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<span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Composition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Composition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orientation_in_neuroanatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orientation_in_neuroanatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Orientation in neuroanatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orientation_in_neuroanatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Tools</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tools-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tools subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cell_staining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_staining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Cell staining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_staining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Histochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Histochemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Histochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetically_encoded_markers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetically_encoded_markers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Genetically encoded markers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetically_encoded_markers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-invasive_brain_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-invasive_brain_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Non-invasive brain imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-invasive_brain_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viral-based_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viral-based_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Viral-based methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viral-based_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dye-based_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dye-based_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Dye-based methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dye-based_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connectomics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connectomics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Connectomics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connectomics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computational_neuroanatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computational_neuroanatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Computational neuroanatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computational_neuroanatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Model_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Model_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Model systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Model_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Model systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Model_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Caenorhabditis_elegans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caenorhabditis_elegans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caenorhabditis_elegans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drosophila_melanogaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drosophila_melanogaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span><i>Drosophila melanogaster</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drosophila_melanogaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AD_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="تشريح عصبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تشريح عصبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomija" title="Neuroanatomija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Neuroanatomija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomia" title="Neuroanatomia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neuroanatomia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomi" title="Neuroanatomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Neuroanatomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomie" title="Neuroanatomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neuroanatomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatoomia" title="Neuroanatoomia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Neuroanatoomia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Νευροανατομία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νευροανατομία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatom%C3%ADa" title="Neuroanatomía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neuroanatomía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="نوروآناتومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوروآناتومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomie" title="Neuroanatomie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neuroanatomie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatom%C3%ADa" title="Neuroanatomía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Neuroanatomía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%ED%95%B4%EB%B6%80%ED%95%99" title="신경해부학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경해부학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0" title="तंत्रिकाशारीर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तंत्रिकाशारीर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomia" title="Neuroanatomia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neuroanatomia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="נוירואנטומיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נוירואנטומיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomija" title="Neuroanatomija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Neuroanatomija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomi" title="Neuroanatomi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Neuroanatomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomie" title="Neuroanatomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neuroanatomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%A6" title="神経解剖学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経解剖学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevroanatomi" title="Nevroanatomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nevroanatomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomia" title="Neuroanatomia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Neuroanatomia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomia" title="Neuroanatomia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Neuroanatomia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomie" title="Neuroanatomie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Neuroanatomie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Нейроанатомия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейроанатомия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Неуроанатомија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Неуроанатомија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomia" title="Neuroanatomia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Neuroanatomia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomi" title="Neuroanatomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Neuroanatomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประสาทกายวิภาคศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประสาทกายวิภาคศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6roanatomi" title="Nöroanatomi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nöroanatomi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Нейроанатомія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нейроанатомія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="神經解剖學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="神經解剖學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B6%93%E8%A7%A3%E5%89%96%E5%AD%B8" title="神經解剖學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="神經解剖學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of neuroscience</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sobo_1909_624.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sobo_1909_624.png/350px-Sobo_1909_624.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sobo_1909_624.png/525px-Sobo_1909_624.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Sobo_1909_624.png/700px-Sobo_1909_624.png 2x" data-file-width="3060" data-file-height="2247" /></a><figcaption>Neuroanatomy is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and organisation of the nervous system. Pictured here is a cross-section showing the <a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">gross anatomy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Neuroanatomy</b> is the study of the structure and organization of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>. In contrast to animals with <a href="/wiki/Radial_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial symmetry">radial symmetry</a>, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilateral symmetry">bilateral symmetry</a> have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood. In <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> (together called the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>, or CNS) and the series of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body (known as the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>, or PNS). Breaking down and identifying specific parts of the nervous system has been crucial for figuring out how it operates. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> or other neural functions. </p><p>For information about the composition of non-human animal nervous systems, see <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>. For information about the typical structure of the Homo sapiens nervous system, see <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>. This article discusses information pertinent to the <i>study</i> of neuroanatomy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg/220px-Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg/330px-Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg/440px-Bourgery_Neuroanatomie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="2298" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J._M._Bourgery" class="mw-redirect" title="J. M. Bourgery">J. M. Bourgery</a>'s anatomy of the brain, brainstem, and upper spinal column</figcaption></figure> <p>The first known written record of a study of the anatomy of the human brain is an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> document, the <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ESSP_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ESSP-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, interest in the brain began with the work of <a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a>, who appeared to have dissected the eye and related the brain to vision. He also suggested that the brain, not the heart, was the organ that ruled the body (what Stoics would call the <i>hegemonikon</i>) and that the senses were dependent on the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-RF_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RF-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The debate regarding the <i>hegemonikon</i> persisted among ancient Greek philosophers and physicians for a very long time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who argued for the brain often contributed to the understanding of neuroanatomy as well. <a href="/wiki/Herophilos" title="Herophilos">Herophilus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erasistratus" title="Erasistratus">Erasistratus</a> of Alexandria were perhaps the most influential with their studies involving <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissecting</a> human brains, affirming the distinction between the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, and identifying the <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricles</a> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek physician and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, likewise, argued strongly for the brain as the organ responsible for <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology#Muscle_and_movement" title="Biology">voluntary motion</a>, as evidenced by his research on the neuroanatomy of <a href="/wiki/Oxen" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxen">oxen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbary_macaque" title="Barbary macaque">Barbary apes</a>, and other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cultural taboo on human dissection continued for several hundred years afterward, which brought no major progress in the understanding of the anatomy of the brain or of the nervous system. However, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV" title="Pope Sixtus IV">Pope Sixtus IV</a> effectively revitalized the study of neuroanatomy by altering the papal policy and allowing human dissection. This resulted in a flush of new activity by artists and scientists of the Renaissance,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi" title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Berengario_da_Carpi" title="Jacopo Berengario da Carpi">Berengario da Carpi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dubois" title="Jacques Dubois">Jacques Dubois</a>, and culminating in the work of <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1664, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Willis" title="Thomas Willis">Thomas Willis</a>, a physician and professor at Oxford University, coined the term neurology when he published his text <i>Cerebri Anatome</i> which is considered the foundation of modern neuroanatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cells">glial cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a>. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">list of distinct cell types in the adult human body</a>). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters which generally act across <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a> (close contacts between two neurons, or between a neuron and a muscle cell; note also extrasynaptic effects are possible, as well as release of neurotransmitters into the neural extracellular space), and produce our memories, thoughts, and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin (oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells)</a>, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells (<a href="/wiki/Astrocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrocytes">astrocytes</a>) can even propagate intercellular <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte#Calcium_waves" title="Astrocyte">calcium waves</a> over long distances in response to stimulation, and release <a href="/wiki/Gliotransmitter" title="Gliotransmitter">gliotransmitters</a> in response to changes in calcium concentration. Wound scars in the brain largely contain astrocytes. The <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells, vehiculating substances to and from the blood vessels. </p><p>At the organ level, the nervous system is composed of brain regions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> in mammals or the <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_bodies" title="Mushroom bodies">mushroom bodies</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit fly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These regions are often modular and serve a particular role within the general systemic pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories in connection with many other cerebral regions. The peripheral nervous system also contains afferent or efferent <a href="/wiki/Nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerves">nerves</a>, which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, or from sensory or motor sorts of peripheral ganglia, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are made primarily of the <a href="/wiki/Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</a> or dendrites of neurons (axons in case of efferent motor fibres, and dendrites in case of afferent sensory fibres of the nerves), along with a variety of membranes that wrap around and segregate them into <a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">nerve fascicles</a>. </p><p>The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS) consists of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> (PNS) is made up of all the nerves and ganglia (packets of peripheral neurons) outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The <a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">somatic nervous system</a> is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the somatic (body) sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the voluntary muscles of the body. The <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> can work with or without the control of the CNS (that's why it is called 'autonomous'), and also has two subdivisions, called <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic</a>, which are important for transmitting motor orders to the body's basic internal organs, thus controlling functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, unlike somatic nerves, contain only efferent fibers. Sensory signals coming from the viscera course into the CNS through the somatic sensory nerves (e.g., visceral pain), or through some particular cranial nerves (e.g., chemosensitive or mechanic signals). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orientation_in_neuroanatomy">Orientation in neuroanatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Orientation in neuroanatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_(ANIMATED).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif/220px-Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Parasagittal_MRI_of_human_head_in_patient_with_benign_familial_macrocephaly_prior_to_brain_injury_%28ANIMATED%29.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Para-sagittal <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> of the head in a patient with benign familial <a href="/wiki/Macrocephaly" title="Macrocephaly">macrocephaly</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In anatomy in general and neuroanatomy in particular, several sets of topographic terms are used to denote orientation and location, which are generally referred to the body or brain axis (see <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">Anatomical terms of location</a>). The axis of the CNS is often wrongly assumed to be more or less straight, but it actually shows always two ventral flexures (cervical and cephalic flexures) and a dorsal flexure (pontine flexure), all due to differential growth during embryogenesis. The pairs of terms used most commonly in neuroanatomy are: </p> <ul><li>Dorsal and ventral: Dorsal refers more or less to the top or upper side of the brain, which is symbolized by the floor plate, and ventral to the bottom or lower side. These descriptors originally were used for <i>dorsum</i> and <i>ventrum</i> – back and belly – of the body; the belly of most animals is oriented towards the ground; the erect posture of humans places our ventral aspect anteriorly, and the dorsal aspect becomes posterior. The case of the head and the brain is peculiar, since the belly does not properly extend into the head, unless we assume that the mouth represents an extended belly element. Therefore, in common use, those brain parts that lie close to the base of the cranium, and through it to the mouth cavity, are called ventral – i.e., at its bottom or lower side, as defined above – whereas dorsal parts are closer to the enclosing cranial vault. Reference to the roof and floor plates of the brain is less prone to confusion, also allow us to keep an eye on the axial flexures mentioned above. Dorsal and ventral are thus relative terms in the brain, whose exact meaning depends on the specific location.</li> <li>Rostral and caudal: <i>rostral</i> refers in general anatomy to the front of the body (towards the nose, or <i>rostrum</i> in Latin), and <i>caudal</i> refers to the tail end of the body (towards the tail; <i>cauda</i> in Latin). The rostrocaudal dimension of the brain corresponds to its length axis, which runs across the cited flexures from the caudal tip of the spinal cord into a rostral end roughly at the optic chiasma. In the erect Man, the directional terms "superior" and "inferior" essentially refer to this rostrocaudal dimension, because our body and brain axes are roughly oriented vertically in the erect position. However, all vertebrates develop a very marked ventral kink in the neural tube that is still detectable in the adult central nervous system, known as the <a href="/wiki/Cephalic_flexure" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalic flexure">cephalic flexure</a>. The latter bends the rostral part of the CNS at a 180-degree angle relative to the caudal part, at the transition between the <a href="/wiki/Forebrain" title="Forebrain">forebrain</a> (axis ending rostrally at the optic chiasma) and the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> (axis roughly vertical, but including additional minor kinks at the pontine and cervical flexures) These flexural changes in axial dimension are problematic when trying to describe relative position and sectioning planes in the brain. There is abundant literature that wrongly disregards the axial flexures and assumes a relatively straight brain axis.</li> <li>Medial and lateral: <i>medial</i> refers to being close, or relatively closer, to the midline (the descriptor <i>median</i> means a position precisely at the midline). <i>Lateral</i> is the opposite (a position more or less separated away from the midline).</li></ul> <p>Note that such descriptors (dorsal/ventral, rostral/caudal; medial/lateral) are relative rather than absolute (e.g., a lateral structure may be said to lie medial to something else that lies even more laterally). </p><p>Commonly used terms for planes of orientation or planes of section in neuroanatomy are "sagittal", "transverse" or "coronal", and "axial" or "horizontal". Again in this case, the situation is different for swimming, creeping or quadrupedal (prone) animals than for Man, or other erect species, due to the changed position of the axis. Due to the axial brain flexures, no section plane ever achieves a complete section series in a selected plane, because some sections inevitably result cut oblique or even perpendicular to it, as they pass through the flexures. Experience allows to discern the portions that result cut as desired. </p> <ul><li>A mid-sagittal plane divides the body and brain into left and right halves; sagittal sections, in general, are parallel to this median plane, moving along the medial-lateral dimension (see the image above). The term <i>sagittal</i> refers etymologically to the median suture between the right and left parietal bones of the cranium, known classically as sagittal suture, because it looks roughly like an arrow by its confluence with other sutures (<i>sagitta</i>; arrow in Latin).</li> <li>A section plane orthogonal to the axis of any elongated form in principle is held to be transverse (e.g., a transverse section of a finger or of the vertebral column); if there is no length axis, there is no way to define such sections, or there are infinite possibilities. Therefore, transverse body sections in vertebrates are parallel to the ribs, which are orthogonal to the vertebral column, which represents the body axis both in animals and man. The brain also has an intrinsic longitudinal axis – that of the primordial elongated neural tube – which becomes largely vertical with the erect posture of Man, similarly as the body axis, except at its rostral end, as commented above. This explains that transverse spinal cord sections are roughly parallel to our ribs, or to the ground. However, this is only true for the spinal cord and the brainstem, since the forebrain end of the neural axis bends crook-like during early morphogenesis into the chiasmatic hypothalamus, where it ends; the orientation of true transverse sections accordingly changes, and is no longer parallel to the ribs and ground, but perpendicular to them; lack of awareness of this morphologic brain peculiarity (present in all vertebrate brains without exceptions) has caused and still causes much erroneous thinking on forebrain brain parts. Acknowledging the singularity of rostral transverse sections, tradition has introduced a different descriptor for them, namely <i>coronal</i> sections. Coronal sections divide the forebrain from rostral (front) to caudal (back), forming a series orthogonal (transverse) to the local bent axis. The concept cannot be applied meaningfully to the brainstem and spinal cord, since there the coronal sections become horizontal to the axial dimension, being parallel to the axis. In any case, the concept of 'coronal' sections is less precise than that of 'transverse', since often coronal section planes are used which are not truly orthogonal to the rostral end of the brain axis. The term is etymologically related to the <i>coronal suture</i> of the craneum and this to the position where crowns are worn (Latin <i>corona</i> means crown). It is not clear what sort of crown was meant originally (maybe just a diadema), and this leads unfortunately to ambiguity in the section plane defined merely as coronal.</li> <li>A coronal plane across the human head and brain is modernly conceived to be parallel to the face (the plane in which a king's crown sits on his head is not exactly parallel to the face, and exportation of the concept to less frontally endowed animals than us is obviously even more conflictive, but there is an implicit reference to the <i>coronal suture</i> of the cranium, which forms between the frontal and temporal/parietal bones, giving a sort of diadema configuration which is roughly parallel to the face). Coronal section planes thus essentially refer only to the head and brain, where a diadema makes sense, and not to the neck and body below.</li> <li>Horizontal sections by definition are aligned (parallel) with the horizon. In swimming, creeping and quadrupedal animals the body axis itself is horizontal, and, thus, horizontal sections run along the length of the spinal cord, separating ventral from dorsal parts. Horizontal sections are orthogonal to both transverse and sagittal sections, and in theory, are parallel to the length axis. Due to the axial bend in the brain (forebrain), true horizontal sections in that region are orthogonal to coronal (transverse) sections (as is the horizon relative to the face).</li></ul> <p>According to these considerations, the three directions of space are represented precisely by the sagittal, transverse and horizontal planes, whereas coronal sections can be transverse, oblique or horizontal, depending on how they relate to the brain axis and its incurvations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools">Tools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern developments in neuroanatomy are directly correlated to the technologies used to perform <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the various tools that are available. Many of the <a href="/wiki/Histological" class="mw-redirect" title="Histological">histological</a> techniques used to study other tissues can be applied to the nervous system as well. However, there are some techniques that have been developed especially for the study of neuroanatomy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_staining">Cell staining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cell staining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In biological systems, <a href="/wiki/Staining" title="Staining">staining</a> is a technique used to enhance the contrast of particular features in microscopic images. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nissl_staining" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissl staining">Nissl staining</a> uses aniline basic dyes to intensely stain the acidic polyribosomes in the <a href="/wiki/Rough_endoplasmic_reticulum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rough endoplasmic reticulum">rough endoplasmic reticulum</a>, which is abundant in neurons. This allows researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glia</a>), and neuronal shapes and sizes, in various regions of the nervous system <a href="/wiki/Cytoarchitecture" title="Cytoarchitecture">cytoarchitecture</a>. </p><p>The classic <a href="/wiki/Golgi_stain" class="mw-redirect" title="Golgi stain">Golgi stain</a> uses <a href="/wiki/Potassium_dichromate" title="Potassium dichromate">potassium dichromate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silver_nitrate" title="Silver nitrate">silver nitrate</a> to fill selectively with a silver chromate precipitate a few neural cells (neurons or glia, but in principle, any cells can react similarly). This so-called silver chromate impregnation procedure stains entirely or partially the cell bodies and neurites of some neurons -<a href="/wiki/Dendrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendrites">dendrites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a>- in brown and black, allowing researchers to trace their paths up to their thinnest terminal branches in a slice of nervous tissue, thanks to the transparency consequent to the lack of staining in the majority of surrounding cells. Modernly, Golgi-impregnated material has been adapted for electron-microscopic visualization of the unstained elements surrounding the stained processes and cell bodies, thus adding further resolutive power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Histochemistry">Histochemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Histochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Histochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Histochemistry">Histochemistry</a> uses knowledge about biochemical reaction properties of the chemical constituents of the brain (including notably enzymes) to apply selective methods of reaction to visualize where they occur in the brain and any functional or pathological changes. This applies importantly to molecules related to neurotransmitter production and metabolism, but applies likewise in many other directions chemoarchitecture, or chemical neuroanatomy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Immunocytochemistry" title="Immunocytochemistry">Immunocytochemistry</a> is a special case of histochemistry that uses selective antibodies against a variety of chemical epitopes of the nervous system to selectively stain particular cell types, axonal fascicles, neuropiles, glial processes or blood vessels, or specific intracytoplasmic or intranuclear proteins and other immunogenetic molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters. Immunoreacted transcription factor proteins reveal genomic readout in terms of translated protein. This immensely increases the capacity of researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and <a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">glia</a>) in various regions of the nervous system. </p><p><a href="/wiki/In_situ_hybridization" title="In situ hybridization">In situ hybridization</a> uses synthetic RNA probes that attach (hybridize) selectively to complementary mRNA transcripts of DNA exons in the cytoplasm, to visualize genomic readout, that is, distinguish active gene expression, in terms of mRNA rather than protein. This allows identification histologically (in situ) of the cells involved in the production of genetically-coded molecules, which often represent differentiation or functional traits, as well as the molecular boundaries separating distinct brain domains or cell populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetically_encoded_markers">Genetically encoded markers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genetically encoded markers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By expressing variable amounts of red, green, and blue fluorescent proteins in the brain, the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Brainbow" title="Brainbow">brainbow</a>" mutant mouse allows the combinatorial visualization of many different colors in neurons. This tags neurons with enough unique colors that they can often be distinguished from their neighbors with <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescence microscopy">fluorescence microscopy</a>, enabling researchers to map the local connections or mutual arrangement (tiling) between neurons. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Optogenetics" title="Optogenetics">Optogenetics</a> uses transgenic constitutive and site-specific expression (normally in mice) of blocked markers that can be activated selectively by illumination with a light beam. This allows researchers to study axonal connectivity in the nervous system in a very discriminative way. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-invasive_brain_imaging">Non-invasive brain imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Non-invasive brain imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a> has been used extensively to investigate brain <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_tensor_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion tensor imaging">structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">function</a> non-invasively in healthy human subjects. An important example is <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_tensor_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion tensor imaging">diffusion tensor imaging</a>, which relies on the restricted diffusion of water in tissue in order to produce axon images. In particular, water moves more quickly along the direction aligned with the axons, permitting the inference of their structure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viral-based_methods">Viral-based methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Viral-based methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain viruses can replicate in brain cells and cross synapses. So, viruses modified to express markers (such as fluorescent proteins) can be used to trace connectivity between brain regions across multiple synapses.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two tracer viruses which replicate and spread transneuronal/transsynaptic are the <a href="/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus" title="Herpes simplex virus">Herpes simplex virus</a> type1 (HSV)<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviruses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herpes simplex virus was used to trace the connections between the brain and the stomach, in order to examine the brain areas involved in viscero-sensory processing.<sup id="cite_ref-Rinaman2004_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinaman2004-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study injected herpes simplex virus into the eye, thus allowing the visualization of the <a href="/wiki/Optical_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical pathway">optical pathway</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a tracer virus which replicates from the synapse to the soma is the <a href="/wiki/Pseudorabies_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudorabies virus">pseudorabies virus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using pseudorabies viruses with different fluorescent reporters, dual infection models can parse complex synaptic architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dye-based_methods">Dye-based methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Dye-based methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Axonal_transport" title="Axonal transport">Axonal transport</a> methods use a variety of dyes (horseradish peroxidase variants, fluorescent or radioactive markers, lectins, dextrans) that are more or less avidly absorbed by neurons or their processes. These molecules are selectively transported <a href="/wiki/Anterograde_tracing" title="Anterograde tracing">anterogradely</a> (from soma to axon terminals) or <a href="/wiki/Retrograde_tracing" title="Retrograde tracing">retrogradely</a> (from axon terminals to soma), thus providing evidence of primary and collateral connections in the brain. These 'physiologic' methods (because properties of living, unlesioned cells are used) can be combined with other procedures, and have essentially superseded the earlier procedures studying degeneration of lesioned neurons or axons. Detailed synaptic connections can be determined by correlative electron microscopy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connectomics">Connectomics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Connectomics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Connectomics" title="Connectomics">Connectomics</a></div> <p>Serial section electron microscopy has been extensively developed for use in studying nervous systems. For example, the first application of <a href="/wiki/Serial_block-face_scanning_electron_microscopy" title="Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy">serial block-face scanning electron microscopy</a> was on rodent cortical tissue.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circuit reconstruction from data produced by this high-throughput method is challenging, and the Citizen science game <a href="/wiki/EyeWire" class="mw-redirect" title="EyeWire">EyeWire</a> has been developed to aid research in that area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computational_neuroanatomy">Computational neuroanatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Computational neuroanatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computational_neuroscience" title="Computational neuroscience">Computational neuroscience</a></div> <p>Is a field that utilizes various imaging modalities and computational techniques to model and quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of neuroanatomical structures in both normal and clinical populations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Model_systems">Model systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Model systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aside from the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>, there are many other animals whose brains and nervous systems have received extensive study as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model systems</a>, including mice, <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit fly</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a species of roundworm called <a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans"><i>C. elegans</i></a>. Each of these has its own advantages and disadvantages as a model system. For example, the <i>C. elegans</i> nervous system is extremely stereotyped from one individual worm to the next. This has allowed researchers using <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a> to map the paths and connections of all of the 302 neurons in this species. The fruit fly is widely studied in part because its genetics is very well understood and easily manipulated. The mouse is used because, as a mammal, its brain is more similar in structure to our own (e.g., it has a six-layered <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortex</a>, yet its genes can be easily modified and its reproductive cycle is relatively fast). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caenorhabditis_elegans"><i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Caenorhabditis elegans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilaterian-plan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/300px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/450px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Bilaterian-plan.svg/600px-Bilaterian-plan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="218" /></a><figcaption>Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front</figcaption></figure> <p>The brain is small and simple in some species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> worm, where the body plan is quite simple: a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a>) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The nematode <i><a href="/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans" title="Caenorhabditis elegans">Caenorhabditis elegans</a></i> has been studied because of its importance in genetics.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development, including neuronal development. One advantage of working with this worm is that the nervous system of the <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</a> contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed every section under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body, to give a complete <a href="/wiki/Connectome" title="Connectome">connectome</a> of the nematode.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information has been used to enable a multitude of studies that would not have been possible without it.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drosophila_melanogaster"><i>Drosophila melanogaster</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Drosophila melanogaster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_connectome" title="Drosophila connectome">Drosophila connectome</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i> is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse from the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a> have a central <a href="/wiki/Arthropod_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropod brain">brain</a> with three divisions and large <a href="/wiki/Optic_lobe_(arthropod)" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic lobe (arthropod)">optical lobes</a> behind each eye for visual processing. The brain of a fruit fly contains several million synapses, compared to at least 100 billion in the human brain. Approximately two-thirds of the <i>Drosophila</i> brain is dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Visual_processing" title="Visual processing">visual processing</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> started to work with <i>Drosophila</i> in 1906, and this work earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Because of the large array of tools available for studying <i>Drosophila</i> genetics, they have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genome has been sequenced and published in 2000. About 75% of known human disease genes have a recognizable match in the genome of fruit flies. <i>Drosophila</i> is being used as a genetic model for several human neurological diseases including the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's, Huntington's, spinocerebellar ataxia and Alzheimer's disease. In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many basic aspects of <i>Drosophila</i> neurogenetics have turned out to be relevant to humans. For instance, the first biological clock genes were identified by examining <i>Drosophila</i> mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connectogram" title="Connectogram">Connectogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_human_brain" title="Outline of the human brain">Outline of the human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping" title="Outline of brain mapping">Outline of brain mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" title="List of regions in the human brain">List of regions in the human brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_image_computing" title="Medical image computing">Medical image computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_anatomy" title="Computational anatomy">Computational anatomy</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ESSP-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ESSP_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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(2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3116869">"A Dual Infection Pseudorabies Virus Conditional Reporter Approach to Identify Projections to Collateralized Neurons in Complex Neural Circuits"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>6</b> (6): e21141. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PLoSO...621141C">2011PLoSO...621141C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0021141">10.1371/journal.pone.0021141</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3116869">3116869</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21698154">21698154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=A+Dual+Infection+Pseudorabies+Virus+Conditional+Reporter+Approach+to+Identify+Projections+to+Collateralized+Neurons+in+Complex+Neural+Circuits&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e21141&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3116869%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21698154&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0021141&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PLoSO...621141C&rft.aulast=Card&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3116869&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenkHorstmann,_H2004" class="citation journal cs1">Denk, W; Horstmann, H (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524270">"Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy to Reconstruct Three-Dimensional Tissue Nanostructure"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>2</b> (11): e329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020329">10.1371/journal.pbio.0020329</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC524270">524270</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15514700">15514700</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Serial+Block-Face+Scanning+Electron+Microscopy+to+Reconstruct+Three-Dimensional+Tissue+Nanostructure&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e329&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC524270%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15514700&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020329&rft.aulast=Denk&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Horstmann%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC524270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWullimann,_Mario_F.Rupp,_BarbarReichert,_Heinrich1996" class="citation book cs1">Wullimann, Mario F.; Rupp, Barbar; Reichert, Heinrich (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B5QVXvbOb1YC&pg=PA1"><i>Neuroanatomy of the zebrafish brain: a topological atlas</i></a>. Birkh[Ux9451]user Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7643-5120-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-7643-5120-9"><bdi>3-7643-5120-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615123841/http://books.google.com/books?id=B5QVXvbOb1YC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-06-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.neurobio.arizona.edu/Flybrain/html/index.html">the original</a> on 2011-07-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-03-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Drosophila+Brain&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.neurobio.arizona.edu%2FFlybrain%2Fhtml%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111011212256/http://www.wormbook.org/">"WormBook: The online review of <i>C. elegans</i> biology"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wormbook.org">the original</a> on 2011-10-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WormBook%3A+The+online+review+of+C.+elegans+biology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wormbook.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobert2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hobert, Oliver (2005). The <i>C. elegans</i> Research Community (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_specnervsys/specnervsys.html">"Specification of the nervous system"</a>. <i>WormBook</i>: 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1895%2Fwormbook.1.12.1">10.1895/wormbook.1.12.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4781215">4781215</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18050401">18050401</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717081646/http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_specnervsys/specnervsys.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-07-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-11-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WormBook&rft.atitle=Specification+of+the+nervous+system&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4781215%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18050401&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1895%2Fwormbook.1.12.1&rft.aulast=Hobert&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wormbook.org%2Fchapters%2Fwww_specnervsys%2Fspecnervsys.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteSouthgateThomsonBrenner1986" class="citation journal cs1">White, JG; <a href="/wiki/Eileen_Southgate" title="Eileen Southgate">Southgate, E</a>; Thomson, JN; Brenner, S (1986). 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"<i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i>". In Brenner S, Miller JH (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Genetics</i>. Elsevier. pp. 251–256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-227080-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-227080-2"><bdi>978-0-12-227080-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Caenorhabditis+elegans&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Genetics&rft.pages=251-256&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-12-227080-2&rft.aulast=Hodgkin&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516123352/http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/">"Flybrain: An online atlas and database of the <i>drosophila</i> nervous system"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flybrain%3A+An+online+atlas+and+database+of+the+drosophila+nervous+system&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fflybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonopkaBenzer1971" class="citation journal cs1">Konopka, RJ; Benzer, S (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363">"Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</i>. <b>68</b> (9): 2112–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971PNAS...68.2112K">1971PNAS...68.2112K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.68.9.2112">10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389363">389363</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5002428">5002428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Clock+Mutants+of+Drosophila+melanogaster&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2112-6&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC389363%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5002428&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.68.9.2112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971PNAS...68.2112K&rft.aulast=Konopka&rft.aufirst=RJ&rft.au=Benzer%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC389363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParentCarpenter1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Parent" title="André Parent">Parent, André</a>; Carpenter, Malcolm B. (1996). <i>Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy</i> (9th ed.). Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0683067521" title="Special:BookSources/978-0683067521"><bdi>978-0683067521</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carpenter%27s+Human+Neuroanatomy&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0683067521&rft.aulast=Parent&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+Malcolm+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatestasGartner2016" class="citation book cs1">Patestas, Maria A.; Gartner, Leslie P. (2016). <i>A Textbook of Neuroanatomy</i> (2nd ed.). Wiley Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-67746-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-67746-9"><bdi>978-1-118-67746-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Neuroanatomy&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-118-67746-9&rft.aulast=Patestas&rft.aufirst=Maria+A.&rft.au=Gartner%2C+Leslie+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSplittgerber2019" class="citation book cs1">Splittgerber, Ryan (2019). <i>Snell's Clinical Neuroanatomy</i> (8th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1496346759" title="Special:BookSources/978-1496346759"><bdi>978-1496346759</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Snell%27s+Clinical+Neuroanatomy&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1496346759&rft.aulast=Splittgerber&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaxman2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Waxman" title="Stephen Waxman">Waxman, Stephen</a> (2020). <i>Clinical Neuroanatomy</i> (29th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1260452358" title="Special:BookSources/978-1260452358"><bdi>978-1260452358</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+Neuroanatomy&rft.edition=29th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1260452358&rft.aulast=Waxman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroanatomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroanatomy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroanatomy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neuroanatomy.org">Neuroanatomy</a>, an annual journal of clinical neuroanatomy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050908151455/http://www.loni.ucla.edu/Atlases/">Mouse, Rat, Primate and Human Brain Atlases (UCLA Center for Computational Biology)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190621124504/http://brainmaps.org/">brainmaps.org: High-Resolution Neuroanatomically-Annotated Brain Atlases</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu">BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021015151519/http://brancusi.usc.edu/bkms/">Brain Architecture Management System</a>, several atlases of brain anatomy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dtiatlas.org">White Matter Atlas</a>, Diffusion Tensor Imaging Atlas of the Brain's White Matter Tracts</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" title="Category:Neuroscience">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neuroscience" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neuroscience">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_and_morphology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anatomy" title="Template:Anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anatomy" title="Template talk:Anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_and_morphology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_anatomy" title="Gross anatomy">Gross anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superficial_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Superficial anatomy">Superficial anatomy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroanatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_morphometry" title="Brain morphometry">brain morphometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative anatomy</a></li> <li>Microscopic anatomy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anatomy" title="Molecular anatomy">molecular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphometrics" title="Morphometrics">Morphometrics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ElephantSkelLyd2.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Endoskeleton of an elephant"><img alt="Endoskeleton of an elephant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElephantSkelLyd2.png/140px-ElephantSkelLyd2.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElephantSkelLyd2.png/210px-ElephantSkelLyd2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/ElephantSkelLyd2.png/280px-ElephantSkelLyd2.png 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="626" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bacteria and fungi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cellular_morphologies" title="Bacterial cellular morphologies">cellular morphologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_morphological_plasticity" title="Bacterial morphological plasticity">morphological plasticity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_morphology" title="Colonial morphology">Colonial morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_morphology" title="Lichen morphology">Lichen morphology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Protist_structures" title="Template:Protist structures">Structures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">fruit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_habit" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant habit">Plant habit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_life-form" title="Plant life-form">Plant life-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">reproductive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">Soil morphology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Invertebrates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decapod_anatomy" title="Decapod anatomy">Decapod anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda#Anatomy" title="Gastropoda">Gastropod anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_morphology" title="Insect morphology">Insect morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_of_Diptera" title="Morphology of Diptera">Diptera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_morphology_of_Odonata" title="External morphology of Odonata">Odonata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_anatomy" title="Spider anatomy">Spider anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_cuticle" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropod cuticle">Arthropod cuticle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mammal_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammal anatomy">Mammals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">Human anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_anatomy" title="Neanderthal anatomy">Neanderthal anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_anatomy" title="Cat anatomy">Cat anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_anatomy" title="Dog anatomy">Dog anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equine_anatomy" title="Equine anatomy">Horse anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant#Anatomy_and_morphology" title="Elephant">Elephant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giraffe#Appearance_and_anatomy" title="Giraffe">Giraffe anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate anatomy">Other vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibian_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibian anatomy">Amphibian anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_anatomy" title="Shark anatomy">Shark anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">Anatomical terms of location</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy">Glossary of dinosaur anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Glossary of plant morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_leaf_morphology" title="Glossary of leaf morphology">leaf morphology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_variation" title="Anatomical variation">Anatomical variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_plane" title="Anatomical plane">Anatomical plane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">Body plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_classification" title="Form classification">Form classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gracility" title="Gracility">Gracility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertwig_rule" title="Hertwig rule">Hertwig rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">History of anatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy_in_the_19th_century" title="History of anatomy in the 19th century">19th century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomy" title="Physiognomy">Physiognomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_anatomical_position" title="Standard anatomical position">Standard anatomical position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_anatomy" title="Transcendental anatomy">Transcendental anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Anatomy" title="Category:Anatomy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Anatomy" title="Portal:Anatomy">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_anatomy_articles" title="Index of anatomy articles">Index of anatomy articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nonverbal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nonverbal_communication" title="Template talk:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nonverbal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nonverbal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gestures" title="List of gestures">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonation" title="Phonation">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_interpersonal_communicative_skills" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic interpersonal communicative skills">Basic interpersonal communicative skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_(advertising)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention (advertising)">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">Impression management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastic_sign_languages" title="Monastic sign languages">Monastic sign lexicons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Verbal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-verbal language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">Tactile signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadoma" title="Tadoma">Tadoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimoplastic_art" title="Mimoplastic art">Mimoplastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtext" title="Subtext">Subtext</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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