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</li> <li id="toc-Heidelberg,_Berlin_(1816–1831)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heidelberg,_Berlin_(1816–1831)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Heidelberg, Berlin (1816–1831) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heidelberg,_Berlin_(1816–1831)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 The Phenomenology of Spirit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Philosophical system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophical system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science_of_Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_of_Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Science of Logic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_of_Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_the_real" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_the_real"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Philosophy of the real </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_the_real-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Philosophy_of_Nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Philosophy_of_Nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 The Philosophy of Nature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Philosophy_of_Nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Philosophy_of_Spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Philosophy_of_Spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 The Philosophy of Spirit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Philosophy_of_Spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subjective_spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subjective_spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Subjective spirit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subjective_spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Objective_spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Objective_spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Objective spirit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objective_spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absolute_spirit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolute_spirit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3 Absolute spirit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolute_spirit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Philosophy of art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Christianity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Christianity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Romantic_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Romantic_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Early Romantic writings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Romantic_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 The Phenomenology of Spirit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Berlin_lectures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Berlin_lectures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 The Berlin lectures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Berlin_lectures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_of_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_of_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Issues of interpretation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues_of_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Philosophy of history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectics,_speculation,_idealism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectics,_speculation,_idealism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Dialectics, speculation, idealism </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialectics,_speculation,_idealism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Dialectics, speculation, idealism subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Dialectics,_speculation,_idealism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thesis–antithesis–synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thesis–antithesis–synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Thesis–antithesis–synthesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thesis–antithesis–synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Reception </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Reception subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Right"_vs._"Left"_Hegelianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Right"_vs._"Left"_Hegelianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 "Right" vs. "Left" Hegelianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Right"_vs._"Left"_Hegelianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_in_France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_in_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Reception in France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_in_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_pragmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_pragmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 American pragmatism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_pragmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications_and_other_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications_and_other_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Publications and other writings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Publications_and_other_writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Publications and other writings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Publications_and_other_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Berlin_lecture_series" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Berlin_lecture_series"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Berlin lecture series </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Berlin_lecture_series-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Primary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Secondary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Societies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Audio_and_video" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio_and_video"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Audio and video </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Audio_and_video-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hegel_texts_online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hegel_texts_online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Hegel texts online </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hegel_texts_online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Other resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 134 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-134" aria-hidden="true" > 134 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%AC%E1%8B%B4%E1%88%AA%E1%8A%AD_%E1%88%84%E1%8C%8D%E1%88%8D" title="ፍሬዴሪክ ሄግል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፍሬዴሪክ ሄግል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%87%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%BA%D9%84" title="جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيغل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيغل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B3_%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B4_%D5%96%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AD_%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Ճորճ Ուիլհելմ Ֆրետրիխ Հեկել – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ճորճ Ուիլհելմ Ֆրետրիխ Հեկել" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="হেগেল – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হেগেল" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georq_Vilhelm_Fridrix_Hegel" title="Georq Vilhelm Fridrix Hegel – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Georq Vilhelm Fridrix Hegel" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%82_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%87%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D9%87%DA%AF%D9%84" title="گئورق ویلهلم فریدریش هگل – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="گئورق ویلهلم فریدریش هگل" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="গেয়র্গ ভিলহেল্ম ফ্রিডরিখ হেগেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গেয়র্গ ভিলহেল্ম ফ্রিডরিখ হেগেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вильгельм Фридрих Гегель – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Георг Вильгельм Фридрих Гегель" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вільгельм Фрыдрых Гегель – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Георг Вільгельм Фрыдрых Гегель" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%93%D1%8D%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вільгельм Фрыдрых Гэгель – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Георг Вільгельм Фрыдрых Гэгель" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Вилхелм Фридрих Хегел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Георг Вилхелм Фридрих Хегел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D2%BA%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Һегель – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Георг Һегель" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Hegel" title="Georg Hegel – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Georg Hegel" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AD_%DA%A4%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D9%87%D9%8A%DA%AD%D9%84" title="ڭيورڭ ڤيلهيلم فريدريش هيڭل – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ڭيورڭ ڤيلهيلم فريدريش هيڭل" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA_%CE%92%CE%AF%CE%BB%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BC_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%87_%CE%A7%CE%AD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Γκέοργκ Βίλχελμ Φρίντριχ Χέγκελ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γκέοργκ Βίλχελμ Φρίντριχ Χέγκελ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Гегель – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Георг Гегель" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegelo" title="Hegelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hegelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%87%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D9%87%DA%AF%D9%84" title="گئورگ ویلهلم فریدریش هگل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گئورگ ویلهلم فریدریش هگل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%8C%EC%98%A4%EB%A5%B4%ED%81%AC_%EB%B9%8C%ED%97%AC%EB%A6%84_%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EB%93%9C%EB%A6%AC%ED%9E%88_%ED%97%A4%EA%B2%94" title="게오르크 빌헬름 프리드리히 헤겔 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="게오르크 빌헬름 프리드리히 헤겔" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A3_%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B4_%D5%96%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AD_%D5%80%D5%A5%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Գեորգ Վիլհելմ Ֆրիդրիխ Հեգել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գեորգ Վիլհելմ Ֆրիդրիխ Հեգել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जार्ज विल्हेम फ्रेड्रिक हेगेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जार्ज विल्हेम फ्रेड्रिक हेगेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Hegel" title="Friedrich Hegel – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%92_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9A_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%9C" title="גאורג וילהלם פרידריך הגל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאורג וילהלם פרידריך הגל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%82_%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜಾರ್ಜ್ ವಿಲಿಯ್ಂ ಫ್ರೆಡ್ರಿಕ್ ಹೆಗಲ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜಾರ್ಜ್ ವಿಲಿಯ್ಂ ಫ್ರೆಡ್ರಿಕ್ ಹೆಗಲ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92_%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="გეორგ ვილჰელმ ფრიდრიხ ჰეგელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეორგ ვილჰელმ ფრიდრიხ ჰეგელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вильгельм Фридрих Гегель – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Георг Вильгельм Фридрих Гегель" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вильгельм Фридрих Гегель – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Георг Вильгельм Фридрих Гегель" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Gulielmus_Fridericus_Hegel" title="Georgius Gulielmus Fridericus Hegel – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Georgius Gulielmus Fridericus Hegel" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgs_Vilhelms_Fr%C4%ABdrihs_H%C4%93gelis" title="Georgs Vilhelms Frīdrihs Hēgelis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Georgs Vilhelms Frīdrihs Hēgelis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Вилхелм Фридрих Хегел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Георг Вилхелм Фридрих Хегел" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%BD" title="ഹേഗൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹേഗൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%93%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2" title="गेओर्ग विल्हेल्म फ्रीडरीश हेगल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="गेओर्ग विल्हेल्म फ्रीडरीश हेगल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92_%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%AE_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="გეორგ ვილჰელმ ფრიდრიხ ჰეგელი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გეორგ ვილჰელმ ფრიდრიხ ჰეგელი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%87%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%84" title="جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيجل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جورج فيلهلم فريدريش هيجل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вильхэлм Фридрих Гегель – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Георг Вильхэлм Фридрих Гегель" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B2" title="जर्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिक् हिगल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जर्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिक् हिगल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जोर्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिच हेगेल – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जोर्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिच हेगेल" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%82%AA%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AB%E3%83%98%E3%83%AB%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%83%95%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%83%AA%E3%83%92%E3%83%BB%E3%83%98%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B2%E3%83%AB" title="ゲオルク・ヴィルヘルム・フリードリヒ・ヘーゲル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲオルク・ヴィルヘルム・フリードリヒ・ヘーゲル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C,_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Гегель, Георг Вильгельм Фридрих – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Гегель, Георг Вильгельм Фридрих" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%93%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B2" title="ਗਿਓਕ ਵਿਲਹੈਲਮ ਫ਼ਰੀਡਰਿਸ਼ ਹੇਗਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਗਿਓਕ ਵਿਲਹੈਲਮ ਫ਼ਰੀਡਰਿਸ਼ ਹੇਗਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%DB%8C%DA%AF%D9%84" title="ہیگل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہیگل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%87%DB%90%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%90%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%90%D8%B4_%D9%87%DB%90%DA%AF%D9%84" title="گيورگ ويلهېلم فرېدرېش هېگل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="گيورگ ويلهېلم فرېدرېش هېگل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%BA_%CE%92%CE%AF%CE%BB%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BC_%CE%A6%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%87_%CE%A7%CE%AD%CE%B3%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Γκέοργκ Βίλχελμ Φρήντριχ Χέγκελ – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Γκέοργκ Βίλχελμ Φρήντριχ Χέγκελ" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%90%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D2%91_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D2%91%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Ґеорґ Вілгелм Фрідріх Геґел – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ґеорґ Вілгелм Фрідріх Геґел" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C,_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Гегель, Георг Вильгельм Фридрих – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гегель, Георг Вильгельм Фридрих" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जार्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिच हेगेल – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जार्ज विल्हेम फ्रेडरिच हेगेल" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9E,_%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%BD_%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A2_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B0%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0" title="ᱦᱮᱜᱮᱞ, ᱡᱚᱨᱡᱽ ᱤᱭᱤᱞᱦᱮᱢ ᱯᱷᱮᱰᱨᱤᱠ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱦᱮᱜᱮᱞ, ᱡᱚᱨᱡᱽ ᱤᱭᱤᱞᱦᱮᱢ ᱯᱷᱮᱰᱨᱤᱠ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Vilhelm_Fridrih_Hegel" title="Georg Vilhelm Fridrih Hegel – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Georg Vilhelm Fridrih Hegel" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4_%DA%BE%DB%8E%DA%AF%DA%B5" title="فریدریش ھێگڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فریدریش ھێگڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Вилхелм Фридрих Хегел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Георг Вилхелм Фридрих Хегел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="எகல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எகல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D2%BA%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Һегел – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Георг Һегел" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82_%E0%B0%AB%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B9%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D" title="జార్జ్ విలియం ఫ్రెడరిక్ హెగెల్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జార్జ్ విలియం ఫ్రెడరిక్ హెగెల్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84_%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5" title="เกออร์ค วิลเฮ็ล์ม ฟรีดริช เฮเกิล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เกออร์ค วิลเฮ็ล์ม ฟรีดริช เฮเกิล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D2%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85_%D2%B2%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Георг Вилҳелм Фридрих Ҳегел – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Георг Вилҳелм Фридрих Ҳегел" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3_%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC_%D0%A4%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%80%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Георг Вільгельм Фрідріх Гегель – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Георг Вільгельм Фрідріх Гегель" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%88%D9%84%DB%81%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9_%DB%81%DB%8C%DA%AF%D9%84" title="جارج ولہلم فریڈریک ہیگل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جارج ولہلم فریڈریک ہیگل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel%27_Georg_Vil%27hel%27m_Fridrih" title="Hegel' Georg Vil'hel'm Fridrih – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Hegel' Georg Vil'hel'm Fridrih" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hegel_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hegel (disambiguation)">Hegel (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/220px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/330px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG/440px-1831_Schlesinger_Philosoph_Georg_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Hegel_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3674" data-file-height="4783" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait (1831) by <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Schlesinger" title="Jakob Schlesinger">Jakob Schlesinger</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1770-08-27)27 August 1770 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Duchy of Württemberg">Duchy of Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">14 November 1831(1831-11-14) (aged 61) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift" title="Tübinger Stift">Tübinger Stift</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>, 1790; <a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">licentiate</a>, 1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">University of Jena</a> (PhD, 1801)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable work</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="The Science of Logic">The Science of Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Philosophical_Sciences" title="Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1811)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data">3, including <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Hegel" title="Karl von Hegel">Karl</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immanuel Hegel (page does not exist)">Immanuel</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Hegel" class="extiw" title="de:Immanuel Hegel">de</a>]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">Jena</a> (1801–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a> (1816–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">Berlin</a> (1818–1831)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Dissertatio_Philosophica_de_Orbitis_Plan.html?id=6ku4AAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y">Dissertatio Philosophica de Orbitis Planetarium (Philosophical Dissertation on the Orbits of the Planets)</a> (1801)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johann_Friedrich_LeBret&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Friedrich LeBret (page does not exist)">J. F. LeBret</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_LeBret" class="extiw" title="de:Johann Friedrich LeBret">de</a>] (M.A. advisor)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of art">Philosophy of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Hegel_Unterschrift.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Hegel_Unterschrift.svg/150px-Hegel_Unterschrift.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Hegel_Unterschrift.svg/225px-Hegel_Unterschrift.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Hegel_Unterschrift.svg/300px-Hegel_Unterschrift.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="143" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel<a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a> (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a <a href="/wiki/German_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="German philosopher">German philosopher</a> and one of the most influential figures of <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/19th-century_philosophy" title="19th-century philosophy">19th-century philosophy</a>. His influence extends across the entire range of <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">contemporary philosophical</a> topics, from <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical">metaphysical</a> issues in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">philosophy of art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a>. Born in 1770 in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, Holy Roman Empire, during the transitional period between the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#German_states" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Romantic</a> movement in the Germanic regions of Europe, Hegel lived through and was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic wars">Napoleonic wars</a>. His fame rests chiefly upon <a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="The Science of Logic">The Science of Logic</a>, his <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> account of history, and his lectures at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a> on topics from his <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Philosophical_Sciences" title="Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</a>. Throughout his work, Hegel strove to address and correct the problematic <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">dualisms</a> of modern philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kantian</a> and otherwise, typically by drawing upon the resources of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Hegel everywhere insists that reason and freedom are historical achievements, not natural givens. His <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a>-speculative procedure is grounded in the principle of <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanence</a>, that is, in assessing claims always according to their own internal criteria. Taking <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a> seriously, he contends that people cannot presume any truths that have not passed the test of experience; even the <a href="/wiki/A_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori">a priori</a> categories of the Logic must attain their "verification" in the natural world and the historical accomplishments of humankind. Guided by the <a href="/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia">Delphic</a> imperative to "<a href="/wiki/Know_thyself" title="Know thyself">know thyself</a>", Hegel presents free self-determination as the essence of humankind – a conclusion from his 1806–07 Phenomenology that he claims is further verified by the systematic account of the interdependence of logic, <a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">nature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geist" title="Geist">spirit</a> in his later Encyclopedia. He asserts that the Logic at once preserves and overcomes the dualisms of the material and the mental – that is, it accounts for both the continuity and difference marking the domains of nature and culture – as a metaphysically necessary and coherent "identity of identity and non-identity". <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formative_years">Formative years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formative years">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stuttgart,_Tübingen,_Berne,_Frankfurt_(1770–1800)">Stuttgart, Tübingen, Berne, Frankfurt (1770–1800)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Stuttgart, Tübingen, Berne, Frankfurt (1770–1800)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg/220px-Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg/330px-Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg/440px-Stuttgart-Hegel-Birthplace-2006-04-09a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The birthplace of Hegel in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, which now houses the Hegel Museum</figcaption></figure> Hegel was born on 27 August 1770 in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Duchy of Württemberg">Duchy of Württemberg</a> in the Holy Roman Empire (now southwestern Germany). Christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig Hegel (1733–1799), was secretary to the revenue office at the court of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Eugen,_Duke_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg">Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard20002–3,_745-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa Hegel, née Fromm (1741–1783), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court Ludwig Albrecht Fromm (1696–1758). She died of <a href="/wiki/Bilious_fever" title="Bilious fever">bilious fever</a> when Hegel was thirteen. Hegel and his father also caught the disease but narrowly survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard20003-7">[6]</a> Hegel had a sister, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christiane_Luise_Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christiane Luise Hegel (page does not exist)">Chistiane Luise</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiane_Luise_Hegel" class="extiw" title="de:Christiane Luise Hegel">de</a>] (1773–1832); and a brother, Georg Ludwig (1776–1812), who perished as an officer during Napoleon's 1812 Russian campaign. At the age of three, Hegel went to the German School. When he entered the Latin School two years later, he already knew the <a href="/wiki/First_declension" title="First declension">first declension</a>, having been taught it by his mother.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGHWJQhWRNy0CpgPA4redir_escyvonepageqffalse_4]-8">[7]</a>: 4  In 1776, he entered Stuttgart's <a href="/wiki/Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium" title="Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium">Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium</a> and during his adolescence read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Gottlieb_Klopstock" title="Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock">Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock</a> and writers associated with the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Christian_Garve" title="Christian Garve">Christian Garve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a>. In 1844, Hegel's first biographer, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Rosenkranz" title="Karl Rosenkranz">Karl Rosenkranz</a> described the young Hegel's education there by saying that it "belonged entirely to the Enlightenment with respect to principle, and entirely to classical antiquity with respect to curriculum."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20057–8-9">[8]</a> His studies at the Gymnasium concluded with his graduation speech, "The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard200016-10">[9]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T%C3%BCbinger_Stift,_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift%2C_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG/220px-T%C3%BCbinger_Stift%2C_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift%2C_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG/330px-T%C3%BCbinger_Stift%2C_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift%2C_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG/440px-T%C3%BCbinger_Stift%2C_T%C3%BCbingen.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Hegel, Schelling, and Hölderlin are believed to have shared the room on the second floor above the entrance doorway while studying at this institute – (a Protestant seminary called "the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift" title="Tübinger Stift">Tübinger Stift</a>").</figcaption></figure> At the age of eighteen, Hegel entered the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift" title="Tübinger Stift">Tübinger Stift</a>, a Protestant seminary attached to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a>, where he had as roommates the poet and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Friedrich Hölderlin</a> and the future philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Schelling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1993a-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedding2020-12">[11]</a> Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. (It is mostly likely that Hegel attended the Stift because it was state-funded, for he had "a profound distaste for the study of orthodox theology" and never wanted to become a minister.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20058-13">[12]</a>) All three greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally steeped himself in <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> and Lessing during this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris19977-14">[13]</a> They watched the unfolding of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> with shared enthusiasm.<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> Although the violence of the 1793 <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> dampened Hegel's hopes, he continued to identify with the moderate <a href="/wiki/Girondin" class="mw-redirect" title="Girondin">Girondin</a> faction and never lost his commitment to the principles of 1789, which he expressed by drinking a toast to the <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">storming of the Bastille</a> every fourteenth of July.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000451-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200510-16">[15]</a> Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on <a href="/wiki/Kantian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantian philosophy">Kantian philosophy</a>, from which Hegel remained aloof.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20059-17">[16]</a> Hegel, at this time, envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph (a "man of letters") who serves to make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism would not come until 1800.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard200046–47-18">[17]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_(Pastell_1792).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_%28Pastell_1792%29.jpg/150px-FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_%28Pastell_1792%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_%28Pastell_1792%29.jpg/225px-FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_%28Pastell_1792%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_%28Pastell_1792%29.jpg/300px-FK_Hiemer_-_Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin_%28Pastell_1792%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1604" /></a><figcaption>The poet <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Friedrich Hölderlin</a> (1770–1843) was one of Hegel's closest friends and roommates at <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCbinger_Stift" title="Tübinger Stift">Tübinger Stift</a>.</figcaption></figure> Having received his theological certificate from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister (house tutor) to an aristocratic family in <a href="/wiki/Berne,_Germany" title="Berne, Germany">Berne</a> (1793–1796).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard200038-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedding2020-12">[11]</a> During this period, he composed the text which has become known as the <a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_(Hegel)" title="Life of Jesus (Hegel)">Life of Jesus</a> and a book-length manuscript titled "The Positivity of the Christian Religion." His relations with his employers becoming strained, Hegel accepted an offer mediated by Hölderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> in 1797. There, Hölderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard200080-20">[19]</a> In Berne, Hegel's writings had been sharply critical of orthodox Christianity, but in Frankfurt, under the influence of early Romanticism, he underwent a sort of reversal, exploring, in particular, the mystical experience of love as the true essence of religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200511–13-21">[20]</a> Also in 1797, the unpublished and unsigned manuscript of "<a href="/wiki/The_Oldest_Systematic_Program_of_German_Idealism" title="The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism">The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism</a>" was written. It was written in Hegel's hand, but may have been authored by Hegel, Schelling, or Hölderlin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000136–39-22">[21]</a> While in Frankfurt, Hegel composed the essay "Fragments on Religion and Love."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005xiii-23">[22]</a> In 1799, he wrote another essay titled "The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate", unpublished during his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Career_years">Career years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Career years">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jena,_Bamberg,_Nuremberg_(1801–1816)">Jena, Bamberg, Nuremberg (1801–1816)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Jena, Bamberg, Nuremberg (1801–1816)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg/150px-FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg/225px-FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg/300px-FriedrichWilhelmSchelling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>While at Jena, Hegel helped found a philosophical journal with his friend from Seminary, the young philosophical prodigy <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1801, Hegel came to <a href="/wiki/Jena" title="Jena">Jena</a> at the encouragement of Schelling, who held the position of Extraordinary Professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">University of Jena</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> Hegel secured a position at the University of Jena as a <a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a> (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting the <a href="/wiki/Inaugural_dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inaugural dissertation">inaugural dissertation</a> De Orbitis Planetarum, in which he briefly criticized mathematical arguments that assert that there must exist a planet between <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann195952–53-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[b]</a> Later in the year, Hegel's essay The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy was completed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005xiv-27">[25]</a> He lectured on "Logic and Metaphysics" and gave lectures with Schelling on an "Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy" and facilitated a "philosophical disputorium."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005xiv-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000108-28">[26]</a> In 1802, Schelling and Hegel founded the journal Kritische Journal der Philosophie (Critical Journal of Philosophy) to which they contributed until the collaboration ended when Schelling left for <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Würzburg">Würzburg</a> in 1803.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005xiv-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000113-29">[27]</a> In 1805, the university promoted Hegel to the unsalaried position of extraordinary professor after he wrote a letter to the poet and minister of culture <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe</a> protesting the promotion of his philosophical adversary <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Friedrich_Fries" title="Jakob Friedrich Fries">Jakob Friedrich Fries</a> ahead of him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000223-30">[28]</a> Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Vo%C3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Heinrich Voß">Johann Heinrich Voß</a> to obtain a post at the renascent <a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">University of Heidelberg</a>, but he failed. To his chagrin, Fries was, in the same year, made ordinary professor (salaried).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000224–25-31">[29]</a> The following February marked the birth of Hegel's illegitimate son, Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807–1831), as the result of an affair with Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt née Fischer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000192-32">[30]</a> With his finances drying up quickly, Hegel was under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his philosophical system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000117-33">[31]</a> Hegel was putting the finishing touches to it, <a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a>, as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on 14 October 1806 in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena">Battle of Jena</a> on a plateau outside the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedding2020-12">[11]</a> On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena. Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer" title="Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer">Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer</a>: <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg/290px-Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="479" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg/435px-Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg/580px-Hegel-and-Napoleon-in-Jena-1806.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="2447" /></a><figcaption>"Hegel and Napoleon in Jena" (illustration from <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Magazine" title="Harper's Magazine">Harper's Magazine</a>, 1895), an imaginary meeting that became proverbial due to Hegel's notable use of <a href="/wiki/Weltseele" class="mw-redirect" title="Weltseele">Weltseele</a> ("world-soul") in reference to Napoleon ("the world-soul on horseback", die Weltseele zu Pferde)</figcaption></figure> <blockquote>I saw the Emperor – this world-soul [<a href="/wiki/Weltseele" class="mw-redirect" title="Weltseele">Weltseele</a>] – riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1984c114-34">[32]</a> </blockquote> Hegel biographer <a href="/wiki/Terry_Pinkard" title="Terry Pinkard">Terry Pinkard</a> notes that Hegel's comment to Niethammer "is all the more striking since he had already composed the crucial section of the Phenomenology in which he remarked that the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a> had now officially passed to another land (Germany) that would complete 'in thought' what the Revolution had only partially accomplished in practice."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000228–29-35">[33]</a> Although Napoleon had spared the University of Jena from much of the destruction of the surrounding city, few students returned after the battle and enrollment suffered, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000231–33-36">[34]</a> Hegel traveled in the winter to <a href="/wiki/Bamberg" title="Bamberg">Bamberg</a> and stayed with Niethammer to oversee the proofs of the Phenomenology, which was being printed there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000231–33-36">[34]</a> Although Hegel tried to obtain another professorship, even writing Goethe in an attempt to help secure a permanent position replacing a professor of botany,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000234–36-37">[35]</a> he was unable to find a permanent position. In 1807, he had to move to Bamberg since his savings and the payment from the Phenomenology were exhausted and he needed money to support his illegitimate son Ludwig.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000236–38-38">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000231–33-36">[34]</a> There, he became the editor of the local newspaper, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bamberger_Zeitung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bamberger Zeitung (page does not exist)">Bamberger Zeitung</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberger_Zeitung" class="extiw" title="de:Bamberger Zeitung">de</a>],<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> a position he obtained with the help of Niethammer. Ludwig Fischer and his mother stayed behind in Jena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000236–38-38">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg/150px-Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg/225px-Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Hegel's friend <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Immanuel_Niethammer" title="Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer">Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer</a> (1766–1848) financially supported Hegel and used his political influence to help him obtain multiple positions.</figcaption></figure> In Bamberg, as editor of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bamberger_Zeitung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bamberger Zeitung (page does not exist)">Bamberger Zeitung</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberger_Zeitung" class="extiw" title="de:Bamberger Zeitung">de</a>], which was a pro-French newspaper, Hegel extolled the virtues of Napoleon and often editorialized the Prussian accounts of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000243–47-39">[37]</a> Being the editor of a local newspaper, Hegel also became an important person in Bamberg social life, often visiting with the local official <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johann_Heinrich_Liebeskind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Heinrich Liebeskind (page does not exist)">Johann Heinrich Liebeskind</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Liebeskind" class="extiw" title="de:Johann Heinrich Liebeskind">de</a>], and becoming involved in local gossip and pursued his passions for cards, fine eating, and the local Bamberg beer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000247–49-40">[38]</a> However, Hegel bore contempt for what he saw as "old Bavaria", frequently referring to it as "Barbaria" and dreaded that "hometowns" like Bamberg would lose their autonomy under new the Bavarian state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000249–51-41">[39]</a> After being investigated in September 1808 by the Bavarian state for potentially violating security measures by publishing French troop movements, Hegel wrote to Niethammer, now a high official in Munich, pleading for Niethammer's help in securing a teaching position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000251–55-42">[40]</a> With the help of Niethammer, Hegel was appointed headmaster of a gymnasium in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a> in November 1808, a post he held until 1816. While in Nuremberg, Hegel adapted his recently published Phenomenology of Spirit for use in the classroom. Part of his remit was to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000337-43">[41]</a> In 1811, Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791–1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator.<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> This period saw the publication of his second major work, the Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik; 3 vols., 1812, 1813 and 1816), and the birth of two sons, <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Hegel" title="Karl von Hegel">Karl Friedrich Wilhelm</a> (1813–1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814–1891).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000773-44">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heidelberg,_Berlin_(1816–1831)">Heidelberg, Berlin (1816–1831)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Heidelberg, Berlin (1816–1831)">edit</a>]</div> Having received offers of a post from the Universities of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Erlangen-Nuremberg">Erlangen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_University" title="Heidelberg University">Heidelberg</a>, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. Soon after, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer (now ten years old) joined the Hegel household in April 1817, having spent time in an orphanage after the death of his mother Christiana Burkhardt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000354–56-45">[43]</a> In 1817, Hegel published The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Outline as a summary of his philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg.<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERedding2020-12">[11]</a> It is also while in Heidelberg that Hegel first lectured on the philosophy of art.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200516-46">[44]</a> In 1818, Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>'s death in 1814. Here, Hegel published his Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821). Hegel devoted himself primarily to delivering lectures; his lectures on the philosophy of fine art, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history, and the history of philosophy were published posthumously from students' notes. In spite of his notoriously terrible delivery, his fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200517-47">[45]</a> Meanwhile, Hegel and his pupils, such as <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Henning" title="Leopold von Henning">Leopold von Henning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Carov%C3%A9" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Carové">Friedrich Wilhelm Carové</a>, were harassed and put under the surveillance of <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ludwig_Sayn-Wittgenstein" title="Wilhelm Ludwig Sayn-Wittgenstein">Prince Sayn-Wittgenstein</a>, the interior minister of Prussia and his reactionary circles in the Prussian court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005222-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-D'Hondt-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cowley-50">[48]</a> In the remainder of his career, he made two trips to <a href="/wiki/Weimar" title="Weimar">Weimar</a>, where he met with Goethe for the last time, and to <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Netherlands">Northern Netherlands</a>, Leipzig, <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, Prague, and Paris.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiep2021xxi-51">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin,_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin%2C_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG/150px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin%2C_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin%2C_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG/225px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin%2C_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin%2C_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG/300px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_-_Dorotheenst%C3%A4dtischer_Friedhof_-_Berlin%2C_Germany_-_DSC00377.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>Hegel's tombstone in Berlin</figcaption></figure> During the last ten years of his life, Hegel did not publish another book but thoroughly revised the Encyclopedia (second edition, 1827; third, 1830). In his political philosophy, he criticized <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Karl Ludwig von Haller</a>'s reactionary work, which claimed that laws were not necessary. A number of other works on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1996-52">[50]</a> were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959372–73-53">[51]</a> Hegel was appointed University <a href="/wiki/Rector_(academia)" title="Rector (academia)">Rector</a> of the university in October 1829, but his term ended in September 1830. Hegel was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831 <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick William III</a> decorated him with the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Eagle" title="Order of the Red Eagle">Order of the Red Eagle</a>, 3rd Class for his service to the Prussian state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiep2021xxii-54">[52]</a> In August 1831, a <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> <a href="/wiki/1826%E2%80%931837_cholera_pandemic" title="1826–1837 cholera pandemic">epidemic</a> reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in <a href="/wiki/Kreuzberg" title="Kreuzberg">Kreuzberg</a>. Now in a weak state of health, Hegel seldom went out. As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin in the mistaken belief that the epidemic had largely subsided. By 14 November, Hegel was dead.<a href="#cite_note-Knox2022-6">[5]</a> The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died from another gastrointestinal disease.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000-55">[53]</a> His last words are said to have been, "There was only one man who ever understood me, and even he didn't understand me."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeine1834221-56">[54]</a> He was buried on 16 November. In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried in the <a href="/wiki/Dorotheenstadt_cemetery" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorotheenstadt cemetery">Dorotheenstadt cemetery</a> next to Fichte and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Wilhelm_Ferdinand_Solger" title="Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger">Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000659–70-57">[55]</a> Hegel's illegitimate son, Ludwig Fischer, had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Batavia</a> and the news of his death never reached his father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000548-58">[56]</a> Early the following year, Hegel's sister Christiane committed suicide by drowning. Hegel's two remaining sons – <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Hegel" title="Karl von Hegel">Karl</a>, who became a historian; and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immanuel Hegel (page does not exist)">Immanuel</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Hegel" class="extiw" title="de:Immanuel Hegel">de</a>], who followed a theological path – lived long and safeguarded their father's <a href="/wiki/Nachla%C3%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="Nachlaß">manuscripts and letters</a>, and produced editions of his works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000663–64-59">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences">Influences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Influences">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg/120px-Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg/180px-Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg/240px-Aristotle_Altemps_Detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) and the ancient Greeks were a major influence.</figcaption></figure> As <a href="/wiki/Henry_Silton_Harris" title="Henry Silton Harris">H. S. Harris</a> recounts, when Hegel entered the Tübingen seminary in 1788, "he was a typical product of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#German_states" title="Age of Enlightenment">German Enlightenment</a> – an enthusiastic reader of <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a>, acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a> (at least at second hand), but perhaps more deeply devoted to the classics than to any thing modern."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199325-60">[58]</a> During this early period of his life "the Greeks – especially <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> – came first."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199327-61">[59]</a> Although he later elevated <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> above Plato, Hegel never abandoned his love of ancient philosophy, the imprint of which is everywhere in his thought.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrarin20073-62">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(painted_portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/120px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/180px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg/240px-Immanuel_Kant_%28painted_portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">critical philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804) was a major influence on Hegel.</figcaption></figure> Hegel's concern with various forms of cultural unity (Judaic, Greek, medieval, and modern) during this early period would remain with him throughout his career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199332–33-63">[61]</a> In this way, he was also a typical product of early <a href="/wiki/German_romanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="German romanticism">German romanticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200534-64">[62]</a> "Unity of life" was the phrase used by Hegel and his generation to express their concept of the highest good. It encompasses unity "with oneself, with others, and with nature. The main threat to such unity consists in division (Entzweiung) or alienation (Entfremdung)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200537-65">[63]</a> In this respect, Hegel was particularly taken with the phenomenon of love as a kind of "unity-in-difference," this both in the ancient articulation provided by Plato and in the Christian religion's doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">agape</a>, which Hegel at this time viewed as "already 'grounded on universal Reason.'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200540-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199329-67">[65]</a> This interest, as well as his theological training, would continue to mark his thought, even as it developed in a more theoretical or metaphysical direction.<a href="#cite_note-69">[c]</a> According to Glenn Alexander Magee, Hegel's thought (in particular, the tripartite structure of his system) also owes much to the <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">hermetic</a> tradition, in particular, the work of <a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Jakob Böhme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2001-70">[67]</a> The conviction that philosophy must take the form of a system Hegel owed, most particularly, to his Tübingen roommates, Schelling and Hölderlin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201430-71">[68]</a> Hegel also read widely and was much influenced by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> and other theorists of the <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickey1989-72">[69]</a> It was Kant's <a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">critical philosophy</a> that provided what Hegel took as the definitive modern articulation of the divisions that must be overcome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199336-73">[70]</a> This led to his engagement with the philosophical programs of <a href="/wiki/Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Fichte">Fichte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schelling" title="Schelling">Schelling</a>, as well as his attention to <a href="/wiki/Spinoza" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinoza">Spinoza</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pantheism_controversy" title="Pantheism controversy">Pantheism controversy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard200030–33-74">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[d]</a> The influence of <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gottfried von Herder">Johann Gottfried von Herder</a>, however, would lead Hegel to a qualified rejection of the universality claimed by the Kantian program in favor of a more culturally, linguistically, and historically informed account of reason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201429-76">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Phenomenology of Spirit">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></div> The Phenomenology of Spirit was published in 1807. This is the first time that, at the age of thirty-six, Hegel lays out "his own distinctive approach" and adopts an "outlook that is recognizably 'Hegelian' to the philosophical problems of post-Kantian philosophy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern20026-77">[73]</a> Yet, the book was poorly understood even by Hegel's contemporaries and received mostly negative reviews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000256–65-78">[74]</a> To this day, the Phenomenology is infamous for, among other things, its conceptual and allusive density, idiosyncratic terminology, and confusing transitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPippin199352–58-79">[75]</a> Its most comprehensive commentary, scholar <a href="/wiki/Henry_Silton_Harris" title="Henry Silton Harris">H. S. Harris</a>'s two-volume Hegel's Ladder (The Pilgrimage of Reason and The Odyssey of Spirit),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997-80">[76]</a> runs more than three times the length of the text itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2000131-81">[77]</a> The fourth chapter of the Phenomenology includes Hegel's first presentation of the <a href="/wiki/Lord-bondsman_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord-bondsman dialectic">lord-bondsman dialectic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-84">[e]</a> the section of the book that has been most influential in general culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol.1,_p._376,_n._22-85">[80]</a> What is at stake in the conflict Hegel presents is the practical (not theoretical) recognition or acknowledgement [Anerkennung, anerkennen] of the universality – i.e., personhood, humanity – of each of two opposed self-consciousnesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992245-86">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[f]</a> What the readers learn, but what the self-consciousnesses described do not yet realize, is that recognition can only be successful and actual as reciprocal or mutual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶184-90">[84]</a> This is the case for the simple reason that the recognition of someone you do not recognize as properly human cannot count as genuine recognition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992246-91">[85]</a> Hegel can also be seen here as criticizing the <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualist</a> worldview of people and society as a collection of atomized individuals, instead taking a <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> view of human self-consciousness as requiring the recognition of others, and people's view of themselves as being shaped by the views of others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1975chapter_V,_§2-92">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg/220px-Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg/330px-Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg/440px-Ph%C3%A4nomenologie_des_Geistes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="847" /></a><figcaption>Title page of the original 1807 edition</figcaption></figure> Hegel describes The Phenomenology as both the "introduction" to his philosophical system and also as the "first part" of that system as the "science of the experience of consciousness."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶26–27-93">[87]</a> Yet it has long been controversial in both respects; indeed, Hegel's own attitude changed throughout his life.<a href="#cite_note-94">[g]</a> Nevertheless, however complicated the details, the basic strategy by which it attempts to make good on its introductory claim is not difficult to state. Beginning with only the most basic "certainties of consciousness itself," "the most immediate of which is the certainty that I am conscious of this object, here and now," Hegel aims to show that these "certainties of natural consciousness" have as their consequence the standpoint of speculative logic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20137-95">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2018-96">[89]</a> This does not, however, make the Phenomenology a <a href="/wiki/Bildungsroman" title="Bildungsroman">Bildungsroman</a>. It is not the consciousness under observation that learns from its experience. Only "we," the phenomenological observers, are in a position to profit from Hegel's logical reconstruction of the science of experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200557-97">[90]</a> The ensuing dialectic is long and hard. It is described by Hegel himself as a "path of despair," in which self-consciousness finds itself to be, over and again, in error.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶78-98">[91]</a> It is the self-concept of consciousness itself that is tested in the domain of experience, and where that concept is not adequate, self-consciousness "suffers this violence at its own hands, and brings to ruin its own restricted satisfaction."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶80-99">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern200241-100">[93]</a> For, as Hegel points out, one cannot learn how to swim without getting into the water.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§10R-101">[94]</a> By progressively testing its concept of knowledge in this way, by "making experience his standard of knowledge, Hegel is embarking upon nothing less than a transcendental deduction of metaphysics."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005170-102">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[h]</a> In the course of its dialectic, the Phenomenology purports to demonstrate that – because consciousness always includes self-consciousness – there are no 'given' objects of direct awareness not already mediated by thought. Further analysis of the structure of self-consciousness reveals that both the social and conceptual stability of the experiential world depend upon networks of reciprocal recognition. Failures of recognition, then, demand reflection upon the past as a way "to understand what is required of us at the present." For Hegel, this ultimately involves rethinking an interpretation of "religion as the collective reflection of the modern community on what ultimately counts for it." He contends, finally, that this "historically, socially construed philosophical account of that whole process" elucidates the genesis of a distinctly "modern" standpoint.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000205-105">[97]</a> Another way of putting this is to say that the Phenomenology takes up Kant's philosophical project of investigating the capacities and limits of reason. Under the influence of Herder, however, Hegel proceeds historically, instead of altogether a priori. Yet, although proceeding historically, Hegel resists the relativistic consequences of Herder's own thought. In the words of one scholar, "It is Hegel's insight that reason itself has a history, that what counts as reason is the result of a development. This is something that Kant never imagines and that Herder only glimpses."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201432-106">[98]</a> In praise of Hegel's accomplishment, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a> writes that the guiding conviction of the Phenomenology is that a philosopher should not "confine him or herself to views that have been held but penetrate these to the human reality they reflect." In other words, it is not enough to consider propositions, or even the content of consciousness; "it is worthwhile to ask in every instance what kind of spirit would entertain such propositions, hold such views, and have such a consciousness. Every outlook in other words, is to be studied not merely as an academic possibility but as an existential reality."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959115-107">[99]</a> The Phenomenology of Spirit shows that the search for an externally objective criterion of truth is a fool's errand. The constraints on knowledge are necessarily internal to spirit itself. Yet, although theories and self-conceptions may always be reevaluated, renegotiated, and revised, this is not a merely imaginative exercise. Claims to knowledge must always prove their own adequacy in real historical experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201478-108">[100]</a> Although Hegel seemed during his Berlin years to have abandoned The Phenomenology of Spirit, at the time of his unexpected death, he was in fact making plans to revise and republish it. As Hegel was no longer in need of money or credentials, H. S. Harris argues that "the only rational conclusion that can be drawn from his decision to republish the book… is that he still regarded the 'science of experience' as a valid project in itself" and one for which later system has no equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199599-109">[101]</a> There is, however, no scholarly consensus about the Phenomenology with respect to either of the systematic roles asserted by Hegel at the time of its publication.<a href="#cite_note-110">[i]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[j]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_system">Philosophical system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philosophical system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Philosophical_Sciences" title="Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist"><img alt="Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/185px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/278px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/370px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="640" /></a><div class="sidebar-top-caption"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Forerunners</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Schelling">Schelling</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Principal <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_bibliography" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography">works</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Science_of_Logic">The Science of Logic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Philosophical_system">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Objective_spirit">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">Lectures on the Philosophy of History</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_Hegelians" title="Right Hegelians">Right Hegelians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Hegelians" title="Young Hegelians">Young Hegelians</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":0,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" aria-expanded="false"></a> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Category:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hegelianism" title="Template:Hegelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hegelianism" title="Template talk:Hegelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hegelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hegelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Hegel's philosophical system is divided into three parts: the science of <a href="/wiki/History_of_logic#Logic_in_Hegel's_philosophy" title="History of logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">the philosophy of nature</a>, and the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Geist" title="Geist">spirit</a> (the latter two of which together constitute the <a href="/wiki/Realphilosophie" title="Realphilosophie">real philosophy</a>). This structure is adopted from <a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">Neoplatonic</a> triad of "'remaining-procession-return' and from the Christian Trinity."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a205-113">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[k]</a> Although evident in draft writings dating back as early as 1805, the system was not completed in published form until the 1817 Encyclopedia (1st ed.).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199542-116">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a> argues that the position of the logic with respect to the real philosophy is best understood in terms of Hegel's appropriation of Aristotle's distinction between "the order of explanation" and "the order of being."<a href="#cite_note-118">[l]</a> To Beiser, Hegel is neither a Platonist who believes in abstract logical entities, nor a <a href="/wiki/Nominalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominalist">nominalist</a> according to whom the particular is first in the orders of explanation and being alike. Rather, Hegel is a <a href="/wiki/Holist" class="mw-redirect" title="Holist">holist</a>. For Hegel, the universal is always first in the order of explanation even if what is naturally particular is first in the order of being. With respect to the system as a whole, that universal is supplied by the logic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200556–57-119">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Inwood" title="Michael Inwood">Michael J. Inwood</a> states, "The logical idea is non-temporal and therefore does not exist at any time apart from its manifestations." To ask "when" it divides into nature and spirit is analogous to asking "when" 12 divides into 5 and 7. The question does not have an answer because it is predicated upon a fundamental misunderstanding of its terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a208-120">[108]</a> The task of the logic (at this high systemic level) is to articulate what Hegel calls "the identity of identity and non-identity" of nature and spirit. Put another way, it aims to overcome subject-object dualism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200561–65-121">[109]</a> This is to say that, among other things, Hegel's philosophical project endeavors to provide the metaphysical basis for an account of spirit that is continuous with, yet distinct from, the "merely" natural world – without thereby reducing either term to the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a-122">[110]</a> Furthermore, the final sections of Hegel's Encyclopedia suggest that to give priority to any one of its three parts is to have an interpretation that is "one-sided," incomplete or otherwise inaccurate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201432-106">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a-122">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010a§§574-77-123">[111]</a> As Hegel famously declares, "The true is the whole."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶20-124">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_of_Logic">Science of Logic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Science of Logic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_of_Logic" title="Science of Logic">Science of Logic</a></div> Hegel's concept of logic differs greatly from that of the ordinary English sense of the term. This can be seen, for instance, in such metaphysical definitions of logic as "the science of things grasped in [the] thoughts that used to be taken to express the essentialities of the things."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§24-125">[113]</a> As <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wolff_(Philosoph)" class="extiw" title="de:Michael Wolff (Philosoph)">Michael Wolff</a> explains, Hegel's logic is a continuation of Kant's distinctive logical program.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolff2013-126">[114]</a> Its occasional engagement with the familiar <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian</a> conception of logic is only incidental to Hegel's project. Twentieth-century developments by such logicians as <a href="/wiki/Frege" class="mw-redirect" title="Frege">Frege</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a> likewise remain logics of formal validity and so are likewise irrelevant to Hegel's project, which aspires to provide a metaphysical logic of truth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200530-127">[115]</a> There are two texts of Hegel's Logic. The first, The Science of Logic (1812, 1813, 1816; bk.I revised 1831), is sometimes also called the "Greater Logic." The second is the first volume of Hegel's Encyclopedia and is sometimes known as the "Lesser Logic." The Encyclopedia Logic is an abbreviated or condensed presentation of the same dialectic. Hegel composed it for use with students in the lecture hall, not as a substitute for its proper, book-length exposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006xvii–xix-128">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[m]</a> Hegel presents logic as a presuppositionless science that investigates the most fundamental thought-determinations [Denkbestimmungen], or <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">categories</a>, and so constitutes the basis of philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006-131">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWandschneider2013105-132">[119]</a> In putting something into question, one already presupposes logic; in this regard, it is the only field of inquiry that must constantly reflect upon its own mode of functioning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge199387-133">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Science_of_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="The Science of Logic">The Science of Logic</a> is Hegel's attempt to meet this foundational demand.<a href="#cite_note-134">[n]</a> As he puts it, "logic coincides with metaphysics."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§24-125">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200553-135">[121]</a> In the words of scholar Glenn Alexander Magee, the logic provides "an account of pure categories or ideas which are timelessly true" and which make up "the formal structure of reality itself".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011132-136">[122]</a> It is important to see, however, that Hegel's metaphysical program is not a return to the <a href="/wiki/Leibnizian" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibnizian">Leibnizian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Wolffian" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolffian">Wolffian</a> rationalism critiqued by Kant, which is a criticism Hegel accepts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200555-137">[123]</a> In particular, Hegel rejects any form of metaphysics as speculation about the transcendent. His procedure, an appropriation of Aristotle's concept of <a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">form</a>, is fully immanent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200553–57,_65–71-138">[124]</a> More generally, Hegel agrees wholeheartedly with Kant's rejection of all forms of dogmatism and also agrees that any future metaphysics must pass the test of criticism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2008156-139">[125]</a> It is the assessment of scholar <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Houlgate" title="Stephen Houlgate">Stephen Houlgate</a> that Hegel's method of immanent logical development and critique is historically unique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200538-140">[126]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9atrice_Longuenesse" title="Béatrice Longuenesse">Béatrice Longuenesse</a> holds that this project may be understood, on analogy to Kant, as "inseparably a metaphysical and a transcendental deduction of the categories of metaphysics."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonguenesse20075-6-141">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[o]</a> This approach insists, and claims to demonstrate, that the insights of logic cannot be judged by standards external to thought itself, that is, that "thought... is not the mirror of nature." Yet, she argues, this does not imply that these standards are arbitrary or subjective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELonguenesse20075-6-141">[127]</a> Hegel's translator and scholar of <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a> George di Giovanni likewise interprets the Logic as (drawing upon, yet also in opposition to, <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a>) immanently <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental</a>; its categories, according to Hegel, are built into life itself, and define what it is to be "an object in general."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2010liii_n.100-144">[129]</a> Books one and two of the Logic are the doctrines of "Being" and "Essence." Together they comprise the Objective Logic, which is largely occupied with overcoming the assumptions of traditional metaphysics. Book three is the final part of the Logic. It discusses the doctrine of "the Concept," which is concerned with reintegrating those categories of objectivity into a thoroughly <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">idealistic</a> account of reality.<a href="#cite_note-146">[p]</a> Simplifying greatly, Being describes its concepts just as they appear, Essence attempts to explain them with reference to other forces, and the Concept explains and unites them both in terms of an internal teleology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201410-147">[131]</a> The categories of Being "pass over" from one to the next as denoting thought-determinations only extrinsically connected to one another. The categories of Essence reciprocally "shine" into one another. Finally, in the Concept, thought has shown itself to be fully self-referential, and so its categories organically "develop" from one to the next.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200514–15-148">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§161-149">[133]</a> It is clear then, that in Hegel's technical sense of the term, the concept (Begriff, sometimes also rendered "notion," capitalized by some translators but not others<a href="#cite_note-151">[q]</a>) is not a psychological concept. When deployed with the definitive article ("the") and sometimes modified by the term "logical," Hegel is referring to the intelligible structure of reality as articulated in the Subjective Logic. (When used in the plural, however, Hegel's sense is much closer to the ordinary dictionary sense of the term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992123–25-152">[135]</a>) Hegel's inquiry into thought is concerned to systematize thought's own internal self-differentiation, that is, how pure concepts (<a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">logical categories</a>) differ from one another in their various relations of implication and interdependence. For instance, in the opening dialectic of the Logic, Hegel claims to display that the thought of "being, pure being – without further determination" is indistinguishable from the concept of nothing, and that, in this "passing back and forth" of being and nothing, "each immediately vanishes in its opposite."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b59–60-153">[136]</a> This movement is neither one concept nor the other, but the category of becoming. There is not a difference here to which one can "refer," only a dialectic that one can observe and describe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge1993-154">[137]</a> The final category of the Logic is "the idea." As with "the concept", the sense of this term for Hegel is not psychological. Rather, following <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Critique_of_Pure_Reason" class="mw-redirect" title="The Critique of Pure Reason">The Critique of Pure Reason</a>, Hegel's usage harks back to the Greek eidos, <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s concept of <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">form</a> that is fully existent and universal:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992123-155">[138]</a> "Hegel's Idee (like Plato's idea) is the product of an attempt to fuse ontology, epistemology, evaluation, etc., into a single set of concepts."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992125-156">[139]</a> The Logic accommodates within itself the necessity of the realm of natural-spiritual contingency, that which cannot be determined in advance: "To go further, it must abandon thinking altogether and let itself go, opening itself to that which is other than thought in pure receptivity."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge1993100-157">[140]</a> Simply put, logic realizes itself only in the domain of nature and spirit, in which it attains its "verification."<a href="#cite_note-159">[r]</a> Hence the conclusion of the Science of Logic with "the idea freely discharging [entläßt] itself" into "objectivity and external life" – and, so too, the systematic transition to the Realphilosophie.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b753-160">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge2006b125–26-161">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_the_real">Philosophy of the real</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Philosophy of the real">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg/220px-Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg/330px-Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg/440px-Tetradrachm_Athens_480-420BC_MBA_Lyon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>Hegel uses the <a href="/wiki/Owl_of_Minerva" class="mw-redirect" title="Owl of Minerva">Owl of Minerva</a> as a metaphor for how philosophy can understand historical conditions only after they occur.</figcaption></figure> In contrast to the first, logical part of Hegel's system, the second, <a href="/wiki/Realphilosophie" title="Realphilosophie">real-philosophical</a> part – the philosophy of nature and of spirit – is an ongoing project with respect to its historical content, which continues to change and develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200529–31-162">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel199554–55-163">[145]</a> For instance, although Hegel regards "the basic structure" of the philosophy of nature as complete, he was "aware that science is not 'finished' and will continue to make new discoveries".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011156-164">[146]</a> Philosophy is, as Hegel puts it, "its own time comprehended in thoughts."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991a21-165">[147]</a> He expands upon this definition: <blockquote>A further word on the subject of issuing instructions on how the world ought to be: philosophy, at any rate, always comes too late to perform this function. As the thought of the world, it appears only at a time when actuality has gone through its formative process and attained its completed state [sich fertig gemacht]. This lesson of the concept is necessarily also apparent from history, namely that it is only when actuality [Wirklichkeit] has reached maturity that the ideal appears opposite the real and reconstructs this real world, which it has grasped in its substance, in the shape of an intellectual realm. When philosophy paints its gray in gray, a shape of life has grown old, and it cannot be rejuvenated, but only recognized, by the gray in gray of philosophy; the owl of <a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a> begins its flight only with the onset of dusk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991a23-166">[148]</a></blockquote> This frequently has been read as an expression of the impotence of philosophy, political or otherwise, and a rationalization of the status quo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1991viii–ix-167">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Allegra_de_Laurentiis" title="Allegra de Laurentiis">Allegra de Laurentiis</a>, however, points out that the German expression "sich fertig machen", translated as "getting ready" or "to get ready", does not only imply completion, but also preparedness. This additional meaning is important because it better reflects Hegel's <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">actuality</a>. He characterizes actuality as being-at-work-staying-itself that can never be once-and-for-all completed or finished.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200529-168">[150]</a> Hegel describes the relationship between the logical and the real-philosophical parts of his system in this way: "If philosophy does not stand above its time in content, it does so in <a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">form</a>, because, as the thought and knowledge of that which is the substantial spirit of its time, it makes that spirit its object."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel199554-169">[151]</a> This is to say that what makes the philosophy of the real <a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft">scientific</a> in Hegel's technical sense is the systematically coherent logical form it uncovers in its natural-historical material – and so also displays in its presentation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992265–68-170">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Philosophy_of_Nature">The Philosophy of Nature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Philosophy of Nature">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">philosophy of nature</a> organizes the contingent material of the natural sciences systematically. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Realphilosophie" title="Realphilosophie">philosophy of the real</a>, in no way does it presume to "tell nature what it must be like."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005108–09-171">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge2006a-172">[154]</a> Historically, various interpreters have questioned Hegel's understanding of the natural sciences of his time. However, this claim has been largely refuted by recent scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestphal2008281–310-173">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011155-174">[156]</a> One of the very few ways in which the philosophy of nature might correct claims made by the natural sciences themselves is to combat reductive explanations; that is to discredit accounts employing categories not adequate to the complexity of the phenomena they purport to explain, as for instance, attempting to explain life in strictly chemical terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005199-175">[157]</a> Although Hegel and other Naturphilosophen aim to revive a teleological understanding of nature, they argue that their strictly internal or immanent concept of teleology is "limited to the ends observable within nature itself." Hence, they claim, it does not violate the Kantian critique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005101-176">[158]</a> Even more strongly, Hegel and Schelling claim that Kant's restriction of teleology to regulative status effectively undermines his own critical project of explaining the possibility of knowledge. Their argument is that "only under the assumption that there is an organism is it possible to explain the actual interaction between the subjective and the objective, the ideal and the real." Hence the organism must be acknowledged to have constitutive status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005106–07-177">[159]</a> Introducing Hegel's philosophy of nature for a 21st-century audience, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dieter_Wandschneider&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dieter Wandschneider (page does not exist)">Dieter Wandschneider</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieter_Wandschneider" class="extiw" title="de:Dieter Wandschneider">de</a>] observes that "contemporary philosophy of science" has lost sight of "the ontological issue at stake, namely, the question of an intrinsically lawful nature": "Consider, for example, the problem of what constitutes a law of nature. This problem is central to our understanding of nature. Yet philosophy of science has not provided a definitive response to it up to now. Nor can we expect to have such an answer from that quarter in future."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWandschneider2013343-178">[160]</a> It is back to Hegel that Wandschneider would direct <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophers of science</a> for guidance in the <a href="/wiki/Naturphilosophie" title="Naturphilosophie">philosophy of nature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWandschneider2013-179">[161]</a> Recent scholars have also argued that Hegel's approach to the philosophy of nature provides valuable resources for theorizing and confronting recent environmental challenges entirely unforeseen by Hegel. These philosophers point to such aspects of his philosophy as its distinctive metaphysical grounding and the continuity of its conception of the nature-spirit relationship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStone2005-180">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein2023-181">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Philosophy_of_Spirit">The Philosophy of Spirit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Philosophy of Spirit">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg/170px-John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg/255px-John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg/340px-John_Collier_-_Priestess_of_Delphi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="697" /></a><figcaption>Priestess of Delphi (1891) by <a href="/wiki/John_Collier_(Pre-Raphaelite_painter)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Collier (Pre-Raphaelite painter)">John Collier</a>. The Delphic imperative to "know thyself" governs Hegel's entire philosophy of spirit.</figcaption></figure> The German Geist has a wide range of meanings.<a href="#cite_note-182">[164]</a> In its most general Hegelian sense, however, "Geist denotes the human mind and its products, in contrast to nature and also the logical idea."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992275-183">[165]</a> (Some older translations render it as "mind," rather than "spirit."<a href="#cite_note-185">[s]</a>) As is especially evident in the Anthropology, Hegel's concept of spirit is an appropriation and transformation of the self-referential Aristotelian concept of <a href="/wiki/Energeia" class="mw-redirect" title="Energeia">energeia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrarin20077–8-186">[167]</a> Spirit is not something above or otherwise external to nature. It is "the highest organization and development" of nature's powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005112-187">[168]</a> According to Hegel, "the essence of spirit is freedom."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§382-188">[169]</a> The Encyclopedia Philosophy of Spirit charts the progressively determinate stages of this freedom until spirit fulfills the <a href="/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia">Delphic</a> imperative with which Hegel begins: "Know thyself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b§377-189">[170]</a> As becomes clear, Hegel's concept of freedom is not (or not merely) the capacity for arbitrary choice, but has as its "core notion" that "something, especially a person, is free if and only if, it is independent and self-determining, not determined by or dependent upon something other than itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992110-190">[171]</a> It is, in other words, (at least predominantly, dialectically) an account of what <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> would later term <a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">positive liberty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter2022-191">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subjective_spirit">Subjective spirit</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Subjective spirit">edit</a>]</div> Standing at the transition from nature to spirit, the role of the Philosophy of Subjective Spirit is to analyze "the elements necessary for or presupposed by such relations [of objective spirit], namely, the structures characteristic of and necessary to the individual rational agent." It does this by elaborating "the fundamental nature of the biological/spiritual human individual along with the cognitive and the practical prerequisites of human social interaction."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdeVries2013133-192">[173]</a> This section, particularly its first part, contains various comments that were commonplace in Hegel's day and can now be recognized as openly racist, such as unfounded claims about the "naturally" lower intellectual and emotional development of Black people. In his perspective, these racial differences are related to climate: according to Hegel, it is not racial characteristics, but the climactic conditions in which a people lives that variously limit or enable its capacity for free self-determination. He believes that race is not destiny: any group could, in principle, improve and transform its condition by migrating to friendlier climes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014103–04-193">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[t]</a> Hegel divides his philosophy of the subjective spirit into three parts: anthropology, phenomenology, and psychology. Anthropology "deals with 'soul', which is spirit still mired in nature: all that within us which precedes our self-conscious mind or intellect." In the section "Phenomenology", Hegel examines the relation between consciousness and its object and the emergence of intersubjective rationality. Psychology "deals with a great deal that would be categorized as epistemology (or 'theory of knowledge') today. Hegel discusses, among other things, the nature of attention, memory, imagination and judgement."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011p._235,_caps_modified-195">[175]</a> Throughout this section, but especially in the Anthropology, Hegel appropriates and develops <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hylomorphic">hylomorphic</a> approach to what is today theorized as the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a>: "The solution to the mind–body problem [according to this theory] hinges upon recognizing that mind does not act upon the body as cause of effects but rather acts upon itself as an embodied living subjectivity. As such, mind develops itself, progressively attaining more and more of a self-determined character."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDien_Winfield2011236-196">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2021-197">[177]</a> Its final section, Free Spirit, develops the concept of "free will," which is foundational for Hegel's philosophy of right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak2001174-198">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991a§4-199">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Objective_spirit">Objective spirit</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Objective spirit">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg/180px-King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg/270px-King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg/360px-King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="914" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/King_Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" class="mw-redirect" title="King Frederick William III of Prussia">King Frederick William III of Prussia</a> (1797–1840) stifled the political reforms for which Hegel had hoped and advocated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1991ix–x-200">[180]</a></figcaption></figure> In the broadest terms, Hegel's philosophy of objective spirit "is his social philosophy, his philosophy of how the human spirit objectifies itself in its social and historical activities and productions."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestphal2013157-201">[181]</a> Or, put differently, it is an account of the institutionalization of freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPippin2008b-202">[182]</a> Besier declares this a rare instance of unanimity in Hegel scholarship: "all scholars agree there is no more important concept in Hegel's political theory than freedom." This is because it is the foundation of right, the essence of spirit, and the telos of history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005197-203">[183]</a> This part of Hegel's philosophy is presented first in his 1817 <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Philosophical_Sciences" title="Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences">Encyclopedia</a> (revised 1827 and 1830) and then at greater length in the 1821 <a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right, or Natural Law and Political Science in Outline</a> (like the Encyclopedia, intended as a textbook), upon which he also frequently lectured. Its final part, the philosophy of world history, was additionally elaborated in <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">Hegel's lectures on the subject</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000375-204">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011186-205">[185]</a> Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right has been controversial from the date of its original publication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1991viii–x-206">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000457–61-207">[187]</a> It is not, however, a straightforward defense of the autocratic Prussian state, as some have alleged, but is rather a defense of "Prussia as it was to have become under [proposed] reform administrations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1991x-208">[188]</a> The German <a href="/wiki/Translating_%22law%22_to_other_European_languages" title="Translating "law" to other European languages">Recht</a> in Hegel's title does not have a direct English equivalent (though it does correspond to the Latin ius and the French droit). As a first approximation, Michael Inwood distinguishes three senses: <ul><li>a right, claim or title</li> <li>justice (as in, e.g., 'to administer justice'...but not justice as a virtue...)</li> <li>'the law' as a principle, or 'the laws' collectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992259-209">[189]</a></li></ul> Beiser observes that Hegel's theory is "his attempt to rehabilitate the <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> tradition while taking into account the criticisms of the historical school." He adds that "without a sound interpretation of Hegel's theory of natural law, we have very little understanding of the very foundation of his social and political thought."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200813–14-210">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[u]</a> Consistent with Beiser's position, <a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Theodoor_Peperzak" title="Adriaan Theodoor Peperzak">Adriaan T. Peperzak</a> documents Hegel's arguments against <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Social contract theory">social contract theory</a> and stresses the metaphysical foundations of Hegel's philosophy of right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak2001-215">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[v]</a> Observing that "analyzing the structure of Hegel's argument in the Philosophy of Right shows that achieving political autonomy is fundamental to Hegel's analysis of the state and government," Kenneth R. Westphal provides this brief outline: <ul><li>"'Abstract Right,' treats principles governing property, its transfer, and wrongs against property."</li> <li>"'Morality,' treats the rights of moral subjects, responsibility for one's actions, and <a href="/wiki/A_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori">a priori</a> theories of right."</li> <li>"'<a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Ethical Life' (Sittlichkeit)</a>, analyzes the principles and institutions governing central aspects of rational social life, including the family, <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">state</a> as a whole, including the government."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestphal1993246-218">[196]</a></li></ul> Hegel describes the state of his time, a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, as rationally embodying three cooperative and mutually inclusive elements. These elements are "democracy (rule of the many, who are involved in legislation), <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> (rule of the few, who apply, concretize, and execute the laws), and monarchy (rule of the one, who heads and encompasses all power)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak2001523-219">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991a§286R-220">[198]</a> It is what Aristotle called a "mixed" form of government, which is designed to include what is best of each of the three classical forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005252-221">[199]</a> The division of powers "prevents an single power from dominating others."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005253-222">[200]</a> Hegel is particularly concerned to bind the monarch to the constitution, limiting his authority so that he can do little more than to declare of what his ministers have already decided that it is to be so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005254–55-223">[201]</a> The relation of Hegel's philosophy of right to modern liberalism is complex. He sees liberalism as a valuable and characteristic expression of the modern world. However, it carries the danger within itself to undermine its own values. This self-destructive tendency may be avoided by measuring "the subjective goals of individuals by a larger objective and collective good." Moral values, then, have only a "limited place in the total scheme of things."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood1991xi-224">[202]</a> Yet, although it is not without reason that Hegel is widely regarded as a major proponent of what <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> would later term <a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">positive liberty</a>, he was just as "unwavering and unequivocal" in his defense of <a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">negative liberty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005202–05-225">[203]</a> If Hegel's ideal sovereign is much weaker than was typical in monarchies his time, so too is his democratic element much weaker than is typical in democracies of modern times. Although he insists upon the importance of public participation, Hegel severely limits suffrage and follows the English <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> model, in which only members of the lower house, that of commoners and <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>, are elected officials. Nobles in the upper house, like the monarch, inherit their positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005254–58-226">[204]</a> The final part of the Philosophy of Objective Spirit is entitled "World History." In this section, Hegel argues that "this immanent principle [the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a>] produces with logical inevitability an expansion of the species' capacities for self determination ('freedom') and a deepening of its self understanding ('self-knowing')."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2010207-227">[205]</a> In Hegel's own words: "World history is progress in the consciousness of freedom – a progress that we must comprehend conceptually."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2010207_(quoting_Hegel,_her_translation)-228">[206]</a> (See also: <a href="#Criticism_and_legacy">Legacy</a>, below, for further discussion of the complex legacy of Hegel's social and political philosophy.) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absolute_spirit">Absolute spirit</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Absolute spirit">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg/220px-Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg/330px-Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg/440px-Friedrich_Hegel_mit_Studenten_Lithographie_F_Kugler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Hegel with his Berlin students (1828 sketch by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Theodor_Kugler" title="Franz Theodor Kugler">F. T. Kugler</a>)</figcaption></figure> Hegel's use of the term "absolute" is easily misunderstood. Inwood, however, clarifies: derived from the Latin absolutus, it means "not dependent on, conditional on, relative to or restricted by anything else; self-contained, perfect, complete."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood199227-229">[207]</a> For Hegel, this means that absolute knowing can only denote "an 'absolute relation' in which the ground of experience and the experiencing agent are one and the same: the object known is explicitly the subject who knows."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2009249-230">[208]</a> That is, the only "thing" (which is really an activity) that is truly absolute is that which is entirely self-conditioned, and according to Hegel, this only occurs when spirit takes itself up as its own object. The final section of his Philosophy of Spirit presents the three modes of such absolute knowing: art, religion, and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-232">[w]</a> It is with reference to different modalities of consciousness – <a href="/wiki/Anschauung" title="Anschauung">intuition</a>, representation, and comprehending thinking – that Hegel distinguishes the three modes of absolute knowing.<a href="#cite_note-233">[x]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick Beiser</a> summarizes: "art, religion and philosophy all have the same object, the absolute or truth itself; but they consist in different forms of knowledge of it. Art presents the absolute in the form of immediate intuition (Anschauung); religion presents it in the form of representation (Vorstellung); and philosophy presents it in the form of concepts (Begriffe)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005288-234">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%BCdiger_Bubner" title="Rüdiger Bubner">Rüdiger Bubner</a> additionally clarifies that the increase in conceptual transparency according to which these spheres are systematically ordered is not hierarchical in any evaluative sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBubner2007296-235">[211]</a> Although Hegel's discussion of absolute spirit in the Encyclopedia is quite brief, he develops his account at length in <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">lectures on the philosophy of fine art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_Religion" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion">the philosophy of religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_History_of_Philosophy" title="Lectures on the History of Philosophy">the history of philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011186-205">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_art">Philosophy of art</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy of art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg/170px-NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg/255px-NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg/340px-NAMA_Ath%C3%A9na_Varvakeion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1913" /></a><figcaption>The ancient Athenian, according to Hegel, apprehends the meaning of Athena Parthenos directly as his own rational essence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1975a427-236">[212]</a> (The <a href="/wiki/Varvakeion_Athena" title="Varvakeion Athena">Varvakeion Athena</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Athens">National Archaeological Museum of Athens</a>)</figcaption></figure> In the Phenomenology, and even in the 1817 edition of the Encyclopedia, Hegel discusses art only as it figures in what he terms the "Art-Religion" of the ancient Greeks. In 1818, however, Hegel begins lecturing on the philosophy of art as an explicitly autonomous domain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBubner2007296-235">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoland199317-237">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[y]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Gustav_Hotho" title="Heinrich Gustav Hotho">H. G. Hotho</a> titled his edition of the Lectures Vorlesungen über die Ästhetik [Lectures on Aesthetics], Hegel directly states that his topic is not "the spacious realm of the beautiful," but "art, or, rather, fine art."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1975a1-239">[214]</a> He doubles down on this in the next paragraph by explicitly distinguishing his project from the broader philosophical projects pursued under the heading of "aesthetics" by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[z]</a> Some critics – most canonically, <a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Benedetto Croce</a>, in 1907<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroce1915130-241">[215]</a> – have attributed to Hegel some form of the thesis that art is "dead." Hegel, however, never said any such thing, nor can such a view be plausibly attributed to him.<a href="#cite_note-242">[aa]</a> Indeed, one commentator places that debate in perspective with the observation that Hegel's claim that "art no longer serves our highest aims" is "radical not for the suggestion that art now fails to do so but for the suggestion that it ever did."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERutter201024-243">[216]</a> Hegel's detailed and systematic treatment of the various arts over such a great span has even led <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Gombrich" title="Ernst Gombrich">Ernst Gombrich</a> to present Hegel as "the father of art history." Indeed, until recently,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] Hegel's Lectures were largely ignored by philosophers and received most of their attention from literary critics and art historians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005282-244">[217]</a> The more narrowly conceptual project of the philosophy of art, however, is to articulate and defend "the autonomy of art, making possible an account of the special individuality distinguishing works of aesthetic worth."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDien_Winfield19959,_emphases_added-245">[218]</a> According to Hegel, "'artistic beauty reveals absolute truth through perception.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1975a111-246">[219]</a> He holds that the best art conveys metaphysical knowledge by revealing, through sense perception, what is unconditionally true," that is, "what his metaphysical theory affirms to be unconditional or absolute."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicks1993349–50-247">[220]</a> So, while Hegel "ennobles art insofar as it conveys metaphysical knowledge," "he tempers his assessment in view of his belief that art's sensory media can never adequately convey what completely transcends the contingency of sensation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicks1993350-248">[221]</a> This is why, according to Hegel, art can only be one of three mutually complementary modes of absolute spirit.<a href="#cite_note-249">[ab]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianity">Christianity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> Although his understanding of Christianity evolved over time, Hegel identified as a Lutheran his entire life. One constant was his profound appreciation for the Christian insight into the intrinsic worth and freedom of every individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201423-250">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Romantic_writings">Early Romantic writings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Early Romantic writings">edit</a>]</div> Hegel's earliest writings on Christianity date between 1783 and 1800. He was still working out his ideas at this time, and everything from this period was abandoned as fragments or unfinished drafts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1971pp._v–viii,_translator's_Prefatory_Note-251">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[ac]</a> Hegel was very much dissatisfied with the <a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">dogmatism</a> and positivity<a href="#cite_note-254">[ad]</a> of the Christian religion, to which he opposed the spontaneous religion of the Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroner19717-255">[225]</a> In The Spirit of Christianity, he proposes a sort of resolution by aligning the universality of Kantian moral philosophy with the universality of the teachings of Jesus; in paraphrase: "The moral principle of the Gospel is charity, or love, and love is the beauty of the heart, a spiritual beauty which combines the Greek Soul and Kant's Moral Reason."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKroner19719-256">[226]</a> Although he did not return to this Romantic formulation, the unification of Greek and Christian thought would remain a preoccupation throughout his life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199327–31-257">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit_2">The Phenomenology of Spirit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Phenomenology of Spirit">edit</a>]</div> Religion is a major theme throughout the 1807 Phenomenology of Spirit well before it emerges as the explicit topic of the penultimate Religion chapter.<a href="#cite_note-258">[ae]</a> This is seen most directly in the metaphysical "unhappiness" of the <a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinian</a> consciousness in chapter IV and in Hegel's depiction of the struggle of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Church</a> of the Faithful with <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">philosophes</a> in chapter VI.<a href="#cite_note-259">[af]</a> Hegel's proper account of Christianity, however, is to be found in the final section of the Phenomenology just prior to the closing chapter, Absolute Knowing. It is presented under the heading The Revelatory Religion [die offenbare Religion]. By means of philosophical exposition of Christian doctrines such as Incarnation and Resurrection, Hegel claims to demonstrate or to make "manifest" the conceptual truth of Christianity, and so to overcome what has only been positively revealed [geöffenbarte] by explication of its underlying, revelatory truth.<a href="#cite_note-261">[ag]</a> The heart of Hegel's interpretation of Christianity can be seen in his interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. God the Father must give Himself existence as finitely human Son, the death of whom discloses His essential being as Spirit – and, crucially, according to Hegel, his [Hegel's] own philosophical concept of spirit makes transparent what is only obscurely represented in the Christian concept of the Trinity. And so it makes manifest the philosophical truth of religion, which now is known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997v.2,_chapter_12-262">[229]</a> In an essay on the Phenomenology, George di Giovanni contrasts Kant's rational faith<a href="#cite_note-264">[ah]</a> with Hegel's rational religion. On his view, the modern role of religion consists in "expressing and nurturing spirit in its most individual forms" rather than in explaining reality. There is no longer any place for faith in opposition to knowledge. Instead, faith assumes such forms as the trust placed "in individuals close to us, or in the time and place in which we happen to live."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2003383-265">[231]</a> In other words, according to Hegel's philosophical interpretation, Christianity does not require faith in any doctrine that is not fully justified by reason. What is left, then, is the religious community, free to minister to individual needs and to celebrate the absolute freedom of spirit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2003-266">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Berlin_lectures">The Berlin lectures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Berlin lectures">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_Religion" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion">Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion</a></div> Hegel's Encyclopedia includes a section on the Revealed Religion, but it is quite short. It is his Berlin <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_Religion" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion">Lectures</a> that contain his next presentation of Christianity, which he variously refers to as the "consummate," "absolute," or "revelatory" religion (all equivalent terms in this context).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodgson19853–4-267">[233]</a> Transcripts of three of Hegel's four courses have been preserved, and they show him to be continually adjusting his emphases and exposition.<a href="#cite_note-268">[ai]</a> The interpretation of Christianity that he advances, however, is still very much that which he presented in the Phenomenology – only now he is able to expound at greater length and with greater clarity upon what he had covered earlier in such a condensed fashion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000576-269">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005139-270">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[aj]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Issues_of_interpretation">Issues of interpretation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Issues of interpretation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._(Werkst.)_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_(Lutherhaus_Wittenberg).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._%28Werkst.%29_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_%28Lutherhaus_Wittenberg%29.jpg/130px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._%28Werkst.%29_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_%28Lutherhaus_Wittenberg%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._%28Werkst.%29_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_%28Lutherhaus_Wittenberg%29.jpg/195px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._%28Werkst.%29_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_%28Lutherhaus_Wittenberg%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._%28Werkst.%29_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_%28Lutherhaus_Wittenberg%29.jpg/260px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._%28Werkst.%29_-_Portr%C3%A4t_des_Martin_Luther_%28Lutherhaus_Wittenberg%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1371" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> (1483–1546), who would not likely have recognized Hegel's claim to share his theology </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Jaeschke" title="Walter Jaeschke">Walter Jaeschke</a> questions whether <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> would have recognized Hegel's claim to <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaeschke1993461–78-272">[236]</a> Hegel embraces the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">priesthood of all believers</a> with his concept of spirit, but rejects the core Lutheran doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Sola_gratia" title="Sola gratia">sola gratia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sola_scriptura" title="Sola scriptura">sola scriptura</a>. Instead, he affirms as the "fundamental principle" of Protestantism "the obstinacy that does honor to mankind, to refuse to recognize in conviction anything not ratified by thought."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991a22-273">[237]</a> On similar grounds, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Beiser" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Beiser">Frederick Beiser</a>, while acknowledging Hegel's apparently sincere profession of Lutheranism, describes Hegel's theology as effectively "the very opposite of Luther's."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005145–46-274">[238]</a> Discussing the "Hegel Renaissance" in late 20th-century Anglo-American philosophy, Beiser expresses surprise – given today's highly secular academic culture – at such a surge of interest in Hegel. For, according to Hegel, the divine is the centerpoint of philosophy. Hegel's concept of God differs from <a href="/wiki/Theistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theistic">theistic</a> conceptions found in orthodox Christianity and from <a href="/wiki/Deistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deistic">deistic</a> conceptions suggested by eighteenth-century philosophers. Nonetheless, Hegel conceptualizes God as the infinite or absolute, in agreement with the classical definition given by <a href="/wiki/St._Anselm" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Anselm">St. Anselm</a> as "that of which nothing greater can be conceived."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20085-275">[239]</a> Just how to most properly characterize Hegel's distinctive articulation of Christianity was a matter of intense debate even in his own life and, among his students, after his death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000661–64-276">[240]</a> So it is likely to remain. Neither theistic, nor deistic, Hegel's god can only be articulated in the philosophical terms of the concept of spirit or his own distinctive logical vocabulary. Nevertheless, Hegel everywhere insists that his is the Christian God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodgson2008230–52-277">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy_of_history">Philosophy of history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Philosophy of history">edit</a>]</div> "History," Frederick Beiser writes, "is central to Hegel's conception of philosophy." Philosophy is only possible "if it is historical, only if the philosopher is aware of the origins, context, and development of his doctrines." In this 1993 essay, titled "Hegel's Historicism," Beiser declares this to be "nothing less than a revolution in the history of philosophy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1993b270-278">[242]</a> In a 2011 monograph, however, Beiser excludes Hegel from his treatment of the German historicist tradition for the reason that Hegel is more interested in the philosophy of history than in the epistemological project of justifying its status as a science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20119-279">[243]</a> Moreover, against the relativistic implications of <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicism</a> narrowly construed, Hegel's metaphysics of spirit supplies a telos, internal to history itself, in terms of which progress can be measured and assessed. This is the self-consciousness of freedom. The more that awareness of this essential freedom of spirit permeates a culture, the more advanced Hegel claims it to be.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1993b279,_289-280">[244]</a> Because freedom, according to Hegel, is the essence of spirit, the developing self-awareness of this is just as much a development in truth as it is in political life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20053,_17–21-281">[245]</a> Thinking presupposes an "instinctive belief" in truth, and the history of philosophy, as recounted by Hegel, is a progressive sequence of "system-identifying" concepts of truth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis20059-10-282">[246]</a> Whether or not Hegel is a historicist simply depends upon how one defines the term. The importance of history in Hegel's philosophy, however, cannot be denied. German has two words for "history," Historie and Geschichte. The first refers to "the narrative organization of empirical material." The second "includes an account of the underlying developmental logic (the 'intrinsic ground') of deeds and events." Only the latter procedure can supply a properly universal or philosophical history, and this is the procedure Hegel adopts in all of his historical writings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2010215-283">[247]</a> According to Hegel, humans are distinctly historical creatures because, not only do they exist in time, they also internalize temporal events so that they become, in a profound sense, part of what and who people are, "integral to humanity's self-understanding and self-knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2010214-284">[248]</a> This is why the history of philosophy, for instance, is integral to philosophy itself, it being literally impossible for early philosophers to think what later philosophers, afforded all the riches of their predecessors, could think – and perhaps, with this distance, work through more thoroughly or consistently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman20143-285">[249]</a> From a later perspective, for instance, it becomes apparent that the concept of personhood includes the implication of universality such as renders contradictory any interpretation or implementation that extends it to some people, but not to others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis20059-286">[250]</a> In the Introduction to his <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">Lectures on the Philosophy of World History</a>, simplifying his own account, Hegel divides human history into three epochs. In what he calls the "Oriental" world, one person (the pharaoh or emperor) was free. In the Greco-Roman world, some people (moneyed citizens) were free. In the "Germanic" world (that is, European Christendom) all persons are free.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014120-287">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1975b54-288">[252]</a> In his discussion of the ancient world, Hegel provides a heavily qualified defense of slavery. As he puts it elsewhere, "slavery occurs in a transitional phase between the natural human existence and the truly ethical condition; it occurs in a world where a wrong is still right. Here, the wrong is valid, so that the position it occupies is a necessary one."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991a§57A-289">[253]</a> Hegel is clear, however, that there is an unconditional moral demand to reject the institution of slavery, and that slavery is incompatible with the rational state and the essential freedom of every individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005187–88-290">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-mctag-291">[255]</a> Some commentators – most notably, <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a> – have understood Hegel to claim that, having achieved a fully universal concept of freedom, history is complete, that it has reached its conclusion. Against this, however, it can be objected that freedom may yet be expanded in terms both of its scope and its content. Since Hegel's day, the scope of the concept of freedom has been expanded to acknowledge the rightful inclusion of women, formerly enslaved or colonized peoples, the mentally ill, and those who do not conform to conservative norms with respect to sexual preference or gender identity, among others. As to the content of freedom, the United Nations' <a href="/wiki/International_Bill_of_Human_Rights" title="International Bill of Human Rights">International Bill of Human Rights</a>, just for instance, expands the concept of freedom beyond what Hegel himself articulates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014122–23-292">[256]</a> Additionally, although Hegel consistently presents his philosophical histories as East-to-West narratives, scholars such as J. M. Fritzman argue that, not only is this prejudice quite incidental to the substance of Hegel's philosophical position, but that – with India now the world's largest democracy, for instance, or with South Africa's mighty efforts to transcend <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> – the movement of freedom back to the East may already have begun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014126-293">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialectics,_speculation,_idealism">Dialectics, speculation, idealism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Dialectics, speculation, idealism">edit</a>]</div> Hegel is often credited with proceeding according to a "<a href="/wiki/Dialectical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical method">dialectical method</a>"; in point of fact, however, Hegel characterizes his philosophy as "speculative" (spekulativ), rather than dialectical, and uses the term "dialectical" only "quite rarely".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern200215-294">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[ak]</a> This is because, although "Dialektik sometimes stands for the entire movement of the self-articulation of meaning or thought, this term refers more specifically to the self-negation of the determinations of the understanding (Verstand), when they are thought through in their fixedness and opposition."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991bp._349,_editors'_n.13-297">[260]</a> By contrast, "Hegel describes correct thinking as the methodical interplay of three moments[:] <dl><dd>(a) abstract and intellectual (verständig),</dd> <dd>(b) dialectical or negatively rational (negativvernünftig), and</dd> <dd>(c) speculative or positively rational (positivvernünftig)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200157-298">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005167–69-299">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§§80–82-300">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[al]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[am]</a></dd></dl> For example, self-consciousness is "the concept that consciousness has of itself. Thus in this case concept and referent coincide:... 'self-consciousness' refers to mind's taking on the self-contradictory (and thus also self-negating) role of being subject and object of one and the same act of cognition – simultaneously and in the same respect."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200522-306">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶166-307">[268]</a> Hence it is a speculative concept. According to Beiser, "if Hegel has any methodology at all, it appears to be an anti-methodology, a method to suspend all methods." Hegel's term "dialectic" must be understood with reference to the concept of the object of investigation. What must be grasped is "the 'self-organization' of the subject matter, its 'inner necessity' and 'inherent movement.'" Hegel renounces all external methods such as could be "applied" to some subject matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005160-103">[96]</a> The dialectical character of Hegel's speculative procedure often makes his position on any given issue quite difficult to characterize. Instead of seeking to answer a question or solve a problem directly, he frequently recasts it by showing, for instance, "how the dichotomy underlying the dispute is false, and that it is therefore possible to integrate elements from both positions."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2002xiii-308">[269]</a> Speculative thought preserves what is true from apparently opposing theories in a process that Hegel terms "<a href="/wiki/Aufheben" title="Aufheben">sublation</a>". To "sublate" (aufheben) has three main senses:<a href="#cite_note-311">[an]</a> <ul><li>'to raise, to hold, lift up';</li> <li>'to annul, abolish, destroy, cancel, suspend'; and,</li> <li>'to keep, save, preserve.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992283-312">[272]</a></li></ul> Hegel generally uses the term in all three senses, with particular emphasis on the second and third, in which apparent contradictions are speculatively overcome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992283-312">[272]</a> His word for what is sublated is "moment" (das Moment, in the neuter), which denotes "an essential feature or aspect of a whole conceived as a static system, and an essential phase in a whole conceived as a dialectical movement or process."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992311-313">[273]</a> (When Hegel describes something as "contradictory," what he means is that it is not independently self-sustaining on its own terms, and so it can only be comprehended [begreifen] as a moment of a larger whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood199264-314">[274]</a>) According to Hegel, to think of the finite as a moment of the whole, rather than an independently self-determined existent, is what it means to grasp it as idealized (das Ideelle).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992128–31-315">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b119-316">[276]</a> Idealism, then, "is the doctrine that finite entities are ideal (ideell): they depend not on themselves for their existence but on some larger self-sustaining entity [i.e., the whole] that underlies or embraces them."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992129-317">[277]</a> The pronoun-expressions – moment, sublate, and idealize – are characteristic of Hegel's account of idealism. They can be understood as stages of thought in which the "object is conceptually present first in mere adumbration, then according to circumstances both internal and external to it, and finally standing completely on its own."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2013253-318">[278]</a> This phenomenological and conceptual analysis distinguishes Hegel's idealism from Kant's <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>'s mentalistic idealism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008-319">[279]</a> In contrast to those positions, Hegel's idealism is entirely compatible with <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> and non-mechanistic <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200568–69-320">[280]</a> This position rejects empiricism as an a priori account of knowledge, but it is in no way opposed to the philosophical legitimacy of empirical knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPippin20195-321">[281]</a> Hegel's idealistic contention, which he claims to demonstrate, is that being itself is rational.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005106-322">[282]</a> Although it is not incorrect to refer to Hegel's philosophy as "absolute idealism," this moniker was at the time more associated with Schelling, and Hegel himself is documented as employing it with reference to his own philosophy only three times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200558-323">[283]</a> According to Hegel, "every philosophy is essentially idealism."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b124-324">[284]</a> This claim is based on the assumption, which Hegel claims to demonstrate, that conceptualization is present at all cognitive levels. For to completely deny this would undermine trust in the conceptual capacities necessary for objective knowledge – and so would lead to total skepticism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008170–71-325">[285]</a> Hence, according to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stern_(philosopher)" title="Robert Stern (philosopher)">Robert Stern</a>, Hegel's idealism, "amounts to a form of conceptual realism, understood as 'the belief that concepts are part of the structure of reality.'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008172-326">[286]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thesis–antithesis–synthesis">Thesis–antithesis–synthesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Thesis–antithesis–synthesis">edit</a>]</div> This terminology, largely developed earlier by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>, was spread by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Moritz_Chalyb%C3%A4us" title="Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus">Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus</a> in accounts of Hegel's philosophy that have since been broadly discredited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMueller1958-327">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19903–4-328">[288]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChalybäus1860367-329">[289]</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a>, for instance, reports: <blockquote>Fichte introduced into German philosophy the three-step of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, using these three terms. Schelling took up this terminology. Hegel did not. He never once used these three terms together to designate three stages in an argument or account in any of his books. And they do not help us understand his Phenomenology, his Logic, or his philosophy of history; they impede any open-minded comprehension of what he does by forcing it into a scheme which was available to him and which he deliberately spurned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959154-330">[290]</a></blockquote> More modestly, it has been said that this account is "only a partial comprehension that requires correction." What it gets right is that, according to Hegel, "truth emerges from error" in the course of historical development in a way that implies a "holism in which partial truths are progressively corrected so that their one-sidedness is overcome." What it distorts is that such a description is possible only after the process has unfolded. The "thesis" and "antithesis" are not "alien" to one another. Inasmuch as there can be said to be such a "dialectical method," it is not an external one such as could be "applied" to some subject matter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman20143–4-331">[291]</a> Similarly, Stephen Houlgate argues that, in whatever limited sense Hegel might be said to have a "method," it is a strictly immanent method; that is, it emerges from thoughtful immersion in the subject-matter itself. If this leads to dialectics, that is only because there is a contradiction in the object itself, not because of any external methodological procedure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006ch._2-332">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Reception">edit</a>]</div> Hegel's influence on subsequent philosophical developments has been enormous. In late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century England, a school known as <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a> propounded a version of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">absolute idealism</a> in direct engagement with Hegel's texts. Prominent members included <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. McTaggart</a>, <a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Reginald_Gilchrist_Mure" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Reginald Gilchrist Mure">G. R. G. Mure</a>. Separately, some philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derrida" class="mw-redirect" title="Derrida">Derrida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gadamer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadamer">Gadamer</a> have selectively developed Hegelian ideas into their own philosophical programs. Others have developed their positions in opposition to Hegel's system. These include, for instance, such diverse philosophers as <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kierkegaard" class="mw-redirect" title="Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a>. In theology, Hegel's influence marks the work of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a>. These names, however, constitute only a small sample of some of the more important figures who have developed their thought in engagement with the philosophy of Hegel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20051–2-333">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014chapter_9-334">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERockmore1993chapter_3-335">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Right"_vs._"Left"_Hegelianism">"Right" vs. "Left" Hegelianism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: "Right" vs. "Left" Hegelianism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy#Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxist philosophy § Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Marx_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/180px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/270px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Karl_Marx_001.jpg/360px-Karl_Marx_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1428" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1818–1883)</figcaption></figure> Some historians present Hegel's early influence in Germanic philosophy as divided into two opposing camps, right and left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFackenheim1967ch._4,_§§2–3-336">[296]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Right_Hegelians" title="Right Hegelians">Right Hegelians</a>, the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität</a>, advocated a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> orthodoxy and the <a href="/wiki/Political_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political conservatism">political conservatism</a> of the post-<a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> Restoration period. The Left Hegelians, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Young_Hegelians" title="Young Hegelians">Young Hegelians</a>, interpreted Hegel in a <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">revolutionary</a> sense, leading to an advocation of <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a> in religion and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> in politics. Recent studies, however, have questioned this paradigm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöwith1964-337">[297]</a> The Right Hegelians "were quickly forgotten" and "today mainly known only to specialists"; the Left Hegelians, by contrast, "included some of the most important thinkers of the period," and "through their emphasis on practice, some of these thinkers have remained exceedingly influential," primarily through the Marxist tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERockmore2013305-338">[298]</a> Among the first followers to take an expressly critical view of Hegel's system were those in the 19th-century German group known as the <a href="/wiki/Young_Hegelians" title="Young Hegelians">Young Hegelians</a>, which included <a href="/wiki/Feuerbach" class="mw-redirect" title="Feuerbach">Feuerbach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engels" class="mw-redirect" title="Engels">Engels</a>, and their followers. The primary thrust of their criticism is concisely expressed in the eleventh of Marx's "<a href="/wiki/Theses_on_Feuerbach" title="Theses on Feuerbach">Theses on Feuerbach</a>" from his 1845 <a href="/wiki/German_Ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="German Ideology">German Ideology</a>: "The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point, however, is to change it."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx1978145-339">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-341">[ao]</a> In the twentieth century, a Hegelian-inflected interpretation of Marx was further developed in the work of <a href="/wiki/Critical_theorists" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical theorists">critical theorists</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBohman2021-342">[301]</a> This was due to (a) the rediscovery and re-evaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of Hegel's historical perspective; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical method">dialectical method</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a>' <a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a> (1923), in particular, helped to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStahl2021-343">[302]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reception_in_France">Reception in France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Reception in France">edit</a>]</div> It has become commonplace to identify "French Hegel" with the lectures of <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>, who emphasized the <a href="/wiki/Lord-bondsman_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord-bondsman dialectic">master-servant</a> [Herrschaft und Knechtschaft] dialectic (which he mistranslated as master-slave [maître et l'esclave]) and Hegel's philosophy of history. This perspective, however, overlooks over sixty years of French writing on Hegel, according to which Hegelianism was identified with the "system" presented in the Encyclopedia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh20031,_9–10-344">[303]</a> The later reading, drawing instead upon the Phenomenology of Spirit, was in many ways a reaction against the earlier. After 1945, "this 'dramatic' Hegelianism, which centered on the theme of historical becoming through conflict, [came] to be seen as compatible with existentialism and Marxism."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh20039-345">[304]</a> By confining the dialectic to history, the dominant French readings of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Wahl" title="Jean Wahl">Jean Wahl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hyppolite" title="Jean Hyppolite">Jean Hyppolite</a> effectively presented Hegel as providing "a philosophical anthropology instead of a general metaphysics."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk-nZXykvXzsCpgPA17redir_escyvonepageqffalse_17]-346">[305]</a> This reading took the topic of desire as its focal point of intervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler1987xxvi-347">[306]</a> A major theme was that "a reason that seeks to be all-inclusive falsifies reality by suppressing or repressing its 'other.'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk-nZXykvXzsCpgPA12redir_escyvonepageqffalse_12]-348">[307]</a> Although it cannot be attributed entirely to Kojève, this reading of Hegel shaped the thought and interpretations of thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Levi-Strauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Levi-Strauss">Claude Levi-Strauss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Georges Bataille</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh20031-349">[308]</a> Kojève's interpretation of the "master-slave dialectic" as the basic model of historical development also influenced the feminism of <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> and the anti-racist and anti-colonial work of <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014148–49-350">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_pragmatism">American pragmatism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: American pragmatism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_J._Bernstein.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Richard_J._Bernstein.jpg/220px-Richard_J._Bernstein.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Richard_J._Bernstein.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="203" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a> (1932–2022), known for his work on Hegel and American Pragmatism</figcaption></figure> As documented by <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a>, the influence of Hegel on <a href="/wiki/American_Pragmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="American Pragmatism">American Pragmatism</a> can be divided into three moments: the late nineteenth century, the mid-twentieth, and the present.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201089-351">[310]</a> The first is to be found in early issues of <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Speculative_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Speculative Philosophy">The Journal of Speculative Philosophy</a> (founded 1867).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201089-351">[310]</a> The second is evident in the acknowledged influence upon major figures including <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Peirce</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201090–95-352">[311]</a> As Dewey himself describes the attraction, "There were, however, also 'subjective' reasons for the appeal that Hegel's thought made to me; it supplied a demand for unification that was doubtless an intense emotional craving, and yet was a hunger that only an intellectualized subject-matter could satisfy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDewey19817-353">[312]</a> Dewey accepted much of Hegel's account of history and society, but rejected his conception of Hegel's account of absolute knowing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014142-354">[313]</a> Two philosophers, <a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a> (sometimes referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/University_of_Pittsburgh" title="University of Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> Hegelians"), constitute, per Bernstein, the third moment of Hegel's influence on pragmatism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201096–105-355">[314]</a> However, while openly acknowledging the influence, neither claims to explicate Hegel's views according to his own self-understanding.<a href="#cite_note-357">[ap]</a> In addition, each is avowedly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201096–99-358">[316]</a> McDowell is particularly interested in dispelling the "<a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_given" class="mw-redirect" title="Myth of the given">myth of the given</a>," the dichotomy between concept and intuition, whereas Brandom is concerned mostly to develop Hegel's social account of reason-giving and normative implication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014144-359">[317]</a> These appropriations of Hegel's thought are two among several "non-metaphysical" readings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20084-360">[318]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications_and_other_writings">Publications and other writings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Publications and other writings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_bibliography" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography</a></div> Published articles are in quotes; book titles are italicized.<a href="#cite_note-361">[aq]</a> Bern, 1793–96 <ul><li>1793–94: 'Fragments on Folk Religion and Christianity'</li> <li>1795–96: 'The Positivity of the Christian Religion'</li> <li>1796–97: 'The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism' (authorship disputed)</li></ul> Frankfurt am Main, 1797–1800 <ul><li>1797–98: 'Drafts on Religion and Love'</li> <li>1798: Confidential Letters on the Prior Constitutional Relations of the Wadtlandes (Pays de Vaud) to the City of Bern. A Complete Disclosure of the Previous Oligarchy of the Bern Estates. Translated from the French of a Deceased Swiss [Jean Jacques Cart], with Commentary. Frankfurt am Main, Jäger. (Hegel's translation is published anonymously)</li> <li>1798–1800: 'The Spirit of Christianity and its Fate'</li> <li>1800–02: 'The Constitution of Germany' (draft)</li></ul> Jena, 1801–07 <ul><li>1801: De orbitis planetarum; 'The Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy'</li> <li>1802: 'On the Essence of Philosophical Critique in General and its Relation to the Present State of Philosophy in Particular' (Introduction to the Critical Journal of Philosophy, edited by Schelling and Hegel)</li> <li>1802: 'How Commonsense takes Philosophy, Illustrated by the Works of Mr. Krug'</li> <li>1802 'The Relation of Scepticism to Philosophy. Presentation of its various Modifications and Comparison of the latest with the ancient'</li> <li>1802: 'Faith and Knowledge, or the Reflective Philosophy of Subjectivity in the Completeness of its Forms as Kantian, Jacobian and Fichtean Philosophy'</li> <li>1802–03: 'System of Ethical Life'</li> <li>1803: 'On the Scientific Approaches to Natural Law, its Role within Practical Philosophy and its Relation to the Positive Sciences of Law'</li> <li>1803–04: 'First Philosophy of Spirit (Part III of the System of Speculative Philosophy 1803/4)'</li> <li>1807: The Phenomenology of Spirit</li></ul> Bamberg, 1807–08 <ul><li>1807: 'Preface: On Scientific Cognition' – Preface to his Philosophical System, published with the Phenomenology</li></ul> Nuremberg, 1808–16 <ul><li>1808–16: 'Philosophical Propaedeutic'</li></ul> Heidelberg, 1816–18 <ul><li>1812–13: Science of Logic, Part 1 (Books 1, 2)</li> <li>1816: Science of Logic, Part 2 (Book 3)</li> <li>1817: 'Review of Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's Works, Volume Three'</li> <li>1817: 'Assessment of the Proceedings of Estates Assembly of the Duchy of Württemberg in 1815 and 1816'</li> <li>1817: Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, 1st edition</li></ul> Berlin, 1818–31 <ul><li>1820: The Philosophy of Right, or Natural Law and Political Science in Outline</li> <li>1827: Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, 2nd rev. edn.</li> <li>1831: Science of Logic, 2nd edn, with extensive revisions to Book 1 (published in 1832)</li> <li>1831: Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences, 3rd rev. edn</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berlin_lecture_series">Berlin lecture series</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Berlin lecture series">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Logic 1818–31: annually</li> <li>Philosophy of Nature: 1819–20, 1821–22, 1823–24, 1825–26, 1828, 1830</li> <li>Philosophy of Subjective Spirit: 1820, 1822, 1825, 1827–28, 1829–30</li> <li>Philosophy of Right: 1818–19, 1819–20, 1821–22, 1822–23, 1824–25, 1831</li> <li>Philosophy of World History: 1822–23, 1824–25, 1826–27, 1828–29, 1830–31</li> <li>Philosophy of Art: 1820–21, 1823, 1826, 1828–29</li> <li>Philosophy of Religion: 1821, 1824, 1827, 1831</li> <li>History of Philosophy: 1819, 1820–21, 1823–24, 1825–26, 1827–28, 1829–30, 1831</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈheɪɡəl/</a>;<a href="#cite_note-rhwud-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-LPD-2">[2]</a> German: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈheːɡl̩]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LPD-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-de-duden-pron-3">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Unbeknownst to Hegel, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Piazzi" title="Giuseppe Piazzi">Giuseppe Piazzi</a> had discovered the <a href="/wiki/Minor_planet" title="Minor planet">minor planet</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a> within that orbit on 1 January 1801.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann195953-25">[24]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Of even his most philosophically technical work, Hegel writes, "It can therefore be said that this content is the exposition of God as he is in his eternal essence before the creation of nature and of finite spirit."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b29-68">[66]</a> See also the section on <a href="#Christianity">Christianity</a> for further discussion of religion's important role in Hegel's later writings and lectures. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> For a discussion of this philosophical controversy, see <a href="#CITEREFBeiser1993a">Beiser 1993a</a>, ch. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> The German is Herrschaft und Knechtschaft, which can also be rendered "master and servant." "Slave," however, is an incorrect translation. The German for that would be der Sklave. Der Knecht, by contrast, is a servant, a menial, a farmhand, a serf, et cetera. None of the English translators render it "slave." It is most likely <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Koj%C3%A8ve" title="Alexandre Kojève">Alexandre Kojève</a>'s influential account of what he calls la dialectique du maître et de l'esclave that is responsible for this common error. (See <a href="#Reception_in_France">Hegel's Reception in France</a>, below, for discussion.) This matters philosophically because Hegel's terms here are an appropriation of Aristotle's analysis of the master-servant relation in his Politics (1253a24–1256b39) and Oeconomica. As Peperzak puts it (commenting upon the Encyclopedia version of the dialectic), "Hegel likewise emphasizes the mutual benefit and commonality of the union between a free master and the 'animal sapiens' who serves him as an appropriate organon."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak2001155-82">[78]</a> Or, as Harris remarks, "the master is the rational agent, and the 'slave' is the rational instrument."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol._1,_p._377,_n._25;_Harris's_scare_quotes-83">[79]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Contrary to some interpretations, Hegel denies that this is the focal point of the Phenomenology. Instead, he directly states that it is the position of the "unhappy consciousness," presented later in that same chapter, that is "the birthplace of spirit becoming self-consciousness."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶754-87">[82]</a> Or, in the words of one scholar, "It is the unhappy consciousness, at the climax of the evolution of self-consciousness in opposition to nature, that marks the real birth of the concept of absolute spirit."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol._2,_p._527;_caps_modified-88">[83]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> See, for instance, the discussion in <a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris 1995</a>, ch. 10 or the Introduction to <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, pp. 1–29. Endnotes in the latter supply additional references. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> "Certainly, to justify metaphysics through experience, Hegel has to extend the sense of 'experience' beyond its narrow Kantian limits, where it applies exclusively to sense perception. But Hegel thinks that Kant has artificially and arbitrarily restricted the meaning of experience, so that it means something as banal as 'Here is my lighter and there is my tobacco tin' (GP XX 352/III, 444–5). Experience is not only sense perception, Hegel insists, but also what is discovered and lived through. This is by no means a stipulative or technical sense of the word Erfahrung, and there is no need to replace it with another synonym, such as Erleben. Hegel is only reviving the original sense of the term, according to which Erfahrung is anything that one learns through experiment, through trial and error, or through enquiry about what appears to be the case. Hegel's term Erfahrung is therefore to be taken in its literal meaning: a journey or adventure (fahren), which arrives at a result (er-fahren), so that Erfahrung is quite literally das Ergebnis des Fahrts. The journey undertaken by consciousness in the Phenomenology is that of its own dialectic, and what it lives through as a result of this dialectic is its experience (73; ¶86)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005160-103">[96]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Contrast, for instance, <a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris 1995</a>, ch. 10 with <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2006">Houlgate 2006</a>, ch. 7 or <a href="#CITEREFCollins2013">Collins 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stern_(philosopher)" title="Robert Stern (philosopher)">Robert Stern</a> makes a point about the more general relation of the Phenomenology to the Berlin system: "whilst everyone recognizes that the Phenomenology marks a turning-point in Hegel's philosophical career, ...certain remarks by Hegel himself have led some to warn that we should not expect to fit the Phenomenology into his final philosophical outlook without remainder (where some go on to claim that that final outlook introduced certain deplorable elements that are thankfully missing in the Phenomenology as an earlier work, while others go on to disparage the Phenomenology as a misleading guide to Hegel's ultimate position)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern20029-111">[102]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> "Hegel differs from the Neoplatonists, however, in that his originary One (to Hen) is immanent in the onto-noētic universe. In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> and Proclus, Hegel rejects the possibility of any separate infinity."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200188-114">[104]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Beiser refers the reader to Aristotle's Metaphysics, Book V, 11, 1018b, 30–6; Book IX, 8, 1050a, 3–20.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005p._317,_n.4-117">[106]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> The opening section, entitled "Preliminary Conception," also provides a historical examination of philosophical "positions on objectivity" as quite a different sort of "introduction" to the logic than what Hegel earlier gave in the Phenomenology of Spirit. To what extent Hegel preferred this approach over that of his earlier book is a matter of ongoing debate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2013556-129">[117]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> For further discussion of what it means for logic to be presuppositionless see, in particular, <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2006">Houlgate 2006</a>, part I and <a href="#CITEREFHentrup2019">Hentrup 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Kant's "metaphysical deduction" of the categories is a derivation of categories from the Aristotelian table of "the twelve logical functions or forms of judgments." The "transcendental deduction" advances the more ambitious argument that these a priori categories do, in fact, "apply universally and necessarily to the objects that are given in our experience."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19988–9-142">[128]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> "In the Doctrine of the Concept, thought reflects for the first time consciously and explicitly on thought itself, and all the preceding categories are understood to have their meaning and significance precisely in being comprehended by a self-aware thought. The concept is thought "In its being-returned-into-itself [Zurückgekehrtsein in sich selbst] and its developed being-with-itself [Beisichsein] – the concept in-and for-itself" [<a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, §83]. The dialectic of Hegel's Logic demonstrates how the pure thought-categories of being and essence pass over into the categories of the concept; how the concept reveals, again, the higher-level (or deeper-level) unity of being and essence."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011pp._58–59,_caps_modified-145">[130]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> George di Giovanni offers this in defense of "concept": "Following Geraets/Suchting/Harris, I have departed from long-standing usage and have translated Begriff as 'concept' rather than as 'notion.' B. C. Burt also used 'concept' in his 1896 translation of Erdmann's Outlines of Logic and Metaphysics, for the very good reason that 'notion' carries the connotation of being a subjective representation. Its meaning is also much too vague. It should be reserved for precisely such contexts as require a term without too precise a meaning. 'Concept' has the further advantage of being patently connected with 'to conceive,' just as Begriff is connected with greifen, and can easily be expanded into 'conceptual' and 'conceptually grasped' or replaced, if need be, with 'comprehension' and 'conceptually comprehended.'"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2010lxvii–lxviii-150">[134]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> "The concept of philosophy is the self-thinking idea, the knowing truth (§236), the logical with the meaning that it is the universality verified [bewährte] in the concrete content as in its actuality."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010a§574-158">[141]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Inwood further elaborates the justification for preferring "spirit" as the translation: "Geist is the usual German word for the intellectual aspect of an individual, the mind, but in the Phenomenology it more commonly refers to the collective mind or 'spirit' shared by a group of people. It is, as Hegel memorably puts it, 'I that is We, and We that is I' (PS ¶177). It can also refer to the third person of the Trinity, the holy spirit, and this religious connotation is never far from Hegel's mind when he uses the word Geist."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2018vii-184">[166]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> For a discussion of Hegel's racial comments in the Anthropology, informed by the 19th-century literature available to Hegel, see <a href="#CITEREFde_Laurentiis2021">de Laurentiis 2021</a>, ch. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Hegel himself acknowledges an ambiguity in the term "natural right" [Naturrecht] between meaning "a right that is present in an immediately natural way" and a right that is "determined by the nature of the thing [Sache], i.e., by the concept." His is the latter: "In fact right and all of its determinations are based on free personhood alone, a self-determination, which is the very contrary of determination by nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b§502R-211">[191]</a> Probably his most direct discussion of the vocabulary of natural right is to be found in the Introduction to Hegel's 1817–1818 Heidelberg lectures; after this, he almost always speaks of right simplicitur or right as modified by his own distinct philosophical terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPöggeler2012§II-212">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010c§§1–10-213">[193]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Some commentators do not accept Hegel's own metaphysical self-understanding of his project. Allen W. Wood, for instance, declares, "Speculative thought is dead; but Hegel's thought is not": "The fact is rather that Hegel's great positive achievements as a philosopher do not lie where he thought they did." According to Wood, to read Hegel primarily as a social theorist is "admittedly, to read him in some measure against his own self-understanding; it is nevertheless the only way in which most of us, if we are honest with ourselves, can read him seriously at all."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood19914–8-216">[195]</a> Whether or not one accepts Wood's verdict on Hegel's overarching project, one must agree that to read Hegel as Wood proposes is to engage in a project of interpretive appropriation, not strictly textual or historical exegesis. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> As <a href="/wiki/Walter_Jaeschke" title="Walter Jaeschke">Walter Jaeschke</a>, German scholar and editor of the critical Gesammelte Werke edition of Hegel's works puts it, "It is only in this sphere that spirit brings forth a shape – an image of itself, as it were – and relates itself to this shape in the forms of intuition [art], representation [religion], and comprehending thinking [philosophy/logic]. It is here that spirit relates itself to itself and is absolute precisely in its self-relation. It cognizes itself as what it is and it is with itself (bei sich) and free in this cognition. Only with this cognition is the concept of spirit – as the concept of a thinking relation to self – complete."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaeschke2013179-231">[209]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> His best discussion, per <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 288, is (oddly) to be found in The Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion v.1, pp. 234ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> He does not, however, abandon his account of the Art-Religion, which continues to appear in his <a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_Religion" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion">Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion</a> during the same period. These two modes of absolute spirit, although conceptually distinct, historically overlap or intersect in ancient Greece. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> See also, for discussion, <a href="#CITEREFPippin2008a">Pippin 2008a</a>, pp. 394–418. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> For discussion from two quite different perspectives, see <a href="#CITEREFHenrich1979">Henrich 1979</a>, pp. 107–33 and <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2007">Houlgate 2007</a>, pp. xxii–xxvi. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> See the <a href="#Absolute_spirit">directly above</a> for explanatory discussion. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> In English these writings, published after Hegel's death, are collected in a translation by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malcolm_Knox" title="Thomas Malcolm Knox">T. M. Knox</a> under the title Early Theological Writings (1971). </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> As Hegel applies the term "positivity" to Christianity, "the word refers to non-essential, historically derived, and often authoritarian aspects of the religion; together, they contrast with its "natural," essential, moral, and freedom-nurturing quality. The "positivity" of Christianity refers to features of the religion that either obscure, or have mistakenly taken the place of, its essential moral message. "Hegel adopted the terms "positive" and "natural" from legal theory, where they indicate the difference between imperfect, human-written, secondary, "positive" law, and perfect, primary, God-given, "natural" law."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicks2020ch._3-253">[224]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> As documented, for instance, in <a href="#CITEREFdi_Giovanni2009">di Giovanni 2009</a>, pp. 226–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> See the corresponding section of <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a> for discussion and defense of this historical identifications of the shapes of spirit presented by the Phenomenology. Whether or to what extent such identifications are important for the success of Hegel's project is a topic of ongoing scholarly debate. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> This translation follows <a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris 1995</a> and <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, and also accords with Hodgson's translational practice in the LPR: "For offenbar we have settled on "revelatory" in order to stress the process of "making open" or "becoming manifest" and thus to be able to distinguish offenbar from geoffenbart, which refers to something that has been "revealed" in historical, positive fashion. Hegel clearly intended a distinction as well as a relation between these terms (see 1827 lectures, p. 252). In the Phenomenology of Spirit he described Christianity as Die offenbare Religion, whereas in the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences he titled it Die geoffenbarte Religion; thus the usage in the philosophy-of-religion lectures indicates a return to the earlier (and more suggestive) title. In some contexts we translate offenbar as "manifest," but for the title we prefer a term that also suggests the connection with geoffenbart and maintains whatever distinction Hegel may have intended between offenbaren and manifestieren."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodgson19853-260">[228]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> "I cannot even assume God, freedom and immortality for the sake of the necessary practical use of my reason unless I simultaneously deprive speculative reason of its pretension to extravagant insights; because in order to attain to such insights, speculative reason would have to help itself to principles that in fact reach only to objects of possible experience, and which, if they were to be applied to what cannot be an object of experience, then they would always actually transform it into an appearance, and thus declare all practical extension of pure reason to be impossible. Thus I had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith; and the dogmatism of metaphysics, i.e., the prejudice that without criticism reason can make progress in metaphysics, is the true source of all unbelief conflicting with morality, which unbelief is always very dogmatic."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1998Bxxix–xxx-263">[230]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> These changes are documented in the Introductions to Peter C. Hodgson's three-volume translation of the critical edition of the Lectures (University of California Press). </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> For detailed accounts of this development see, for instance, <a href="#CITEREFFackenheim1967">Fackenheim 1967</a>, ch. 5, or <a href="#CITEREFJaeschke1990">Jaeschke 1990</a>, ch. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> "Because Hegel does not often use the word "dialectic" indicate the positive side of rationality, the predicate "dialectical" is less appropriate to characterize Hegel's entire method. His own use is closer to the ancient and Kantian meaning of dialectica than to the post-Marxian use; most often, it is reserved for the negative moment, whereas he prefers "speculative" characterize the complete and true nature of thought. Cf., e.g., Enc C 79 & R. [<a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, §79&R]. "A rigorous justification of Hegel's method is given in the last chapter of his Logic, GW 12, pp. 237–253 [<a href="#CITEREFHegel2010b">Hegel 2010b</a>, pp. 736–53]. In the courses on the philosophy of right, Dialeklik is mentioned, e.g., in Ilt 3, 139 [no English translation] ("dialectics means in general that something finite pretends to be, though it is not insofar as it has its limit in itself") and Wa 273 [no English translation] ("all that is limited, is dialectical in itself"). Failure to see that Hegel does not stop at the second, intellectual, and (negative-)dialectical stage of knowledge leads to a reading that is more Kantian than Hegelian. Reluctance to recognize that the oppositions between, e.g., idea and nature or substance and subject, are only provisional and not yet fully true leads to a misunderstanding of Hegel's concepts of spirit and absolute spirit, and consequently to fundamental distortions of his theory and practice of philosophy itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200157–58-295">[259]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> With respect to terminology, Hegel follows <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a> (who roughly follows <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>) in defining the activity of thought (Denken) as directed towards what appears as other to itself as "understanding" or "intellect" (Verstand) and the activity of thought as directed upon its own activities as "reason" (Vernunft), which, in contrast to understanding, is speculative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013b-301">[264]</a> Because Spekulation "sublates the opposition between subjectivity and objectivity, along with other oppositions," Hegel insists, it is not (merely) subjective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992p._272,_all-caps_removed_from_cross-referenced_terms-302">[265]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> "It is tempting to think of these logical operations as distinctively Hegelian. But they can be found elsewhere. In the first place, understanding is the process of conceptual analysis – of getting concepts and their use appropriately defined. In the second place, <a href="/wiki/Carnap" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnap">Carnap</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a>, in their discussion of category terms, identify the way in which the negation of a term refers to its contrary, not its contradictory; the opposites share a common perspective. In many of Plato's dialogues, as well, a thorough examination of a definition leads to the opposite of what was originally intended. In the third place, theory construction responds to paradoxes and anomalies by developing explanations or grounds that can do justice to all the aspects involved. "In ordinary reflection, however, these operations function in isolation. Once understanding fixes its terms, it stops thinking and simply holds to the distinctions made. The paradoxes in Plato's dialogues are not ultimately resolved, and the modem theory of categories is simply a way of dispelling paradoxes. Theory construction, divorced from the discipline of understanding and the awareness that anomalies develop out of inherent limitations, becomes pure fantasy and loses its tie with reality. "For Hegel, rational thinking involves integrating all three operations into a single complex process of thinking."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge199391-304">[266]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> While widely regarded as a technical Hegelian term, "Aufhebung (sublate) is a common German word for quotidian activities (such as conserving something for later use), for physical phenomena, and for logical operations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2021p.194,_n.2-309">[270]</a> Although, according to the <a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a>, "sublate" did enter the English language in the mid-sixteenth century, the more common word closest to Hegel's meaning is probably "suspend"–provided only that it is not taken to have any implications of temporariness, which Hegel's concept of Aufhebung does not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991bpp._xxxv–xxxvi,_editors'_Introduction-310">[271]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> The literature on this is enormous. <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Reason_and_Revolution" title="Reason and Revolution">Reason and Revolution</a>, however, is one classic introductory text.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcuse1999-340">[300]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> For instance, in the Introduction to his A Spirit of Trust, Brandom repeatedly goes out of his way to emphasize that his interpretation is, e.g., "unusual" and "an admitted anachronism" and that his procedure is "not Hegel's own practice."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandom20194,_8-356">[315]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> List, since emended for this Wikipedia article, originally compiled for The Bloomsbury Companion to Hegel (pp. 341–43) by Kenneth R. Westphal. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rhwud-1"><a href="#cite_ref-rhwud_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/hegel">"Hegel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Random+House+Webster%27s+Unabridged+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Hegel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fhegel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LPD-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LPD_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LPD_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation book cs1">Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405881180" title="Special:BookSources/9781405881180"><bdi>9781405881180</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781405881180&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-de-duden-pron-3"><a href="#cite_ref-de-duden-pron_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Hegel">"Duden | He-gel | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition"</a> [Duden | He-gel | Spelling, Meaning, Definition]. <a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a> (in German). Retrieved 18 October 2018. <q>Hegel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Duden&rft.atitle=Duden+%7C+He-gel+%7C+Rechtschreibung%2C+Bedeutung%2C+Definition&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.duden.de%2Frechtschreibung%2FHegel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard20002–3,_745-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard20002–3,_745_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, pp. 2–3, 745. </li> <li id="cite_note-Knox2022-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knox2022_6-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnox" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malcolm_Knox" title="Thomas Malcolm Knox">Knox, T. 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Retrieved 16 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=T.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FGeorg-Wilhelm-Friedrich-Hegel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard20003-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard20003_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGHWJQhWRNy0CpgPA4redir_escyvonepageqffalse_4]-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidGHWJQhWRNy0CpgPA4redir_escyvonepageqffalse_4]_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Retrieved 8 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hegel+in+Berlin+%E2%80%93+Jacques+D%27Hondt&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Cowley&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhegel.net%2Fen%2Fhegel-in-berlin-jacques-dhondt.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiep2021xxi-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiep2021xxi_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiep2021">Siep 2021</a>, p. xxi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1996-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1996_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1996">Hegel 1996</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959372–73-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959372–73_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaufmann1959">Kaufmann 1959</a>, pp. 372–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiep2021xxii-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiep2021xxii_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiep2021">Siep 2021</a>, p. xxii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeine1834221-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeine1834221_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeine1834">Heine 1834</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000659–70-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000659–70_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, pp. 659–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000548-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000548_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, p. 548. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000663–64-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000663–64_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, pp. 663–64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199325-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199325_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1993">Harris 1993</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199327-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199327_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1993">Harris 1993</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerrarin20073-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFerrarin20073_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFerrarin2007">Ferrarin 2007</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199332–33-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199332–33_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1993">Harris 1993</a>, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200534-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200534_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200537-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200537_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200540-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200540_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199329-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199329_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1993">Harris 1993</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b29-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b29_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2010b">Hegel 2010b</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2001-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee2001_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagee2001">Magee 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201430-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman201430_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickey1989-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickey1989_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDickey1989">Dickey 1989</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199336-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199336_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1993">Harris 1993</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard200030–33-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard200030–33_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, pp. 30–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201429-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman201429_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern20026-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern20026_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStern2002">Stern 2002</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000256–65-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000256–65_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, pp. 256–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPippin199352–58-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPippin199352–58_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPippin1993">Pippin 1993</a>, pp. 52–58. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2000131-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2000131_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFdi_Giovanni2000">di Giovanni 2000</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak2001155-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeperzak2001155_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeperzak2001">Peperzak 2001</a>, p. 155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol._1,_p._377,_n._25;_Harris's_scare_quotes-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol._1,_p._377,_n._25;_Harris's_scare_quotes_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, vol. 1, p. 377, n. 25; Harris's scare quotes. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol.1,_p._376,_n._22-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol.1,_p._376,_n._22_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, vol.1, p. 376, n. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992245-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992245_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶754-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶754_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶754. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol._2,_p._527;_caps_modified-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997vol._2,_p._527;_caps_modified_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, vol. 2, p. 527; caps modified. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶184-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶184_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992246-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992246_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 246. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor1975chapter_V,_§2-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1975chapter_V,_§2_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor1975">Taylor 1975</a>, chapter V, §2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶26–27-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶26–27_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20137-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20137_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2013">Houlgate 2013</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2018-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood2018_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood2018">Inwood 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200557-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200557_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2005">Houlgate 2005</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶78-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶78_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶80-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶80_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern200241-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern200241_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStern2002">Stern 2002</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§10R-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§10R_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, §10R. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005170-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005170_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005160-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005160_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005160_103-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000205-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinkard2000205_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPinkard2000">Pinkard 2000</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201432-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman201432_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman201432_106-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959115-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959115_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaufmann1959">Kaufmann 1959</a>, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201478-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman201478_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199599-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199599_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris 1995</a>, p. 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern20029-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern20029_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStern2002">Stern 2002</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a205-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a205_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood2013a">Inwood 2013a</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200188-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200188_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeperzak2001">Peperzak 2001</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199542-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris199542_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris1995">Harris 1995</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005p._317,_n.4-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005p._317,_n.4_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 317, n.4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200556–57-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200556–57_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, pp. 56–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a208-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a208_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood2013a">Inwood 2013a</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200561–65-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200561–65_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, pp. 61–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood2013a_122-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood2013a">Inwood 2013a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010a§§574-77-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2010a§§574-77_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2010a">Hegel 2010a</a>, §§574-77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶20-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶20_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§24-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§24_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§24_125-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, §24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWolff2013-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWolff2013_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWolff2013">Wolff 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200530-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200530_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2005">Houlgate 2005</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006xvii–xix-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006xvii–xix_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2006">Houlgate 2006</a>, pp. xvii–xix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins2013556-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECollins2013556_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCollins2013">Collins 2013</a>, p. 556. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2006">Houlgate 2006</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWandschneider2013105-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWandschneider2013105_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWandschneider2013">Wandschneider 2013</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge199387-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbidge199387_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurbidge1993">Burbidge 1993</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200553-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200553_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011132-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee2011132_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagee2011">Magee 2011</a>, p. 132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200555-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200555_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200553–57,_65–71-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200553–57,_65–71_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, pp. 53–57, 65–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2008156-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser2008156_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2008">Beiser 2008</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200538-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate200538_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2005">Houlgate 2005</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELonguenesse20075-6-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELonguenesse20075-6_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELonguenesse20075-6_141-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLonguenesse2007">Longuenesse 2007</a>, p. 5-6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19988–9-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19988–9_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2010liii_n.100-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2010liii_n.100_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFdi_Giovanni2010">di Giovanni 2010</a>, p. liii n.100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011pp._58–59,_caps_modified-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagee2011pp._58–59,_caps_modified_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagee2011">Magee 2011</a>, pp. 58–59, caps modified. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman201410-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman201410_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200514–15-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200514–15_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Laurentiis2005">de Laurentiis 2005</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§161-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§161_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, §161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2010lxvii–lxviii-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2010lxvii–lxviii_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFdi_Giovanni2010">di Giovanni 2010</a>, pp. lxvii–lxviii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992123–25-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992123–25_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, pp. 123–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b59–60-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b59–60_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2010b">Hegel 2010b</a>, pp. 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge1993-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbidge1993_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurbidge1993">Burbidge 1993</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992123-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992123_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992125-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992125_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge1993100-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbidge1993100_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurbidge1993">Burbidge 1993</a>, p. 100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010a§574-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2010a§574_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2010a">Hegel 2010a</a>, §574. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b753-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b753_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2010b">Hegel 2010b</a>, p. 753. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge2006b125–26-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbidge2006b125–26_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurbidge2006b">Burbidge 2006b</a>, pp. 125–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200529–31-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200529–31_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Laurentiis2005">de Laurentiis 2005</a>, pp. 29–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel199554–55-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel199554–55_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1995">Hegel 1995</a>, pp. 54–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagee2011156-164"><a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200157-298"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeperzak200157_298-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeperzak2001">Peperzak 2001</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005167–69-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser2005167–69_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, pp. 167–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§§80–82-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1991b§§80–82_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, §§80–82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood2013b-301"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood2013b_301-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood2013b">Inwood 2013b</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992p._272,_all-caps_removed_from_cross-referenced_terms-302"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992p._272,_all-caps_removed_from_cross-referenced_terms_302-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 272, all-caps removed from cross-referenced terms. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurbidge199391-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurbidge199391_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurbidge1993">Burbidge 1993</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200522-306"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis200522_306-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Laurentiis2005">de Laurentiis 2005</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶166-307"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2018¶166_307-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2018">Hegel 2018</a>, ¶166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2002xiii-308"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2002xiii_308-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStern2002">Stern 2002</a>, p. xiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2021p.194,_n.2-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Laurentiis2021p.194,_n.2_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Laurentiis2021">de Laurentiis 2021</a>, p.194, n.2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel1991bpp._xxxv–xxxvi,_editors'_Introduction-310"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel1991bpp._xxxv–xxxvi,_editors'_Introduction_310-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel1991b">Hegel 1991b</a>, pp. xxxv–xxxvi, editors' Introduction. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992283-312">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992283_312-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992283_312-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 283. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992311-313"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992311_313-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 311. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood199264-314"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood199264_314-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992128–31-315"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992128–31_315-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, pp. 128–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b119-316"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHegel2010b119_316-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHegel2010b">Hegel 2010b</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInwood1992129-317"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInwood1992129_317-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFInwood1992">Inwood 1992</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2013253-318"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2013253_318-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFdi_Giovanni2013">di Giovanni 2013</a>, p. 253. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStern2008-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStern2008_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStern2008">Stern 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200568–69-320"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser200568–69_320-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2005">Beiser 2005</a>, pp. 68–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPippin20195-321"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPippin20195_321-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPippin2019">Pippin 2019</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005106-322"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2005106_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2005">Houlgate 2005</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser200558-323"><a 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href="#CITEREFChalybäus1860">Chalybäus 1860</a>, p. 367. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959154-330"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaufmann1959154_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKaufmann1959">Kaufmann 1959</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman20143–4-331"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman20143–4_331-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, pp. 3–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006ch._2-332"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate2006ch._2_332-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2006">Houlgate 2006</a>, ch. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20051–2-333"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoulgate20051–2_333-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoulgate2005">Houlgate 2005</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014chapter_9-334"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014chapter_9_334-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, chapter 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERockmore1993chapter_3-335"><a 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBohman2021_342-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBohman2021">Bohman 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStahl2021-343"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStahl2021_343-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStahl2021">Stahl 2021</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh20031,_9–10-344"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaugh20031,_9–10_344-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaugh2003">Baugh 2003</a>, pp. 1, 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh20039-345"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaugh20039_345-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaugh2003">Baugh 2003</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaugh2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk-nZXykvXzsCpgPA17redir_escyvonepageqffalse_17]-346"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaugh2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidk-nZXykvXzsCpgPA17redir_escyvonepageqffalse_17]_346-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaugh2003">Baugh 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k-nZXykvXzsC&pg=PA17&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">17</a>. </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201089_351-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201089_351-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBernstein2010">Bernstein 2010</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201090–95-352"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201090–95_352-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBernstein2010">Bernstein 2010</a>, pp. 90–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDewey19817-353"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDewey19817_353-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDewey1981">Dewey 1981</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014142-354"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014142_354-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201096–105-355"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201096–105_355-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBernstein2010">Bernstein 2010</a>, pp. 96–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandom20194,_8-356"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandom20194,_8_356-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrandom2019">Brandom 2019</a>, pp. 4, 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein201096–99-358"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBernstein201096–99_358-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBernstein2010">Bernstein 2010</a>, pp. 96–99. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014144-359"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFritzman2014144_359-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFritzman2014">Fritzman 2014</a>, p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser20084-360"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser20084_360-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeiser2008">Beiser 2008</a>, p. 4. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Primary">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_bibliography" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1970" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1970). Michael John Petry (ed.). Hegel's Philosophy of Nature. Translated by Petry, Michael John. Allen & Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hegel%27s+Philosophy+of+Nature&rft.pub=Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1971" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1971). Early Theological Writings. Translated by Knox, T. M. Chicago University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Theological+Writings&rft.pub=Chicago+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1975a" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1975a). Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. Translated by Knox, T. M. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aesthetics%3A+Lectures+on+Fine+Art&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1975b" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1975b). H. B. Nisbet (ed.). Lectures on the Philosophy of World History: Introduction. Translated by Nisbet, H. B. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Philosophy+of+World+History%3A+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1978" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1978). Michael John Petry (ed.). Hegel's Philosophy of Subjective Spirit. Translated by Petry, Michael John. D. Reidel Pub. Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hegel%27s+Philosophy+of+Subjective+Spirit&rft.pub=D.+Reidel+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1984a" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1984a). H. S. Harris and W. Cerf (ed.). The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy. Translated by Harris, H. S.; Cerf, W. SUNY Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Difference+Between+Fichte%27s+and+Schelling%27s+System+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1984b" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1984b). Hodgson, P.C.; Brown, R.F.; Stewart, J.M. (eds.). Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion. Translated by Hodgson, P. C.; Brown, R. F.; Stewart, J. M. with the assistance of J.P. Fitzer and H. S. Harris. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1984c" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1984c). Clark Butler and Christiane Seiler (ed.). The Letters. Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letters&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1998" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1998). H. S. Harris and W. Cerf (ed.). Faith and Knowledge. Translated by Harris, H. S.; Cerf, W. 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Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hegel%27s+Ethical+Thought&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Allen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Hegel". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hegel&rft.btitle=Random+House+Webster%27s+Unabridged+Dictionary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"He-gel: Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition". Duden.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=He-gel%3A+Rechtschreibung%2C+Bedeutung%2C+Definition&rft.btitle=Duden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/4604">Works by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hegel_texts_online">Hegel texts online</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Hegel texts online">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/index.htm">Hegel by 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resources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Andrew Chitty's (University of Sussex) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://users.sussex.ac.uk/~sefd0/bib/hegel.htm">Hegel Bibliography</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/germidea/">German Idealism at the IEP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel at the SEP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel-aesthetics/">Hegel's Aesthetics at the SEP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/hegelsoc/">Hegel: Social and Political Thought at the IEP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel-social-political/">Hegel’s Social and Political Philosophy at the SEP</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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Kristeva">Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Levinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Serres" title="Michel Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Sloterdijk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Stein" title="Edith Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freudo-Marxism" title="Freudo-Marxism">Freudo-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-philosophy" title="Non-philosophy">Non-philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speculative_realism" title="Speculative realism">Speculative realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alterity" title="Alterity">Alterity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Always_already" title="Always already">Always already</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angst" title="Angst">Angst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian" title="Apollonian and Dionysian">Apollonian and Dionysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">Authenticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_in_itself" title="Being in itself">Being in itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_oppositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary oppositions">Binary oppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boredom" title="Boredom">Boredom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">Critique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanent_critique" title="Immanent critique">Immanent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasein" title="Dasein">Dasein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of God">Death of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_drive" title="Death drive">Death drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diff%C3%A9rance" title="Différance">Différance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difference_(philosophy)" title="Difference (philosophy)">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence" title="Existence precedes essence">Existence precedes essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_crisis" title="Existential crisis">Existential crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facticity" title="Facticity">Facticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy_(philosophy)" title="Genealogy (philosophy)">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauntology" title="Hauntology">Hauntology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">Historical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpellation_(philosophy)" title="Interpellation (philosophy)">Interpellation (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">Intersubjectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leap_of_faith" title="Leap of faith">Leap of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">Master–slave dialectic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality" title="Master–slave morality">Master–slave morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oedipus_complex" title="Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontic">Ontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontopoetics" title="Ontopoetics">Ontopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">Other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_(deconstruction)" title="Trace (deconstruction)">Trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">Transvaluation of values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence#Philosophical_perspectives" title="Violence">Violence § Philosophical perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">Will to power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics_of_suspicion" title="Hermeneutics of suspicion">Hermeneutics of suspicion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic theory">Linguistic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Continental_philosophy" title="Category:Continental philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles" title="Index of continental philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanticism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romanticism" title="Template talk:Romanticism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romanticism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romanticism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">England (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France" title="Romanticism in France">France</a> <a href="/wiki/19th-century_French_literature#Romanticism" title="19th-century French literature">(literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Roman" title="Taishō Roman">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_romantic_nationalism" title="Norwegian romantic nationalism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry" title="Golden Age of Russian Poetry">Russia (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Scotland" title="Romanticism in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Spanish_literature" title="Romanticism in Spanish literature">Spain (literature)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Romantic_literature" title="Swedish Romantic literature">Sweden (literature)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Romanticism" title="Dark Romanticism">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_School_of_painting" title="Düsseldorf School of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indianism_(arts)" title="Indianism (arts)">Indianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Poets" title="Lake Poets">Lake Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preromanticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Preromanticism">Pre</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-romanticism" title="Post-romanticism">Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_school" title="Ukrainian school">Ukrainian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Romanticism" title="Ultra-Romanticism">Ultra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Wallenrod" title="Konrad Wallenrod">Wallenrodism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_flower" title="Blue flower">Blue flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Marine_Art_(Romantic_Era)" title="British Marine Art (Romantic Era)">British Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">Hero</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byronic_hero" title="Byronic hero">Byronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_hero" title="Romantic hero">Romantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_fiction" title="Historical fiction">Historical fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mal_du_si%C3%A8cle" title="Mal du siècle">Mal du siècle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostalgia#Romanticism" title="Nostalgia">Nostalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossian" title="Ossian">Ossian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_romanticism" title="Rhine romanticism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(literature)#Romanticism_and_genius" title="Genius (literature)">Romantic genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderlust" title="Wanderlust">Wanderlust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_art" title="White Mountain art">White Mountain art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Literature" title="Romanticism">Writers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Brazil</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casimiro_de_Abreu" title="Casimiro de Abreu">Abreu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Alencar" title="José de Alencar">Alencar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Ant%C3%B4nio_de_Almeida" title="Manuel Antônio de Almeida">Manuel Antônio de Almeida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castro_Alves" title="Castro Alves">Alves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machado_de_Assis" title="Machado de Assis">Assis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvares_de_Azevedo" title="Álvares de Azevedo">Azevedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobias_Barreto" title="Tobias Barreto">Barreto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_Dias" title="Gonçalves Dias">Dias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Guimar%C3%A3es" title="Bernardo Guimarães">Guimarães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_Manuel_de_Macedo" title="Joaquim Manuel de Macedo">Macedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A7alves_de_Magalh%C3%A3es,_Viscount_of_Araguaia" title="Gonçalves de Magalhães, Viscount of Araguaia">Magalhães</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Firmina_dos_Reis" title="Maria Firmina dos Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_d%27Escragnolle_Taunay,_Viscount_of_Taunay" title="Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay, Viscount of Taunay">Taunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fagundes_Varela" title="Fagundes Varela">Varela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_France#Literature" title="Romanticism in France">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aloysius_Bertrand" title="Aloysius Bertrand">Bertrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas" title="Alexandre Dumas">Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9ophile_Gautier" title="Théophile Gautier">Gautier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Hugo" title="Victor Hugo">Hugo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosper_M%C3%A9rim%C3%A9e" title="Prosper Mérimée">Mérimée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Musset" title="Alfred de Musset">Musset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval" title="Gérard de Nerval">Nerval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Nodier" title="Charles Nodier">Nodier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_de_Vigny" title="Alfred de Vigny">Vigny</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achim_von_Arnim" title="Achim von Arnim">A. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettina_von_Arnim" title="Bettina von Arnim">B. v. Arnim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Beer_(poet)" title="Michael Beer (poet)">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clemens_Brentano" title="Clemens Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Freiherr_von_Eichendorff" title="Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff">Eichendorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_de_la_Motte_Fouqu%C3%A9" title="Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué">Fouqué</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" title="Brothers Grimm">Brothers Grimm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoline_von_G%C3%BCnderrode" title="Karoline von Günderrode">Günderrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Gutzkow" title="Karl Gutzkow">Gutzkow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hauff" title="Wilhelm Hauff">Hauff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._T._A._Hoffmann" title="E. T. A. Hoffmann">Hoffmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul" title="Jean Paul">Jean Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_M%C3%B6rike" title="Eduard Mörike">Mörike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Schwab" title="Gustav Schwab">Schwab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Uhland" title="Ludwig Uhland">Uhland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_literature_in_English" title="Romantic literature in English">Great Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Laetitia_Barbauld" title="Anna Laetitia Barbauld">Barbauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB" title="Anne Brontë">Anne Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB" title="Charlotte Brontë">C. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">E. Brontë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Byron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Clare" title="John Clare">Clare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_De_Quincey" title="Thomas De Quincey">de Quincey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Edgeworth" title="Maria Edgeworth">Maria Edgeworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Keats" title="John Keats">Keats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Polidori" title="John William Polidori">Polidori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Radcliffe" title="Ann Radcliffe">Radcliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson_(poet)" title="Mary Robinson (poet)">Mary Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Scott" title="Walter Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Seward" title="Anna Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Shelley" title="Mary Shelley">M. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">P. B. Shelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Southey" title="Robert Southey">Southey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">Wordsworth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_Poland#Notable_Polish_Romantic_writers_and_poets" title="Romanticism in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksander_Fredro" title="Aleksander Fredro">Fredro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Krasi%C5%84ski" title="Zygmunt Krasiński">Krasiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski" title="Józef Ignacy Kraszewski">Józef Ignacy Kraszewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Malczewski" title="Antoni Malczewski">Malczewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz" title="Adam Mickiewicz">Mickiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_Norwid" title="Cyprian Norwid">Norwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Potocki" title="Jan Potocki">Potocki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wincenty_Pol" title="Wincenty Pol">Wincenty Pol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliusz_S%C5%82owacki" title="Juliusz Słowacki">Słowacki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camilo_Castelo_Branco" title="Camilo Castelo Branco">Castelo Branco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Feliciano_de_Castilho" title="António Feliciano de Castilho">Castilho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Deus_de_Nogueira_Ramos" title="João de Deus de Nogueira Ramos">João de Deus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BAlio_Dinis" title="Júlio Dinis">Dinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almeida_Garrett" title="Almeida Garrett">Garrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Herculano" title="Alexandre Herculano">Herculano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Augusto_Soares_de_Passos" title="António Augusto Soares de Passos">Soares dos Passos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Baratynsky" title="Yevgeny Baratynsky">Baratynsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Batyushkov" title="Konstantin Batyushkov">Batyushkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol" title="Nikolai Gogol">Gogol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin" title="Nikolay Karamzin">Karamzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%BCchelbecker" title="Wilhelm Küchelbecker">Küchelbecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov" title="Mikhail Lermontov">Lermontov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin" title="Alexander Pushkin">Pushkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev" title="Fyodor Tyutchev">Tyutchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Vyazemsky" title="Pyotr Vyazemsky">Vyazemsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky" title="Vasily Zhukovsky">Zhukovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90ura_Jak%C5%A1i%C4%87" title="Đura Jakšić">Jakšić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laza_Kosti%C4%87" title="Laza Kostić">Kostić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_II_Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1" title="Petar II Petrović-Njegoš">Njegoš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Radi%C4%8Devi%C4%87" title="Branko Radičević">Radičević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milica_Stojadinovi%C4%87-Srpkinja" title="Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja">Stojadinović-Srpkinja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Jovanovi%C4%87_Zmaj" title="Jovan Jovanović Zmaj">Zmaj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gustavo_Adolfo_B%C3%A9cquer" title="Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer">Bécquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_de_Castro" title="Rosalía de Castro">Rosalía de Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_de_Espronceda" title="José de Espronceda">Espronceda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Garc%C3%ADa_Guti%C3%A9rrez" title="Antonio García Gutiérrez">Gutiérrez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_de_Saavedra,_3rd_Duke_of_Rivas" title="Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas">Saavedra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Zorrilla" title="José Zorrilla">Zorrilla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">U.S.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen_Bryant" title="William Cullen Bryant">Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fenimore_Cooper" title="James Fenimore Cooper">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Hawthorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gilbert_Holland" title="Josiah Gilbert Holland">Josiah Gilbert Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Irving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow" title="Henry Wadsworth Longfellow">Longfellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Russell_Lowell" title="James Russell Lowell">Lowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khachatur_Abovian" title="Khachatur Abovian">Abovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Alfieri" title="Vittorio Alfieri">Alfieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_Andersen" title="Hans Christian Andersen">Andersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikoloz_Baratashvili" title="Nikoloz Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hristo_Botev" title="Hristo Botev">Botev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Chavchavadze" title="Alexander Chavchavadze">Chavchavadze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Eminescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_Foscolo" title="Ugo Foscolo">Foscolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naim_Frash%C3%ABri" title="Naim Frashëri">Frashëri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Gustaf_Geijer" title="Erik Gustaf Geijer">Geijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N._F._S._Grundtvig" title="N. F. S. Grundtvig">Grundtvig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Heliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_Isaacs" title="Jorge Isaacs">Isaacs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Lenau" title="Nikolaus Lenau">Lenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Leopardi" title="Giacomo Leopardi">Leopardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Hynek_M%C3%A1cha" title="Karel Hynek Mácha">Mácha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Manzoni" title="Alessandro Manzoni">Manzoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maturin" title="Charles Maturin">Maturin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Oehlenschl%C3%A4ger" title="Adam Oehlenschläger">Oehlenschläger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigol_Orbeliani" title="Grigol Orbeliani">Orbeliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Pre%C5%A1eren" title="France Prešeren">Prešeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffi_(novelist)" title="Raffi (novelist)">Raffi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg" title="Johan Ludvig Runeberg">Runeberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taras_Shevchenko" title="Taras Shevchenko">Shevchenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachris_Topelius" title="Zachris Topelius">Topelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mih%C3%A1ly_V%C3%B6r%C3%B6smarty" title="Mihály Vörösmarty">Vörösmarty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Wergeland" title="Henrik Wergeland">Wergeland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romantic_music" title="Romantic music">Musicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Bruckner" title="Anton Bruckner">Bruckner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Czerny" title="Carl Czerny">Czerny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Nepomuk_Hummel" title="Johann Nepomuk Hummel">Hummel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Mahler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Schubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigismond_Thalberg" title="Sigismond Thalberg">Thalberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Wolf" title="Hugo Wolf">Wolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles" title="Ignaz Moscheles">Moscheles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Reicha" title="Anton Reicha">Reicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Smetana" title="Bedřich Smetana">Smetana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_V%C3%A1clav_Vo%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1ek" title="Jan Václav Voříšek">Voříšek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Adam" title="Adolphe Adam">Adam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Valentin_Alkan" title="Charles-Valentin Alkan">Alkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Berlioz" title="Hector Berlioz">Berlioz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Fauré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fromental_Hal%C3%A9vy" title="Fromental Halévy">Halévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_M%C3%A9hul" title="Étienne Méhul">Méhul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Onslow_(composer)" title="George Onslow (composer)">Onslow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Saint-Saëns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Brahms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Bruch" title="Max Bruch">Bruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kalkbrenner" title="Friedrich Kalkbrenner">Kalkbrenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Loewe" title="Carl Loewe">Loewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Marschner" title="Heinrich Marschner">Marschner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanny_Mendelssohn" title="Fanny Mendelssohn">Fanny Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Felix Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Meyerbeer" title="Giacomo Meyerbeer">Meyerbeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski" title="Moritz Moszkowski">Moszkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Schumann" title="Clara Schumann">C. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">R. Schumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Spohr" title="Louis Spohr">Spohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Wagner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber" title="Carl Maria von Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hungary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Erkel" title="Ferenc Erkel">Erkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Goldmark" title="Karl Goldmark">Goldmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Heller" title="Stephen Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jen%C5%91_Hubay" title="Jenő Hubay">Hubay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joachim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Bellini" title="Vincenzo Bellini">Bellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Busoni" title="Ferruccio Busoni">Busoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Cherubini" title="Luigi Cherubini">Cherubini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti" title="Gaetano Donizetti">Donizetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Paganini" title="Niccolò Paganini">Paganini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini" title="Gioachino Rossini">Rossini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspare_Spontini" title="Gaspare Spontini">Spontini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Poland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bortkiewicz" title="Sergei Bortkiewicz">Bortkiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin" title="Frédéric Chopin">Chopin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Lipi%C5%84ski" title="Karol Lipiński">Lipiński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko" title="Stanisław Moniuszko">Moniuszko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski" title="Ignacy Jan Paderewski">Paderewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Stolpe" title="Antoni Stolpe">Stolpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Tausig" title="Karl Tausig">Tausig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Wieniawski" title="Henryk Wieniawski">Wieniawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Arensky" title="Anton Arensky">Arensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mily_Balakirev" title="Mily Balakirev">Balakirev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Borodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Cui" title="César Cui">Cui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Lyapunov" title="Sergei Lyapunov">Lyapunov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Medtner" title="Nikolai Medtner">Medtner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modest_Mussorgsky" title="Modest Mussorgsky">Mussorgsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff" title="Sergei Rachmaninoff">Rachmaninoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov" title="Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov">Rimsky-Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein" title="Anton Rubinstein">Rubinstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Hristi%C4%87" title="Stevan Hristić">Hristić</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petar_Konjovi%C4%87" title="Petar Konjović">Konjović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stevan_Mokranjac" title="Stevan Mokranjac">Mokranjac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kornelije_Stankovi%C4%87" title="Kornelije Stanković">Stanković</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterndale_Bennett" title="William Sterndale Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Berwald" title="Franz Berwald">Berwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Elgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Field_(composer)" title="John Field (composer)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Grieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sibelius" title="Jean Sibelius">Sibelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Sor" title="Fernando Sor">Sor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky" title="Vissarion Belinsky">Belinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Berchet" title="Giovanni Berchet">Berchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Chaadayev" title="Pyotr Chaadayev">Chaadayev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hazlitt" title="William Hazlitt">Hazlitt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksey_Khomyakov" title="Aleksey Khomyakov">Khomyakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9_de_La_Mennais" title="Félicité de La Mennais">Lamennais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariano_Jos%C3%A9_de_Larra" title="Mariano José de Larra">Larra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Quinet" title="Edgar Quinet">Quinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling">Schelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">A. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">F. Schlegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Pivert_de_Senancour" title="Étienne Pivert de Senancour">Senancour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman" title="Johan Vilhelm Snellman">Snellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Tieck" title="Ludwig Tieck">Tieck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Wackenroder" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder">Wackenroder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Visual artists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky" title="Ivan Aivazovsky">Aivazovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bierstadt" title="Albert Bierstadt">Bierstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Parkes_Bonington" title="Richard Parkes Bonington">Bonington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Bryullov" title="Karl Bryullov">Bryullov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Chass%C3%A9riau" title="Théodore Chassériau">Chassériau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church" title="Frederic Edwin Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Constable" title="John Constable">Constable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Corot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Dahl" title="Johan Christian Dahl">Dahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Edelfelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Fuseli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akseli_Gallen-Kallela" title="Akseli Gallen-Kallela">Gallen-Kallela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Géricault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne-Louis_Girodet_de_Roussy-Trioson" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson">Girodet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nepomucen_G%C5%82owacki" title="Jan Nepomucen Głowacki">Głowacki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Gude" title="Hans Gude">Gude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Hayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Janmot" title="Louis Janmot">Janmot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jones_(artist)" title="Thomas Jones (artist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky" title="Orest Kiprensky">Kiprensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Anton_Koch" title="Joseph Anton Koch">Koch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciszek_Ksawery_Lampi" title="Franciszek Ksawery Lampi">Lampi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Leutze" title="Emanuel Leutze">Leutze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Martin_(painter)" title="John Martin (painter)">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piotr_Micha%C5%82owski" title="Piotr Michałowski">Michałowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Ara%C3%BAjo_Porto-Alegre,_Baron_of_Santo_%C3%82ngelo" title="Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre, Baron of Santo Ângelo">Porto-Alegre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Pr%C3%A9ault" title="Antoine-Augustin Préault">Préault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_R%C3%A9voil" title="Pierre Révoil">Révoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleury_Fran%C3%A7ois_Richard" title="Fleury François Richard">Richard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">Rude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Runge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raden_Saleh" title="Raden Saleh">Saleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ary_Scheffer" title="Ary Scheffer">Scheffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Stattler" title="Wojciech Stattler">Stattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Stroy" title="Michael Stroy">Stroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolph_Tidemand" title="Adolph Tidemand">Tidemand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Tropinin" title="Vasily Tropinin">Tropinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philipp_Veit" title="Philipp Veit">Veit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(English_artist)" title="James Ward (English artist)">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Wiertz" title="Antoine Wiertz">Wiertz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholars">Scholars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Abraham" title="Gerald Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._H._Abrams" title="M. H. Abrams">Abrams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Barzun" title="Jacques Barzun">Barzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._C._W._Blanning" title="T. C. W. Blanning">Blanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Bloom" title="Harold Bloom">Bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Blume" title="Friedrich Blume">Blume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus" title="Carl Dahlhaus">Dahlhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ferber" title="Michael Ferber">Ferber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Frye" title="Northrop Frye">Frye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Janion" title="Maria Janion">Janion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Lacoue-Labarthe" title="Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe">Lacoue-Labarthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy" title="Jean-Luc Nancy">Nancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Gabriel_Porthan" title="Henrik Gabriel Porthan">Porthan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ricks" title="Christopher Ricks">Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rosen" title="Charles Rosen">Rosen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Wellek" title="René Wellek">Wellek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coleridge%27s_theory_of_life" title="Coleridge's theory of life">Coleridge's theory of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_romantics" title="List of romantics">List of romantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romantic_poets" title="List of Romantic poets">List of Romantic poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ages in history">Middle Ages in history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_and_Romanticism" title="Opium and Romanticism">Opium and Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_ballet" title="Romantic ballet">Romantic ballet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_epistemology" title="Romantic epistemology">Romantic epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_medicine" title="Romantic medicine">Romantic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_psychology" title="Romantic psychology">Romantic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_economics" title="Romanticism and economics">Romanticism and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_the_French_Revolution" title="Romanticism and the French Revolution">Romanticism and the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_and_Bacon" title="Romanticism and Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_evolution_theory" title="Romanticism in evolution theory">Evolution theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;">← <a href="/wiki/Template:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Template:Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modernism" title="Template:Modernism">Modernism</a> →</div> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Romanticism" title="Category:Romanticism">Category</a> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a> (c. 200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> (c. 80 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> (c. 50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a> (c. 270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a> (c. 1000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a> (1710)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a> (1714)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a> (1981)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics" title="Category:Metaphysics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div> (by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800 1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920 postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970 1990 2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> (c. 322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> (1726)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> (1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> (1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aesthetics" title="Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aesthetics" title="Template talk:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aesthetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_aesthetics" title="Ancient aesthetics">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_aesthetic" title="Internet aesthetic">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a> (c. 390 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (c. 335 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a> (c. 100)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 500)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a> (1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a> (1835)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a> (1934)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" (1935)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jurisprudence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jurisprudence" title="Template talk:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jurisprudence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jurisprudence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_law_articles" title="Index of philosophy of law articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal theory">Legal theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal norms">Legal norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a> (c. 355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law without the state">Law without the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_country_legal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="List of country legal systems">Legal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">Rational-legal authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usul_al-Fiqh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-Fiqh">Usul al-Fiqh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_law" title="Category:Philosophy of law">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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