity while placing less emphasis on norms and ritual (as opposed to Confucianism). The <a href="/wiki/Taoism_and_death" title="Taoism and death">attainment of immortality</a> through external alchemy (<a href="/wiki/Waidan" title="Waidan">waidan</a>) and internal alchemy (<a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">neidan</a>) was an important goal for many Taoists historically.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early forms of Taoism developed in the 4th century BCE, influenced by the cosmological theories of the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a>.</i> The School of Naturalists or Yin-yang was another philosophical school that synthesized the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Yin-yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Yin-yang">yin-yang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Five_elements_(Chinese_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five elements (Chinese philosophy)">Five Elements</a>; <a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a> is considered the founder.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Dao_De_Jing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao De Jing">Dao De Jing</a></i> (<i>Tao-Te-Ching,</i> c. 4th century BCE), traditionally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Nan Hua Jing</a></i> (<i>Zhuang Zi</i>) are considered the key texts of the tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first organized form of Taoism, the <a href="/wiki/Tianshi_Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Tianshi Dao">Tianshi</a> (Celestial Masters') school arose in the 2nd century CE. <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a> ("deep learning", also "Neo-Taoism") was a major philosophical movement influenced by Confucian scholarship, which focused on the interpretation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Yijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Yijing">Yijing</a>,</i> <i><a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a>,</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i> and which flourished during the third to sixth centuries CE.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important philosophers of this movement were <a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thinkers like He Yan and Wang Bi focused on the deep nature of Tao, which they saw as being best exemplified by the term "Wu" (nothingness, non-being, negativity).<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other schools rose to prominence throughout Chinese history, such as the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing school</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (618–907), the <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao school</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) and the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a> which develop during the 13th–14th centuries and during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later Taoist traditions were also influenced by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_East_Asian_philosophy">Modern East Asian philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Modern East Asian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chinese_2">Chinese</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Chinese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg/220px-%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg/330px-%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg/440px-%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1422" data-file-height="1832" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a> circa 1960</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern Chinese thought is generally seen as being rooted in Classical Confucianism (<i>Jingxue</i>), Neo-Confucianism (<i>Lixue</i>), Buddhism, Daoism, and <i>Xixue</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Western_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Western learning">Western Learning</a>" which arose during the late <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Opium_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Opium war">Opium war of 1839–42</a> saw the beginning of Western and Japanese invasions and exploitation of China which was humiliating to Chinese thinkers. The late 19th and early 20th century saw Chinese thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhidong" title="Zhang Zhidong">Zhang Zhidong</a> looking to Western practical knowledge as a way to preserve traditional Chinese culture, a doctrine that he defined as "Chinese Learning as Substance and Western Learning as Function" (<i>Zhongti Xiyong</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The traditionalists meanwhile sought to revive and fortify traditional Chinese philosophical schools. Chinese Buddhist thought was promoted by thinkers like Yang Rensan and Ou-Yang Jingwu<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while another influential movement is <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a> (Chinese: 新儒家; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i>xīn rú jiā</i>). New Confucianism is a traditionalist revival of Confucian thought in China beginning in the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republican China</a> which is also associated with <a href="/wiki/New_Conservatism_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Conservatism (China)">New Conservatism</a>. Key New Confucians of the first generation are <a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Fung Youlan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second generation (1950–1979) include individuals like <a href="/wiki/Tang_Junyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Junyi">Tang Junyi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xu_Fuguan" title="Xu Fuguan">Xu Fuguan</a>, all three students of Xiong Shili. Together with <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Junmai" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Junmai">Zhang Junmai</a>, the second generation published the <a href="/wiki/A_Manifesto_for_a_Re-appraisal_of_Sinology_and_Reconstruction_of_Chinese_Culture" title="A Manifesto for a Re-appraisal of Sinology and Reconstruction of Chinese Culture">New Confucian Manifesto</a> in 1958. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japanese">Japanese</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Japanese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FukuzawaYukichi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/FukuzawaYukichi.jpg/220px-FukuzawaYukichi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/FukuzawaYukichi.jpg/330px-FukuzawaYukichi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/FukuzawaYukichi.jpg/440px-FukuzawaYukichi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fukuzawa_Yukichi" title="Fukuzawa Yukichi">Fukuzawa Yukichi</a> (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern Japanese thought is strongly influenced by Western science and philosophy. Japan's rapid modernization was partly aided by the early study of western science (known as <a href="/wiki/Rangaku" title="Rangaku">Rangaku</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> (1603–1868). Another intellectual movement during the Edo period was <a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a> (national study), which sought to focus on the study of ancient Japanese thought, classic texts, and culture over and against foreign Chinese and Buddhist cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key figure of this movement is <a href="/wiki/Motoori_Norinaga" title="Motoori Norinaga">Motoori Norinaga</a> (1730–1801), who argued that the essence of classic Japanese literature and culture was a sense called <a href="/wiki/Mono_no_aware" title="Mono no aware">mono no aware</a> ("sorrow at evanescence").<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a> (1868–1912), the modernist <a href="/wiki/Meirokusha" title="Meirokusha">Meirokusha</a> (Meiji 6, formed in 1874) intellectual society promoted <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">European enlightenment</a> thought. Meirokusha philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Mori_Arinori" title="Mori Arinori">Mori Arinori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nishi_Amane" title="Nishi Amane">Nishi Amane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fukuzawa_Yukichi" title="Fukuzawa Yukichi">Fukuzawa Yukichi</a> sought ways to combine Western ideas with <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Japan" title="Culture of Japan">Japanese culture</a> and values. The <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dwa_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōwa period">Shōwa period</a> (1926–1989) saw the rise of <a href="/wiki/State_Shinto" title="State Shinto">State Shinto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statism_in_Sh%C5%8Dwa_Japan" title="Statism in Shōwa Japan">Japanese nationalism</a>. </p><p>Japanese Buddhist philosophy was influenced by the work of the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a> which drew from western philosophers (especially German philosophy) and Buddhist thought and included <a href="/wiki/Kitaro_Nishida" title="Kitaro Nishida">Kitaro Nishida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keiji_Nishitani" title="Keiji Nishitani">Keiji Nishitani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Tanabe" title="Hajime Tanabe">Hajime Tanabe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Masao_Abe" title="Masao Abe">Masao Abe</a>. The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought after the formation of the Kyoto school is <a href="/wiki/Critical_Buddhism" title="Critical Buddhism">Critical Buddhism</a>, which argues against several Mahayana concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Buddha_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha nature">Buddha-nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hongaku" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongaku">original enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mbingenheimer.net_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mbingenheimer.net-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Korean">North Korean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: North Korean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></div> <p>Juche, usually translated as "self-reliance", is the official political <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, described by the regime as <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il-Sung" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Il-Sung">Kim Il-Sung</a>'s "original, brilliant and revolutionary contribution to national and international thought".<sup id="cite_ref-North_Korea:_State_of_Paranoia_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-North_Korea:_State_of_Paranoia-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea states that an individual is "the master of his destiny"<sup id="cite_ref-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the North Korean masses are to act as the "masters of the revolution and construction".<sup id="cite_ref-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntheses_of_Eastern_and_Western_philosophy">Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Syntheses of Eastern and Western philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and Western Philosophy">Buddhism and Western Philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennial philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intercultural_philosophy" title="Intercultural philosophy">Intercultural philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Eastern_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Eastern philosophy">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the modern era, there have been many attempts to integrate Western and Eastern philosophical traditions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> developed a philosophy that was essentially a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> with Western thought. He anticipated that the <i><a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishads</a></i> (primary <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> scriptures) would have a much greater influence in the West than they have had. However, Schopenhauer was working with heavily flawed early translations (and sometimes second-degree translations), and many feel that he may not necessarily have accurately grasped the Eastern philosophies which interested him.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent attempts to incorporate Western philosophy into Eastern thought include the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a> of philosophers, who combined the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Husserl" class="mw-redirect" title="Husserl">Husserl</a> with the insights of <a href="/wiki/Zen_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zen Buddhism">Zen Buddhism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Watsuji_Tetsuro" class="mw-redirect" title="Watsuji Tetsuro">Watsuji Tetsurô</a>, a 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japanese</a> philosopher attempted to combine the works of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, Nietzsche, and Heidegger with Eastern philosophies. Some have claimed that there is also a definite eastern element within <a href="/wiki/Heidegger" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidegger">Heidegger</a>'s philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the most part, this is not made explicit within Heidegger's philosophy, apart from in the dialogue between a Japanese and inquirer. Heidegger did spend time attempting to translate the Tao Te Ching into German, working with his Chinese student Paul Hsaio. It has also been claimed that much of Heidegger's later philosophy, particularly the sacredness of Being, bears a distinct similarity to Taoist ideas. There are clear parallels between Heidegger and the work of Kyoto School, and ultimately, it may be read that Heidegger's philosophy is an attempt to 'turn eastwards' in response to the crisis in Western civilization. However, this is only an interpretation. </p><p>The 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a> <a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Sri Aurobindo</a> was influenced by <a href="/wiki/German_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="German Idealism">German Idealism</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">integral yoga</a> is regarded as a synthesis of Eastern and Western thought. The German <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Gebser" title="Jean Gebser">Jean Gebser</a>'s writings on the history of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> referred to a new planetary consciousness that would bridge this gap. Followers of these two authors are often grouped together under the term Integral thought. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> in 1911 and the end of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, the <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a> sought to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China (such as the old civil service system). There were two major philosophical trends during this period. One was anti-traditional and promoted Western learning and ideas. A key figure of this anti-traditional current was <a href="/wiki/Yan_Fu" title="Yan Fu">Yan Fu</a> (1853–1921) who translated various Western philosophical works including Smith's The <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">Wealth of Nations</a> and Mill's <a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also attempts to incorporate Western ideas of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> into Chinese political philosophy, notably by <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-Sen" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun Yat-Sen">Sun Yat-Sen</a> (1866–1925) at the beginning of the 20th century. Another influential modern Chinese philosopher was <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a>, who was a student of <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> at Columbia University and who promoted a form of pragmatism. </p><p>The influence of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> on modern Chinese political thought is vast, especially through the work of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, the most famous thinker of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxist Philosophy">Chinese Marxist Philosophy</a>. Maoism is a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_philosophy" title="Chinese Marxist philosophy">Chinese Marxist philosophy</a> based on the teachings of the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> revolutionary leader <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>. It is based partially on earlier theories by Marx and Lenin, but rejects the urban <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninist</a> emphasis on heavy industrialization in favor of a revolution supported by the peasantry, and a decentralized agrarian economy based on many collectively worked farms. The current government of the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> continues to espouse a pragmatic form of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_the_Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Ideology of the Chinese Communist Party">its official party ideology</a> which it calls <a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a>. When the Chinese Communist Party <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">took over</a> the reign, previous schools of thought such as Taoism and Confucianism (except <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>) were denounced as backward, and later purged during the violence of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> which saw many Taoist and Buddhist temples and institutions destroyed. </p><p>Swiss psychologist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> was deeply influenced by the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> (Book of Changes), an ancient Chinese text that dates back to the Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (c. 1700–1050 BCE). It uses a system of Yin and Yang, which it places into hexagrams for the purposes of divination. Carl Jung's idea of <a href="/wiki/Synchronicity" title="Synchronicity">synchronicity</a> moves towards an Oriental view of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>, as he states in the foreword to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching#Influence_on_Western_culture" title="I Ching">I Ching</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He explains that this Chinese view of the world is based not on science as the West knows it, but on chance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the British philosopher Victoria S. Harrison, the category of "Eastern philosophy", and similarly "Asian philosophy" and "Oriental philosophy" is a product of 19th-century Western scholarship and did not exist in East Asia or India. This is because in Asia there is no single unified philosophical tradition with a single root, but various autonomous traditions that have come into contact with each other over time.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentric</a> thinkers claim that philosophy as such is only characteristic of Western cultures. The German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> is reported to have said that only Greek and German languages are suitable for philosophizing.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiegel_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiegel-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is still commonplace in Western universities to teach only Western philosophy and to ignore Asian philosophy altogether, or consider only newer Western-influenced Asian thought proper "philosophy". Carine Defoort, herself a specialist in Chinese thought, has offered support for such a "family" view of philosophy,<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Rein_Raud" title="Rein Raud">Rein Raud</a> has presented an argument<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> against it and offered a more flexible <a href="/wiki/Definition_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Definition of philosophy">definition of philosophy</a> that would include both Western and Asian thought on equal terms. In response, Ouyang Min argues that philosophy proper is a Western cultural practice and essentially different from <i>zhexue</i>, which is what the Chinese have,<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though <i>zhexue</i> (originally <i>tetsugaku</i>) is actually a neologism coined in 1873 by <a href="/wiki/Nishi_Amane" title="Nishi Amane">Nishi Amane</a> for describing Western philosophy as opposed to traditional Asian thought.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_ethics_in_business" title="Eastern ethics in business">Eastern ethics in business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern religions</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/18px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/28px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/37px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/21px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/42px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/12px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/19px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/25px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/21px-Draig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/32px-Draig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Draig.svg/42px-Draig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="475" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-definition-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-definition_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition", "a way of life" (<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200312–13_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200312–13-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood20081–17_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood20081–17-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lockard-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lockard_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard 2007</a>, p. 50: "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Aryan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_peoples" title="Dravidian peoples">Dravidian</a> occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." <a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard 2007</a>, p. 52: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hiltebeitel-synthesis-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hiltebeitel-synthesis_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 12: "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of "Hindu synthesis," Brahmanic synthesis," or "orthodox synthesis," takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency" (c. 320–467 CE)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Among its roots are the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (<a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 16) and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans (<a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, pp. 48–53), but also the religions of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200752_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200752-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20073_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20073-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006xviii_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006xviii-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">Sramana</a> or renouncer traditions of <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">north-east India</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGomez201342_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGomez201342-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "popular or <a href="/wiki/Adivasi" title="Adivasi">local traditions</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Source1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Source1_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElmanDuncanOoms2005" class="citation book cs1">Elman, Benjamin A.; Duncan, John B.; Ooms, Herman (2005). <i>Rethinking Confucianism: Past and present in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Confucianism%3A+Past+and+present+in+China%2C+Japan%2C+Korea%2C+and+Vietnam&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Elman&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+A.&rft.au=Duncan%2C+John+B.&rft.au=Ooms%2C+Herman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ram-Prasad, Chakravarthi; "Eastern philosophy" (2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard, Friedrichs; <i>Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion</i> (1994)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=darzana&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0">"Spoken Sanskrit, <i>darzana</i>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160106200706/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=darzana&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spoken+Sanskrit%2C+darzana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspokensanskrit.de%2Findex.php%3Ftinput%3Ddarzana%26direction%3DSE%26script%3DHK%26link%3Dyes%26beginning%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larson, Gerald James (1995) <i>India's Agony over religion </i> SUNY Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-2412-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-2412-X">0-7914-2412-X</a>. "There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder" per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. p. 27"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joel Diederik Beversluis (2000) In: <i>Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality</i>, New World Library: Novato, CA <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57731-121-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57731-121-3">1-57731-121-3</a> Originating on the Indian sub-continent, Jainism is one of the oldest religion of its homeland and indeed the world, having pre-historic origins before 3000 BC and the propagation of Indo-Aryan culture.... p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jainism by Mrs. <a href="/wiki/Natalya_Romanovna_Guseva" title="Natalya Romanovna Guseva">N.R. Guseva</a> p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-760-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85229-760-5">978-0-85229-760-5</a>, p. 316</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESharma200312–13-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESharma200312–13_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma2003">Sharma 2003</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood20081–17-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood20081–17_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood2008">Flood 2008</a>, pp. 1–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENath200131-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENath200131_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNath2001">Nath 2001</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgis201062-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgis201062_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeorgis2010">Georgis 2010</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx">"The Global Religious Landscape – Hinduism"</a>. <i>A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010</i>. The pew foundation. 18 December 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130506104814/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+Report+on+the+Size+and+Distribution+of+the+World%27s+Major+Religious+Groups+as+of+2010&rft.atitle=The+Global+Religious+Landscape+%E2%80%93+Hinduism&rft.date=2012-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2Fglobal-religious-landscape-hindu.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowker2000-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowker2000_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowker2000">Bowker 2000</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2001xiii-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarvey2001xiii_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarvey2001">Harvey 2001</a>, p. xiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnott19985-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnott19985_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnott19985_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnott1998">Knott 1998</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel2010193_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSamuel2010">Samuel 2010</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel200712_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199616-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199616_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200750-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200750_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard 2007</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENarayanan200911_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNarayanan2009">Narayanan 2009</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELockard200752-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELockard200752_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLockard2007">Lockard 2007</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20073-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel20073_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2007">Hiltebeitel 2007</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006xviii-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006xviii_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesRyan2006">Jones & Ryan 2006</a>, p. xviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGomez201342-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGomez201342_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGomez2013">Gomez 2013</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsborne20059_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOsborne2005">Osborne 2005</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy_W._Perrett2001" class="citation book cs1">Roy W. Perrett (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC"><i>Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3608-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3608-2"><bdi>978-0-8153-3608-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144429/https://books.google.com/books?id=okkLgRTQ8mIC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Philosophy%3A+Metaphysics&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3608-2&rft.au=Roy+W.+Perrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DokkLgRTQ8mIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_H_Phillips2013" class="citation book cs1">Stephen H Phillips (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ij4yOAP_6fcC"><i>Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-51898-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-51898-0"><bdi>978-1-136-51898-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemology+in+Classical+India%3A+The+Knowledge+Sources+of+the+Nyaya+School&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-51898-0&rft.au=Stephen+H+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dij4yOAP_6fcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArvind_Sharma1982" class="citation book cs1">Arvind Sharma (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=USBtAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology</i></a>. Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789993624318" title="Special:BookSources/9789993624318"><bdi>9789993624318</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rthas%3A+a+study+in+Hindu+axiology&rft.pub=Asian+Studies+Center%2C+Michigan+State+University&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9789993624318&rft.au=Arvind+Sharma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUSBtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span>;<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurusottama_BilimoriaJoseph_PrabhuRenuka_M._Sharma2007" class="citation book cs1">Purusottama Bilimoria; Joseph Prabhu; Renuka M. Sharma (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g78Cw4xQmsMC"><i>Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges</i></a>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3301-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3301-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-3301-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Ethics%3A+Classical+traditions+and+contemporary+challenges&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3301-3&rft.au=Purusottama+Bilimoria&rft.au=Joseph+Prabhu&rft.au=Renuka+M.+Sharma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg78Cw4xQmsMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMohan_Lal19924333–4334-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMohan_Lal19924333–4334_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMohan_Lal1992">Mohan Lal 1992</a>, pp. 4333–4334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973156–171-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamil_Zvelebil1973156–171_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973">Kamil Zvelebil 1973</a>, pp. 156–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESundaram,_1990xiii–xvii,_Appendix_note_on_verse_1103-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESundaram,_1990xiii–xvii,_Appendix_note_on_verse_1103_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSundaram,_1990">Sundaram, 1990</a>, pp. xiii–xvii, Appendix note on verse 1103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaushik_Roy2012152–154,_context:_144–154_(Chapter:_Hinduism_and_the_Ethics_of_Warfare_in_South_Asia)-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaushik_Roy2012152–154,_context:_144–154_(Chapter:_Hinduism_and_the_Ethics_of_Warfare_in_South_Asia)_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaushik_Roy2012">Kaushik Roy 2012</a>, pp. 152–154, context: 144–154 (Chapter: Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwamiji_Iraianban199713-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwamiji_Iraianban199713_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSwamiji_Iraianban1997">Swamiji Iraianban 1997</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson,_2009-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson,_2009_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson,_2009">Johnson, 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPillai,_201575-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPillai,_201575_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPillai,_2015">Pillai, 2015</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandall_Collins2009" class="citation book cs1">Randall Collins (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC"><i>he Sociology of Philosophies</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 184–185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02977-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02977-4"><bdi>978-0-674-02977-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230111053959/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Oxford University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936008-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936008-6"><bdi>978-0-19-936008-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144429/https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3067-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3067-5">978-0-7914-3067-5</a>, p. 238</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-94-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-94-3">978-1-898723-94-3</a>, p. 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Leaman (2006), Nyaya, in <i>Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy</i>, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0">978-0-415-86253-0</a>, pp. 405–407</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P Bilimoria and JN Mohanty (2003), Relativism, Suffering and Beyond, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566207-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566207-8">978-0-19-566207-8</a>, pp. i–ix with Introduction and Chapter 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-12627-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-12627-4">978-0-521-12627-4</a>, p. 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8109-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8109-7">978-1-4419-8109-7</a>, p. 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto">Analytical philosophy in early modern India</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190318135737/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto">Archived</a> 18 March 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika#CITEREFRadhakrishnan2006" title="Vaisheshika">Radhakrishnan 2006</a>, pp. 183–186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oliver_Leaman_2006-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_2006_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_2006_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oliver_Leaman_2006_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in <i>Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy</i>, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0">978-0-415-86253-0</a>, p. 503</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter M. Scharf, <i>The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy</i> (1996), Chapter 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in <i>Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy</i> (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0">978-0-415-86253-0</a>, pp. 443–445</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Coward" title="Harold Coward">Coward, Harold</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C"><i>The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C">Archived</a> 6 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. p. 114. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7336-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7336-8">978-0-7914-7336-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Vedanta#CITEREFRanganathan" title="Vedanta">Ranganathan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Vedanta#CITEREFHiriyanna1948" title="Vedanta">Hiriyanna 1948</a>, pp. 19, 21–25, 150–152; <a href="/wiki/Vedanta#CITEREFGrimes1990" title="Vedanta">Grimes 1990</a>, pp. 6–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03%E2%80%93DiffVedantas.pdf">Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, <i>Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools</i></a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reginaldray247-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reginaldray247_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reginald Ray (1999), Buddhist Saints in India, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513483-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513483-4">978-0-19-513483-4</a>, pp. 237–240, 247–249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Padmanabh S Jaini (2001), Collected papers on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1776-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1776-0">978-81-208-1776-0</a>, pp. 57–77</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1204-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1204-8">978-81-208-1204-8</a>, pp. 94–103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer1969" class="citation book cs1">Zimmer, Heinrich (1969). Joseph Campbell (ed.). <i>Philosophies of India</i>. New York: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01758-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01758-7"><bdi>978-0-691-01758-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophies+of+India&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01758-7&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSangave2001" class="citation book cs1">Sangave, Dr. Vilas A. (2001). <i>Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture</i>. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-839-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-839-2"><bdi>978-81-7154-839-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facets+of+Jainology%3A+Selected+Research+Papers+on+Jain+Society%2C+Religion%2C+and+Culture&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-839-2&rft.aulast=Sangave&rft.aufirst=Dr.+Vilas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOldmeadow2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Oldmeadow" title="Harry Oldmeadow">Oldmeadow, Harry</a> (2007). <i>Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West</i>. Indiana: World Wisdom Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933316-22-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933316-22-2"><bdi>978-1-933316-22-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light+from+the+East%3A+Eastern+Wisdom+for+the+Modern+West&rft.place=Indiana&rft.pub=World+Wisdom+Inc&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-933316-22-2&rft.aulast=Oldmeadow&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren2001" class="citation book cs1">Warren, Herbert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/hwarren.doc"><i>Jainism</i></a>. Delhi: Crest Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-242-0037-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-242-0037-7"><bdi>978-81-242-0037-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217001747/http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/hwarren.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pub=Crest+Publishing+House&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-242-0037-7&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fjainism%2Fdatabase%2FBOOK%2Fhwarren.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroddGregory_Sobolewski2003" class="citation book cs1">Brodd, Jeffery; Gregory Sobolewski (2003). <i>World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery</i>. Saint Mary's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5"><bdi>978-0-88489-725-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions%3A+A+Voyage+of+Discovery&rft.pub=Saint+Mary%27s+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-88489-725-5&rft.aulast=Brodd&rft.aufirst=Jeffery&rft.au=Gregory+Sobolewski&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 95–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohanty2000" class="citation book cs1">Mohanty, Jitendranath (2000). <i>Classical Indian Philosophy</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8933-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8933-0"><bdi>978-0-8476-8933-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Indian+Philosophy&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-8933-0&rft.aulast=Mohanty&rft.aufirst=Jitendranath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrithers1989" class="citation journal cs1">Carrithers, Michael (June 1989). "Naked Ascetics in Southern Digambar Jainism". <i>Man</i>. New Series. <b>24</b> (2): 219–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2803303">10.2307/2803303</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2803303">2803303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=Naked+Ascetics+in+Southern+Digambar+Jainism&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-235&rft.date=1989-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2803303&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2803303%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carrithers&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> p. 220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zydenbos-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zydenbos_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZydenbos2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Zydenbos" title="Robert J. Zydenbos">Zydenbos, Robert J.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manyaverlag.de/jtaif.html"><i>Jainism Today and Its Future</i></a>. München: Manya Verlag. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120909064758/http://www.manyaverlag.de/jtaif.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jainism+Today+and+Its+Future&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pub=Manya+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Zydenbos&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.manyaverlag.de%2Fjtaif.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1607-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1607-7">978-81-208-1607-7</a>, p. 67;</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-page4-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-page4_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-page4_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cowell, E.B.; Gough, A.E. (1882). Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7030-875-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-7030-875-5">81-7030-875-5</a>, pp. xii, 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Original Sanskrit version: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha.by.Madhavacharya-Vidyaranya.Hindi#page/n11/mode/2up">Sarva-darsana-sangraha</a>, pp. 3–7; English version: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/thesarvadarsanas00madhuoft#page/4/mode/2up">The Charvaka System</a> with commentary by Madhava Acharya, Translators: Cowell and Gough (1882), pp. 5–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bhattacharya, Ramkrishna. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.carvaka4india.com/2011/08/materialism-in-india-synoptic-view.html">Materialism in India: A Synoptic View</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091119/http://www.carvaka4india.com/2011/08/materialism-in-india-synoptic-view.html">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 27 July 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Cārvāka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13–16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charvaka#CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1957" title="Charvaka">Radhakrishnan 1957</a>, pp. 227–249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-625-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-625-5">978-1-84511-625-5</a>, p. 199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Basham,_A.L._1951-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Basham,_A.L._1951_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Basham,_A.L._1951_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Basham, A.L. (1951). History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas (2nd ed.). Chapter 1. Delhi, India: Moltilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1204-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1204-2">81-208-1204-2</a>. originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-james22-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-james22_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3179-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3179-8">978-0-8239-3179-8</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-philtarajiv-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-philtarajiv_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html">Ajivikas</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190717212839/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html">Archived</a> 17 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> World Religions Project, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cumbria" title="University of Cumbria">University of Cumbria</a>, United Kingdom</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johannes Quack (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964465-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964465-0">978-0-19-964465-0</a>, p. 654</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Analayo (2004), Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-899579-54-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-899579-54-9">978-1-899579-54-9</a>, pp. 207–208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Basham, A.L. (1951). History and Doctrines of the Ājīvikas (2nd ed.). pp. 240–261, 270–273. Delhi, India: Moltilal Banarsidass (Reprint: 2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1204-2" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1204-2">81-208-1204-2</a>. originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) (1st ed.). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. pp. 112–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Salunkhe, AH (2009). Astikshiromani Charvaka (in Marathi). Satara: Lokayat Prakashan. p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gunnar Skirbekk, Nils Gilje, <i>A history of Western thought: from ancient Greece to the twentieth century.</i> 7th edition published by Routledge, 2001, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Siderits,_Mark_2007,_page_6_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siderits, Mark. Buddhism as philosophy, 2007, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Butler, Sean (2011) "Idealism in Yogācāra Buddhism," The Hilltop Review: Vol. 4: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/hilltopreview/vol4/iss1/6">http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/hilltopreview/vol4/iss1/6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225022350/https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/hilltopreview/vol4/iss1/6/">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence J. McCrea, and Parimal G. Patil. Buddhist Philosophy of Language in India: Jnanasrimitra on Exclusion. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. p 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dreyfus, Georges B.J. <i>Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations</i>. pp. 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMahan, David L. (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary Tartakov (2003). Rowena Robinson, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ"><i>Religious Conversion in India: Modes, Motivations, and Meanings</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsoAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> 6 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 192–213. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566329-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-566329-7">978-0-19-566329-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mbingenheimer.net-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mbingenheimer.net_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mbingenheimer.net_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbingenheimer.net/publications/bingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf"><i>Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140623135303/http://mbingenheimer.net/publications/bingenheimer.yinshunRenjianFojiao.2007.pdf">Archived</a> 23 June 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (PDF). Hua-lien (Taiwan): Tzuchi University Press. pp. 141–161. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-986-7625-08-3">978-986-7625-08-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arvind-pal Singh Mandair (2014). Pashaura Singh; Louis E. Fenech, eds. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7YwNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA302"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 302–314. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100411-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100411-7">978-0-19-100411-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1995). <i>The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices</i>. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 130–133, 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yelle, Robert A. (2012), "Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different", International Journal of Hindu Studies, 16 (3): 335–348, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11407-012-9133-z">10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Halbfass, Wilhelm (2007a), "Research and reflection: Responses to my respondents. III. Issues of comparative philosophy (pp. 297–314)", in Franco, Eli; Preisendanz, Karin, Beyond Orientalism: the work of Wilhelm Halbfass and its impact on Indian and cross-cultural studies (1st Indian ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-3110-1" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-3110-1">81-208-3110-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michelis, Elizabeth De (2005), A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism, Continuum, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8772-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8772-8">978-0-8264-8772-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Georg, Feuerstein (2002), The Yoga Tradition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. pp. 185–188. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneider1966" class="citation journal cs1">Schneider, Herbert Wallace (1966). "Modern Indian Thought (review)". <i>Journal of the History of Philosophy</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fhph.2008.1443">10.1353/hph.2008.1443</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143889851">143889851</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/229758">229758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Modern+Indian+Thought+%28review%29&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=88&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fhph.2008.1443&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143889851%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Herbert+Wallace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garfield (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); <i>The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy</i>, Chinese philosophy.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pe-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pe_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbrey2010" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia (2010). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated History of China</i>. 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Tauris, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84885-174-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-84885-174-X">1-84885-174-X</a>. pp. 34–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Elman, John Duncan and Herman Ooms ed. <i>Rethinking Confucianism: Past and Present in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam</i>(Los Angeles: UCLA Asian Pacific Monograph Series, 2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul R. Goldin, Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. pp. 6, 7 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_">https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308062755/https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross Terril 2003 p. 68. The New Chinese Empire. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TKowRrrz5BIC&pg=PA68">https://books.google.com/books?id=TKowRrrz5BIC&pg=PA68</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pines, Yuri, "Legalism in Chinese Philosophy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 2. Philosophical Foundations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210112094249/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-legalism/">Archived</a> 12 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hansen, Chad. Philosophy East & West. Jul 94, Vol. 44 Issue 3, pp. 54, 435. Fa (standards: laws) and meaning changes in Chinese philosophy. Chad Hansen, Shen Buhai <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Shen%20Bu%20Hai.htm">http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Shen%20Bu%20Hai.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171119041933/http://philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Shen%20Bu%20Hai.htm">Archived</a> 19 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Creel, 1974 p. 4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century BCE.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chad Hansen, University of Hong Kong. Lord Shang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm">http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120426092620/http://www.philosophy.hku.hk/ch/Lord%20Shang.htm">Archived</a> 26 April 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul R. Goldin, Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. p. 15 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_">https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308062755/https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hengy Chye Kiang 1999. p.v44. Cities of Aristocrats and Bureaucrats. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BIgS4p8NykYC&pg=PA44">https://books.google.com/books?id=BIgS4p8NykYC&pg=PA44</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward Craig. Routledge Publishing. 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2008" class="citation web cs1">Liu, Fenrong (January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241916514">"A Note on Mohist Logic"</a>. <i>Research Gate</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3078-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3078-6">978-0-8248-3078-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-North_Korea:_State_of_Paranoia-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-North_Korea:_State_of_Paranoia_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_French2014" class="citation book cs1">Paul French (2014). <i>North Korea: State of Paranoia</i>. Zed Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78032-947-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78032-947-5"><bdi>978-1-78032-947-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=North+Korea%3A+State+of+Paranoia&rft.pub=Zed+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78032-947-5&rft.au=Paul+French&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Juche_Idea:_Answers_to_Hundred_Questions_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorth_Korean_Government2014" class="citation book cs1">North Korean Government (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yC42jwEACAAJ"><i>Juche Idea: Answers to Hundred Questions</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Schopenhauer%27s+Initial+Encounter+with+Indian+Thought&rft.pub=Uni+Mainz&rft.au=Urs+App&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.schopenhauer.philosophie.uni-mainz.de%2FAufsaetze_Jahrbuch%2F87_2006%2F2006_App_Initial%2520Encounter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Storey2012" class="citation journal cs1">David Storey (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1816669">"Zen in Heidegger's Way"</a>. <i>Journal of East-West Thought</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 113–137. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817180503/https://www.academia.edu/1816669">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Nur+noch+ein+Gott+kann+uns+retten&rft.pages=193-219&rft.date=1976-05-31&rft.aulast=Augstein&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rft.au=Wolff%2C+Georg&rft.au=Heidegger%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Fspiegel%2Fprint%2Fd-41238349.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/heidegger/interview.html">English translation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131016094800/http://www.ditext.com/heidegger/interview.html">Archived</a> 16 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_J._Richardson" title="William J. Richardson">William J. Richardson</a> in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Havens" title="Thomas Havens">Sheehan, Thomas</a>, ed. (2010) [1981]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qIrWZajVZuwC"><i>Heidegger: the Man and the Thinker</i></a>. reprint. <a href="/wiki/Piscataway,_New_Jersey" title="Piscataway, New Jersey">Piscataway, New Jersey</a>: <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qIrWZajVZuwC&dq=%22Only+a+God+Can+Save+Us%22%22:+The+Spiegel+Interview+(1966)+Martin+Heidegger%22&pg=PA45">45–67</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1537-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1537-6"><bdi>978-1-4128-1537-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heidegger%3A+the+Man+and+the+Thinker&rft.place=Piscataway%2C+New+Jersey&rft.series=reprint&rft.pages=45-67&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-1537-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqIrWZajVZuwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XVnePQAACAAJ">1st edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320072759/http://books.google.com/books?id=XVnePQAACAAJ">Archived</a> 20 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Defoort, Carine. (2001). "Is There Such a Thing as Chinese Philosophy? Arguments of an Implicit Debate", <i>Philosophy East and West</i> 51 (3) 393–413.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Rein_Raud" title="Rein Raud">Raud, Rein</a>. (2006) "Philosophies versus Philosophy: In Defense of a Flexible Definition". <i>Philosophy East & West</i> 56 (4) 618–625. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/217793/Philosophies_vs_Philosophy_In_Defense_of_A_Flexible_Definition">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170723052150/http://www.academia.edu/217793/Philosophies_vs_Philosophy_In_Defense_of_A_Flexible_Definition">Archived</a> 23 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ouyang Min. (2012). "There is No Need for <i>Zhongguo Zhexue</i> to be Philosophy" Asian Philosophy 22 (3) 199–223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Havens, Thomas R.H. (1970).<i>Nishi Amane and Modern Japanese Thought</i> Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 50.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowker2000" class="citation cs2">Bowker, John (2000), <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Oxford+Dictionary+of+World+Religions&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Bowker&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood1996" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin D.</a> (1996), <i>An Introduction to Hinduism</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlood2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Flood, Gavin</a> (2008). <i>The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism</i>. John Wiley & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Hinduism&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Flood&rft.aufirst=Gavin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorgis2010" class="citation cs2">Georgis, Faris (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrxLjtiI8C&pg=PA62"><i>Alone in Unity: Torments of an Iraqi God-Seeker in North America</i></a>, Dorrance Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4349-0951-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4349-0951-0"><bdi>978-1-4349-0951-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alone+in+Unity%3A+Torments+of+an+Iraqi+God-Seeker+in+North+America&rft.pub=Dorrance+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4349-0951-0&rft.aulast=Georgis&rft.aufirst=Faris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFZrxLjtiI8C%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGomez2013" class="citation cs2">Gomez, Luis O. (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42"><i>Buddhism in India. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture"</i></a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87590-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87590-8"><bdi>978-1-136-87590-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151512/https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42">archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+India.+In%3A+Joseph+Kitagawa%2C+%22The+Religious+Traditions+of+Asia%3A+Religion%2C+History%2C+and+Culture%22&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-87590-8&rft.aulast=Gomez&rft.aufirst=Luis+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9fyzAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2001" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Harvey_(religious_writer)" title="Andrew Harvey (religious writer)">Harvey, Andrew</a> (2001), <i>Teachings of the Hindu Mystics</i>, Shambhala, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57062-449-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57062-449-0"><bdi>978-1-57062-449-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teachings+of+the+Hindu+Mystics&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57062-449-0&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiltebeitel2007" class="citation cs2">Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ"><i>Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture". Digital printing 2007</i></a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87590-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-87590-8"><bdi>978-1-136-87590-8</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151449/https://books.google.com/books?id=9fyzAAAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism.+In%3A+Joseph+Kitagawa%2C+%22The+Religious+Traditions+of+Asia%3A+Religion%2C+History%2C+and+Culture%22.+Digital+printing+2007&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-136-87590-8&rft.aulast=Hiltebeitel&rft.aufirst=Alf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9fyzAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesRyan2006" class="citation cs2">Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&q=hinduism+neolithic&pg=PR17"><i>Encyclopedia of Hinduism</i></a>, Infobase Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7564-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-7564-5"><bdi>978-0-8160-7564-5</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151504/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&q=hinduism+neolithic&pg=PR17">archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Constance&rft.au=Ryan%2C+James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOgMmceadQ3gC%26q%3Dhinduism%2Bneolithic%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnott1998" class="citation book cs1">Knott, Kim (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6"><i>Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-160645-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-160645-8"><bdi>978-0-19-160645-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151955/https://books.google.com/books?id=p4kzNzII3zAC&pg=PA6">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-160645-8&rft.aulast=Knott&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp4kzNzII3zAC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamil_Zvelebil1973" class="citation cs2">Kamil Zvelebil (1973), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155"><i>The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India</i></a>, Leiden: E.J. Brill, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-03591-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-03591-1"><bdi>978-90-04-03591-1</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405220135/https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155">archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Smile+of+Murugan%3A+On+Tamil+Literature+of+South+India&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-90-04-03591-1&rft.au=Kamil+Zvelebil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdegUAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockard2007" class="citation cs2">Lockard, Craig A. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC&pg=PA50"><i>Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Volume I: to 1500</i></a>, Cengage Learning, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-38612-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-38612-3"><bdi>978-0-618-38612-3</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151955/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC&pg=PA50">archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Societies%2C+Networks%2C+and+Transitions.+Volume+I%3A+to+1500&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-618-38612-3&rft.aulast=Lockard&rft.aufirst=Craig+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyJPlCpzOY_QC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohan_Lal1992" class="citation cs2">Mohan Lal (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4341"><i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot</i></a>, Sahitya Akademi, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-260-1221-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-260-1221-3"><bdi>978-81-260-1221-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Indian+Literature%3A+Sasay+to+Zorgot&rft.pub=Sahitya+Akademi&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-81-260-1221-3&rft.au=Mohan+Lal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKnPoYxrRfc0C%26pg%3DPA4341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundaram,_1990" class="citation book cs1">P.S. Sundaram (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC"><i>Kural (Tiruvalluvar)</i></a>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5118-015-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5118-015-9"><bdi>978-93-5118-015-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405220115/https://books.google.com/books?id=aPpv2F2RRgcC">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kural+%28Tiruvalluvar%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-93-5118-015-9&rft.au=P.S.+Sundaram&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaPpv2F2RRgcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaushik_Roy2012" class="citation book cs1">Kaushik Roy (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vRE3n1VwDTIC"><i>Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01736-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01736-8"><bdi>978-1-107-01736-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism+and+the+Ethics+of+Warfare+in+South+Asia%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-107-01736-8&rft.au=Kaushik+Roy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvRE3n1VwDTIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwamiji_Iraianban1997" class="citation book cs1">Swamiji Iraianban (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPmMQoJkXV0C&pg=PA13"><i>Ambrosia of Thirukkural</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-346-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-346-5"><bdi>978-81-7017-346-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ambrosia+of+Thirukkural&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-346-5&rft.au=Swamiji+Iraianban&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdPmMQoJkXV0C%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_2009" class="citation book cs1">W. J. Johnson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-2475?rskey=HcmgW0&result=1"><i>A dictionary of Hinduism</i></a>. Oxford Reference. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-01-98610-25-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-01-98610-25-0"><bdi>978-01-98610-25-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210728145953/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-2475?rskey=HcmgW0&result=1">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+dictionary+of+Hinduism&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.series=Oxford+Reference&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-01-98610-25-0&rft.au=W.+J.+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198610250.001.0001%2Facref-9780198610250-e-2475%3Frskey%3DHcmgW0%26result%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPillai,_2015" class="citation book cs1">M. S. Purnalingam Pillai (2015). <i>Tamil Literature</i>. Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies. p. 75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tamil+Literature&rft.place=Chennai&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=International+Institute+of+Tamil+Studies&rft.date=2015&rft.au=M.+S.+Purnalingam+Pillai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarayanan2009" class="citation cs2">Narayanan, Vasudha (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC"><i>Hinduism</i></a>, The Rosen Publishing Group, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4358-5620-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4358-5620-2"><bdi>978-1-4358-5620-2</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703151957/https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Mm6S1XFYAC">archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2016</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism&rft.pub=The+Rosen+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4358-5620-2&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=Vasudha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE0Mm6S1XFYAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNath2001" class="citation cs2">Nath, Vijay (March–April 2001), "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition", <i>Social Scientist</i>, <b>29</b> (3/4): 19–50, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3518337">10.2307/3518337</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3518337">3518337</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Scientist&rft.atitle=From+%27Brahmanism%27+to+%27Hinduism%27%3A+Negotiating+the+Myth+of+the+Great+Tradition&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=19-50&rft.date=2001-03%2F2001-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3518337&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3518337%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nath&rft.aufirst=Vijay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsborne2005" class="citation cs2">Osborne, E (2005), <i>Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream</i>, Folens Limited</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accessing+R.E.+Founders+%26+Leaders%2C+Buddhism%2C+Hinduism+and+Sikhism+Teacher%27s+Book+Mainstream&rft.pub=Folens+Limited&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel2010" class="citation cs2">Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), <i>The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Yoga+and+Tantra.+Indic+Religions+to+the+Thirteenth+Century&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharma2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arvind_Sharma" title="Arvind Sharma">Sharma, Arvind</a> (2003). <i>The Study of Hinduism</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina_Press" title="University of South Carolina Press">University of South Carolina Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+Hinduism&rft.pub=University+of+South+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Arvind&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utm.edu/staff/jfieser/class/110/4-eastern.htm">Jim Fieser: Classical Eastern Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041205035315/http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit.asp">Articles and commentaries on a wide range of topics related to practical Eastern Philosophy</a> at atmajyoti.org</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kheper.net/topics/eastern/">Eastern Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235543/http://www.kheper.net/topics/eastern/">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on Kheper website</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlejohn" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Littlejohn, Ronnie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/chin-ovr">"Chinese Philosophy: Overview of Topics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+Philosophy%3A+Overview+of+Topics&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Littlejohn&rft.aufirst=Ronnie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fchin-ovr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEastern+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eastern_world" title="Template:Eastern world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_world" title="Template talk:Eastern world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Eastern_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture" title="Eastern culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Indic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" 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<li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II">Middle Eastern Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture" title="Eastern culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Hanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Asia">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_cuisine" title="Asian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_esotericism" title="Eastern esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">Folklore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folklore" title="Chinese folklore">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_folklore" title="Japanese folklore">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_folklore" title="Korean folklore">Korean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_literature" title="Asian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Asia" title="Music of Asia">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_folk_music_traditions" title="List of Asian folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_values" title="Asian values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_values" title="Filipino values">Philippine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Dharmic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern/Eastern/Northern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Shenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Muism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Churches</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali_B%C3%A1bism" class="mw-redirect" title="Azali Bábism">Azali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Economic_Cooperation" title="Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation">APEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Customs_Union" title="Arab Customs Union">Arab Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Small_Island_Developing_States" title="Group of Asia and the Pacific Small Island Developing States">Asia and the Pacific Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia_Cooperation_Dialogue" title="Asia Cooperation Dialogue">Asia Cooperation Dialogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia_Council" title="Asia Council">Asia Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal_Initiative_for_Multi-Sectoral_Technical_and_Economic_Cooperation" title="Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation">BIMSTEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia_Regional_Economic_Cooperation_Program" title="Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program">CAREC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Union" title="Central Asian Union">CAU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">CSTO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_and_Progressive_Agreement_for_Trans-Pacific_Partnership" title="Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership">CPTPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Easternization" class="mw-redirect" title="Easternization">Easternization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">EAEU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customs_Union_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union">EAEU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">ECO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council">GCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_Turkic_States" title="Organization of Turkic States">OTS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">RCEP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">SCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trilateral_Cooperation_Secretariat" title="Trilateral Cooperation Secretariat">TCS</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="East_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:East_Asian_topics" title="Template:East Asian topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:East_Asian_topics" title="Template talk:East Asian topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:East_Asian_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:East Asian topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="East_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:East_Asian_countries" title="Category:East Asian countries">Countries and regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeju_Province" title="Jeju Province">Jeju</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/East_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/80px-East_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/East_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/120px-East_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/East_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/160px-East_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_people" title="East Asian people">Ethnic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese_subgroups" title="Han Chinese subgroups">subgroups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_people" title="Japanese people">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_people" title="Yamato people">Yamato</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Koreans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_China" title="Koreans in China">in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreans_in_Japan" title="Koreans in Japan">in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Koreans" title="Sakhalin Koreans">in Sakhalin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_peoples" title="Mongolic peoples">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongols_in_China" title="Mongols in China">in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalkha_Mongols" title="Khalkha Mongols">Khalkha in Mongolia</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_people" title="Qiang people">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_people" title="Ryukyuan people">Ryukyuans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_indigenous_peoples" title="Taiwanese indigenous peoples">Indigenous Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_people" title="Tibetan people">Tibetans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tujia_people" title="Tujia people">Tujia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_people" title="Yi people">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_people" title="Zhuang people">Zhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="List of ethnic groups in China">other ethnic groups in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unrecognized_ethnic_groups_in_China" title="Unrecognized ethnic groups in China">unrecognized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Chinese_history" title="Ethnic groups in Chinese history">historical</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of East Asia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_age_reckoning" title="East Asian age reckoning">Age reckoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:East_Asian_architecture" title="Category:East Asian architecture">Architecture‎</a></li> <li>Art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_art" title="Korean art">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_art" title="Taiwanese art">Taiwanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_blepharoplasty" title="East Asian blepharoplasty">Blepharoplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_calligraphy" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cinema">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Dance_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Dance in East Asia">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_knotting" title="Chinese knotting">Chinese knotting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">Chinese dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cultural_festivals_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Cultural festivals in East Asia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_design#East_Asian_gardens" title="Garden design">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_hip-and-gable_roof" title="East Asian hip-and-gable roof">Hip-and-gable roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_East_Asia" title="Languages of East Asia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_literature" title="East Asian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Music_of_East_Asia" title="Category:Music of East Asia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:East_Asian_mythology" title="Category:East Asian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_and_vertical_writing_in_East_Asian_scripts" title="Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts">Scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_(East_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (East Asia)">Seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Xenic_pronunciations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Xenic pronunciations">Sino-Xenic pronunciations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_East_Asian_surnames" title="Lists of East Asian surnames">Surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Television_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Television in East Asia">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_typography" title="East Asian typography">Typography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">Yogācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_zodiac" title="Chinese zodiac">Chinese zodiac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_East_Asia" title="Category:Environment of East Asia">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Climate_Partnership" title="East Asia Climate Partnership">East Asia Climate Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian Monsoon">Monsoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_rainy_season" title="East Asian rainy season">Rainy season</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Asiatic_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Asiatic Region">Flora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_East_Asia" title="Economy of East Asia">Economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_East_Asia" title="Category:Politics of East Asia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_trilateral_summit" title="China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit">China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership_for_East_Asia" title="Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia">Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_model" title="East Asian model">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Summit" title="East Asia Summit">East Asia Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Bureau_of_Economic_Research" title="East Asian Bureau of Economic Research">East Asian Bureau of Economic Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Community" title="East Asian Community">East Asian Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Asian_Tigers" title="Four Asian Tigers">Four Asian Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_East_Asia" title="Human rights in East Asia">Human rights in East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ports_and_harbors_of_the_Pacific_Ocean" title="List of ports and harbors of the Pacific Ocean">Ports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_stock_exchanges#East_Asian" title="List of Asian stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeology_of_East_Asia" title="Category:Archaeology of East Asia">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_cultures_of_East_Asia" title="Category:Archaeological cultures of East Asia">Archaeological cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age#East_Asia" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Former countries in East Asia">Former countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Sport_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Sport in East Asia">Sports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Friendship_Athletic_Meeting" title="China–Japan–Korea Friendship Athletic Meeting">China–Japan–Korea Friendship Athletic Meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Football_Federation" title="East Asian Football Federation">East Asian Football Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Games" title="East Asian Games">East Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Judo_Championships" title="East Asian Judo Championships">East Asian Judo Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:East_Asian_martial_arts" title="Category:East Asian martial arts">East Asian martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Youth_Games" title="East Asian Youth Games">East Asian Youth Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EAFF_E-1_Football_Championship" title="EAFF E-1 Football Championship">EAFF E-1 Football Championship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Education_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Education in East Asia">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_East_Asian_Research_Universities" title="Association of East Asian Research Universities">Association of East Asian Research Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CrossAsia" title="CrossAsia">CrossAsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Economic_Review" title="East Asian Economic Review">East Asian Economic Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Image_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asia Image Collection">East Asia Image Collection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Law_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asia Law Review">East Asia Law Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_studies" title="East Asian studies">East Asian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_East_Asian_Studies" title="Journal of East Asian Studies">Journal of East Asian Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia_Institute_(Ludwigshafen)" title="East Asia Institute (Ludwigshafen)">Ludwigshafen East Asia Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Military in East Asia">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_East_Asian_warfare" title="Horses in East Asian warfare">Horses in East Asian warfare</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bansensh%C5%ABkai" title="Bansenshūkai">Bansenshūkai</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyamoto_Musashi" title="Miyamoto Musashi">Miyamoto Musashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_War" title="The Art of War">The Art of War</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Five_Rings" title="The Book of Five Rings">The Book of Five Rings</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Sun-sin" title="Yi Sun-sin">Yi Sun-sin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_East_Asia" title="Category:Science and technology in East Asia">Science and technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Needham_Research_Institute" title="Needham Research Institute">Needham Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_printing_in_East_Asia" title="History of printing in East Asia">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:East_Asian_swords" title="Category:East Asian swords">Swords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:East_Asian_traditional_medicine" title="Category:East Asian traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Asia" title="Decolonisation of Asia">Decolonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_in_Asia" title="Cold War in Asia">Cold War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Asia" title="List of conflicts in Asia">Military conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_date_of_formation#Asia" title="List of sovereign states by date of formation">Sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Asia" title="Geography of Asia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cities_in_Asia" title="Lists of cities in Asia">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Asia" title="List of metropolitan areas in Asia">metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_Asia" title="List of tallest buildings in Asia">tallest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_agglomerations_in_Asia" title="List of urban agglomerations in Asia">urban agglomerations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia">Countries and territories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Asian_countries_by_population" title="List of Asian countries by population">by population</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Asia" title="Extreme points of Asia">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of islands of Asia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes#Asia" title="List of lakes">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#Asia" title="List of mountain ranges">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Asia" title="List of rivers of Asia">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_transcontinental_countries" title="List of transcontinental countries">Transcontinental regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Pacific" title="Asia–Pacific">Asia–Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe,_the_Middle_East,_and_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Europe, the Middle East, and Africa">EMEA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean world">Mediterranean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MENASA" class="mw-redirect" title="MENASA">MENASA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Middle_East" title="Greater Middle East">Greater Middle East</a>/<a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>/<a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Mediterranean" title="Indo-Mediterranean">Indo-Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific" title="Indo-Pacific">Indo-Pacific</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Ocean world">Indian Ocean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Rim" title="Pacific Rim">Pacific Rim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Asia" title="Pacific Asia">Pacific Asia</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Intracontinental regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia/Asia Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pacific_Asia" title="Pacific Asia">Pacific Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_China" title="Greater China">Greater China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Indochina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_world" title="Malay world">Malay world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Manchuria" title="Outer Manchuria">Outer Manchuria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_heartland" title="Mongol heartland">Greater Mongolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Asia" title="Inner Asia">Inner Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Central_Asia" title="Greater Central Asia">Greater Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Greater Khorasan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Southeast" title="Global Southeast">Global Southeast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Greater India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Caucasus" title="South Caucasus">South Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Turkestan" title="Afghan Turkestan">Afghan Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Subregion#Asia" title="Subregion">Continental subregions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Asia" title="Northeast Asia">Northeast Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_South_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of South Asia">Subregions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Indosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">Sinosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanyang_(region)" title="Nanyang (region)">Nanyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">Northern and southern China</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">Supercontinents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asia" title="Afro-Asia">Afro-Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continent#Subcontinents" title="Continent">Subcontinents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">Plateaus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_plateau" title="Anatolian plateau">Anatolian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Plateau" title="Mongolian Plateau">Mongolian Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsulas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Indochinese Peninsula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korean Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leizhou_Peninsula" title="Leizhou Peninsula">Leizhou Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandong_Peninsula" title="Shandong Peninsula">Shandong Peninsula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelagos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Archipelago">Japanese Archipelago</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Indonesian Archipelago</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">Maluku Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Islands" title="Sunda Islands">Sunda Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Sunda_Islands" title="Greater Sunda Islands">Greater Sunda Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Sunda_Islands" title="Lesser Sunda Islands">Lesser Sunda Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_Philippines" title="List of islands of the Philippines">Philippine Archipelago</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visayas" title="Visayas">Visayan Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergui_Archipelago" title="Mergui Archipelago">Mergui Archipelago</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_Council_for_the_Arab_States_of_the_Gulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf">Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG / GCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mekong%E2%80%93Ganga_Cooperation" title="Mekong–Ganga Cooperation">Mekong–Ganga Cooperation (MGC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Comprehensive_Economic_Partnership" title="Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership">Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian 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