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id="toc-Early_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Early work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publication_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publication_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Publication of the Critique of Pure Reason </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publication_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Later work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death_and_burial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death_and_burial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Death and burial </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death_and_burial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kant's_critical_project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant's_critical_project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Kant's critical project </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant's_critical_project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doctrine_of_transcendental_idealism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doctrine_of_transcendental_idealism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Doctrine of transcendental idealism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doctrine_of_transcendental_idealism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interpretive_disagreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretive_disagreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Interpretive disagreements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretive_disagreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kant's_theory_of_judgment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant's_theory_of_judgment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Kant's theory of judgment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant's_theory_of_judgment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transcendental_deduction_of_the_categories_of_the_understanding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcendental_deduction_of_the_categories_of_the_understanding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Transcendental deduction of the categories of the understanding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcendental_deduction_of_the_categories_of_the_understanding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principles_of_pure_understanding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principles_of_pure_understanding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Principles of pure understanding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principles_of_pure_understanding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critique_of_metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critique_of_metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Critique of metaphysics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critique_of_metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-On_the_concepts_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_concepts_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 On the concepts of pure reason </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_the_concepts_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectical_inferences_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectical_inferences_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Dialectical inferences of pure reason </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialectical_inferences_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Moral thought </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Idea_of_freedom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idea_of_freedom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Idea of freedom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idea_of_freedom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Categorical_imperative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Categorical_imperative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Categorical imperative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Categorical_imperative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"The_Doctrine_of_Virtue"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"The_Doctrine_of_Virtue""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 "The Doctrine of Virtue" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"The_Doctrine_of_Virtue"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Political philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Religious writings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aesthetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aesthetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Aesthetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aesthetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.1 Racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Influence and legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Influence and legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Influence_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Historical influence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_modern_thinkers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_modern_thinkers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Influence on modern thinkers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_modern_thinkers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-List_of_major_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_major_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 List of major works </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_major_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collected_works_in_German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collected_works_in_German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Collected works in German </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collected_works_in_German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Immanuel Kant</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 174 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-174" aria-hidden="true" > 174 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%91%E1%8A%A4%E1%88%8D_%E1%8A%AB%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B5" title="አማኑኤል ካንት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አማኑኤል ካንት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इम्मानुएल कांट – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इम्मानुएल कांट" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B7" title="إيمانويل كانط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إيمانويل كانط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88manu%C3%A8l_Kant" title="Èmanuèl Kant – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Èmanuèl Kant" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इम्मानुएल कांट – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="इम्मानुएल कांट" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aymar aru</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mmanuel_Kant" title="İmmanuel Kant – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İmmanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ایمانوئل کانت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایمانوئل کانت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="ইমানুয়েল কান্ট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইমানুয়েল কান্ট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Імануіл Кант – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імануіл Кант" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Імануіл Кант – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Імануіл Кант" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इमैनुअल कांट – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इमैनुअल कांट" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Имануел Кант – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Имануел Кант" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B7" title="إمانويل كانط – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إمانويل كانط" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BB_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Ιμμάνουελ Καντ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιμμάνουελ Καντ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ایمانوئل کانت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایمانوئل کانت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Emmanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="康德 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="康德" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%87%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%8F%E0%AA%B2_%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F" title="ઇમેન્યુએલ કેન્ટ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઇમેન્યુએલ કેન્ટ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%A7%88%EB%88%84%EC%97%98_%EC%B9%B8%ED%8A%B8" title="이마누엘 칸트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이마누엘 칸트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC_%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF" title="Իմանուիլ Կանտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իմանուիլ Կանտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इमानुएल काण्ट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इमानुएल काण्ट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98" title="עמנואל קאנט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עמנואל קאנט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Emmanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಇಮ್ಯಾನ್ಯುಅಲ್ ಕಾಂಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಇಮ್ಯಾನ್ಯುಅಲ್ ಕಾಂಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="იმანუელ კანტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იმანუელ კანტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Emmanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Emmanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Кант, Иммануил" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kantius" title="Immanuel Kantius – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Immanuel Kantius" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanuels_Kants" title="Imanuels Kants – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Imanuels Kants" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इम्मानुएल कान्ट – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="इम्मानुएल कान्ट" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Имануел Кант – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Имануел Кант" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇമ്മാനുവേൽ കാന്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇമ്മാനുവേൽ കാന്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F" title="इम्मॅन्युएल कांट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इम्मॅन्युएल कांट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="იმანუელ კანტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იმანუელ კანტი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B7" title="ايمانويل كانط – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ايمانويل كانط" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануэл Кант – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Иммануэл Кант" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9B%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%80%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA" title="အင်မနျူရယ် ကန့် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အင်မနျူရယ် ကန့်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nāhuatl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इमानुएल क्यान्ट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इमानुएल क्यान्ट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इम्यानुयल कान्ट – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इम्यानुयल कान्ट" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%9E%E3%83%8C%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AB%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88" title="イマヌエル・カント – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="イマヌエル・カント" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Кант, Иммануил" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A4" title="ਇਮੈਨੂਅਲ ਕਾਂਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਮੈਨੂਅਲ ਕਾਂਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9" title="کانٹ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کانٹ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%90%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="امانوېل کانت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="امانوېل کانت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanyuel_Kant" title="Imanyuel Kant – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Imanyuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Іммануіл Кант – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Іммануіл Кант" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Кант, Иммануил – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кант, Иммануил" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="इमान्युएल काण्ट – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="इमान्युएल काण्ट" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="امانوئل ڪانت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="امانوئل ڪانت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8E%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="ئیمانوێل کانت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمانوێل کانت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Имануел Кант – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Имануел Кант" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="இம்மானுவேல் காந்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இம்மானுவேல் காந்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanwil_Kan%E1%B9%AD" title="Imanwil Kanṭ – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Imanwil Kanṭ" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Kant" title="Emmanuel Kant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Emmanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D" title="ఇమ్మాన్యుయెల్ కాంట్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఇమ్మాన్యుయెల్ కాంట్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A5_%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="อิมมานูเอล คานต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิมมานูเอล คานต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Иммануил Кант – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Иммануил Кант" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%97%D0%BB_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Іммануїл Кант – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іммануїл Кант" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9" title="امانوئل کانٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="امانوئل کانٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant_Immanuel%27" title="Kant Immanuel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kant Immanuel'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanti_Immanuel" title="Kanti Immanuel – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kanti Immanuel" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努爾·康德 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="伊曼努爾·康德" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="康德 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="康德" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C_%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98" title="אימאנועל קאנט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אימאנועל קאנט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努爾·康德 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伊曼努爾·康德" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanoelis_Kants" title="Imanoelis Kants – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Imanoelis Kants" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努尔·康德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊曼努尔·康德" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imanuwen_Kant" title="Imanuwen Kant – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Imanuwen Kant" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Immanuel Kant" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German philosopher (1724–1804)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Kant" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kant_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kant (disambiguation)">Kant (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Immanuel Kant</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="1317" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Portrait of Kant, 1768</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Emanuel Kant</div> (1724-04-22)22 April 1724 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">12 February 1804(1804-02-12) (aged 79) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Königsberg, <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a>, Kingdom of Prussia</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>; <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">MA</a>, 1755; <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>, 1755; <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>, 1770)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="padding-bottom: 4px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment philosophy">Enlightenment philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>Other schools</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Empirical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical realism">Empirical realism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_naturalism" title="Liberal naturalism">Liberal naturalism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org">University of Königsberg</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Theses</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html">New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition</a> (September 1755)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123&redir_esc=y">On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible Worlds</a> (August 1770)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Knutzen" title="Martin Knutzen">Martin Knutzen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Teske" title="Johann Gottfried Teske">Johann Gottfried Teske</a> (M.A. advisor), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/de:ADB:Marquardt,_Konrad_Gottlieb" class="extiw" title="s:de:ADB:Marquardt, Konrad Gottlieb">Konrad Gottlieb Marquardt</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jakob_Sigismund_Beck" title="Jakob Sigismund Beck">Jakob Sigismund Beck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Karl Leonhard Reinhold</a> (epistolary correspondent)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systematic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic philosophy">systematic philosophy</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div> </div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic judgment">Aesthetic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Teleological_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological judgment">teleological judgments</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">Categorical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">hypothetical imperative</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Categories</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">Critical philosophy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution#Immanuel_Kant" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican revolution</a> in philosophy </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_distance" title="Aesthetic distance">Disinterested delight</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Empirical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical realism">Empirical realism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_antinomies" title="Kant's antinomies">Kant's antinomies</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">Nebular hypothesis</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Transcendental schema</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">practical philosophy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental subject">Transcendental subject</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <a href="/wiki/Understanding_(Kant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Understanding (Kant)">Understanding–reason distinction</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Signature written in ink in a flowing script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg/150px-Immanuel_Kant_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="57" class="mw-file-element" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Immanuel Kant</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.8em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Immanuel Kant"><img alt="Immanuel Kant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/200px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/300px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/400px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">Major works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" title="What Is Enlightenment?">Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Metaphysics of Morals">The Metaphysics of Morals</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_a_Supposed_Right_to_Tell_Lies_from_Benevolent_Motives" title="On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives">On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opus_Postumum" title="Opus Postumum">Opus Postumum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">Critical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">Thing-in-itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Schema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori and a posteriori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">Categorical imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">Hypothetical imperative</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_teleology" title="Kant's teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">J. G. Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">F. H. Jacobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">Category</a> • <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Immanuel Kant<a href="#cite_note-7">[a]</a> (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a> and one of the central <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinkers. Born in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> have made him one of the most influential and controversial figures in modern <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. He has been called the "father of modern ethics",<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> the "father of modern aesthetics",<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> and for bringing together rationalism and empiricism, he has earned the title of "father of <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>".<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> In his doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>, Kant argued that <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> are mere "forms of intuition" that structure all <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> and that the objects of experience are mere "appearances". The nature of things as they are in themselves is unknowable to us. Nonetheless, in an attempt to counter the philosophical doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skepticism</a>, he wrote the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781/1787), his best-known work. Kant drew a parallel to the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution#Immanuel_Kant" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a> in his proposal to think of the objects of experience as conforming to our spatial and temporal forms of <a href="/wiki/Anschauung" title="Anschauung">intuition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">categories</a> of our understanding, so that we have a priori cognition of those objects. These claims have proved especially influential in the social sciences, particularly sociology and anthropology, which regard human activities as pre-oriented by cultural norms.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> Kant believed that <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> is the source of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, and that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment. Kant's religious views were deeply connected to his moral theory. Their exact nature remains in dispute. He hoped that perpetual peace could be secured through an international federation of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> states and <a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">international cooperation</a>. His <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> reputation is called into question by his promulgation of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> for much of his career, although he altered his views on the subject in the last decade of his life. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a>]</div> Immanuel Kant was born on 22 April 1724 into a <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> German family of <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> faith in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>, East Prussia. His mother, Anna Regina Reuter (1697–1737), was born in Königsberg to a father from <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> Her surname is sometimes erroneously given as Porter. Kant's father, Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746), was a German harness-maker from <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da" title="Klaipėda">Memel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200126-14">[13]</a> at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da" title="Klaipėda">Klaipėda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>). It is possible that the Kants got their name from the village of Kantvainiai (German: Kantwaggen – today part of <a href="/wiki/Priekul%C4%97,_Lithuania" title="Priekulė, Lithuania">Priekulė</a>) and were of <a href="/wiki/Kursenieki" title="Kursenieki">Kursenieki</a> origin.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> Kant was baptized as Emanuel and later changed the spelling of his name to Immanuel after learning <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200126-14">[13]</a> He was the fourth of nine children (six of whom reached adulthood).<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> The Kant household stressed the <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">pietist</a> values of religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> The young Immanuel's education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> In his later years, Kant lived a strictly ordered life. It was said that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. He never married but seems to have had a rewarding social life; he was a popular teacher as well as a modestly successful author, even before starting on his major philosophical works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001169-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Young_scholar">Young scholar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Young scholar">edit</a>]</div> Kant showed a great aptitude for study at an early age. He first attended the <a href="/wiki/Collegium_Fridericianum" title="Collegium Fridericianum">Collegium Fridericianum</a>, from which he graduated at the end of the summer of 1740. In 1740, aged 16, he enrolled at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a>, where he would later remain for the rest of his professional life.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> He studied the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> under <a href="/wiki/Martin_Knutzen" title="Martin Knutzen">Martin Knutzen</a> (Associate Professor of Logic and Metaphysics from 1734 until he died in 1751), a <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> who was also familiar with developments in British philosophy and science and introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. Knutzen dissuaded Kant from the theory of <a href="/wiki/Pre-established_harmony" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-established harmony">pre-established harmony</a>, which he regarded as "the pillow for the lazy mind".<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> He also dissuaded Kant from <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, the idea that reality is purely mental, which most philosophers in the 18th century regarded negatively. The theory of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> that Kant later included in the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> was developed partially in opposition to traditional idealism. Kant had contacts with students, colleagues, friends and diners who frequented the local <a href="/wiki/Masonic_lodge" title="Masonic lodge">Masonic lodge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted his studies. Kant left Königsberg shortly after August 1748;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200194-24">[23]</a> he would return there in August 1754.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200198-25">[24]</a> He became a private tutor in the towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. In 1749, he published his first philosophical work, <a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_the_True_Estimation_of_Living_Forces" title="Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces">Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces</a> (written in 1745–1747).<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_work">Early work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early work">edit</a>]</div> Kant is best known for his work in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics, but he made significant contributions to other disciplines. In 1754, while contemplating on a prize question by the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Berlin Academy</a> about the problem of Earth's rotation, he argued that the Moon's gravity would slow down Earth's spin and he also put forth the argument that gravity would eventually cause the Moon's <a href="/wiki/Tidal_locking" title="Tidal locking">tidal locking</a> to <a href="/wiki/Orbital_resonance" title="Orbital resonance">coincide</a> with the Earth's rotation.<a href="#cite_note-28">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-nebulous-29">[27]</a> The next year, he expanded this reasoning to the <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">formation and evolution of the Solar System</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Universal_Natural_History_and_Theory_of_the_Heavens" title="Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens">Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nebulous-29">[27]</a> In 1755, Kant received a license to lecture in the University of Königsberg and began lecturing on a variety of topics including mathematics, physics, logic, and metaphysics. In his 1756 essay on the theory of winds, Kant laid out an original insight into the <a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a>. In 1756, Kant also published three papers on the <a href="/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake" title="1755 Lisbon earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> Kant's theory, which involved shifts in huge caverns filled with hot gases, though inaccurate, was one of the first systematic attempts to explain earthquakes in natural rather than supernatural terms. In 1757, Kant began lecturing on geography making him one of the first lecturers to explicitly teach geography as its own subject.<a href="#cite_note-Richards-1974-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> Geography was one of Kant's most popular lecturing topics and, in 1802, a compilation by Friedrich Theodor Rink of Kant's lecturing notes, Physical Geography, was released. After Kant became a professor in 1770, he expanded the topics of his lectures to include lectures on natural law, ethics, and anthropology, along with other topics.<a href="#cite_note-Richards-1974-31">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg/220px-Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg/330px-Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg/440px-Kant_wohnhaus_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1670" /></a><figcaption>Kant's house in Königsberg in an 1842 painting</figcaption></figure> In the Universal Natural History, Kant laid out the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">nebular hypothesis</a>, in which he deduced that the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> had formed from a large cloud of gas, a <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebula</a>. Kant also correctly deduced that the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">large disk of stars</a>, which he theorized formed from a much larger spinning gas cloud. He further suggested that other distant "nebulae" might be other galaxies. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy, for the first time extending it beyond the solar system to galactic and intergalactic realms.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> From then on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. <a href="/wiki/The_False_Subtlety_of_the_Four_Syllogistic_Figures" title="The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures">The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures</a>, a work in logic, was published in 1762. Two more works appeared the following year: Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy and <a href="/wiki/The_Only_Possible_Argument_in_Support_of_a_Demonstration_of_the_Existence_of_God" title="The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God">The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God</a>. By 1764, Kant had become a notable popular author, and wrote <a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a>; he was second to <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a> in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality (often referred to as "The Prize Essay"). In 1766 Kant wrote a critical piece on <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a>'s Dreams of a Spirit-Seer. In 1770, Kant was appointed Full Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. In defense of this appointment, Kant wrote his <a href="/wiki/Inaugural_dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inaugural dissertation">inaugural dissertation</a> On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World<a href="#cite_note-34">[c]</a> This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of <a href="/wiki/Subreption" title="Subreption">subreption</a>, and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish. It is often claimed that Kant was a late developer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publication_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason">Publication of the Critique of Pure Reason</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Publication of the Critique of Pure Reason">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg/220px-Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg/330px-Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg/440px-Painting_of_David_Hume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2353" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></figcaption></figure> At age 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher, and much was expected of him. In correspondence with his ex-student and friend <a href="/wiki/Markus_Herz" title="Markus Herz">Markus Herz</a>, Kant admitted that, in the inaugural dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation between our sensible and intellectual faculties.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> He needed to explain how we combine what is known as sensory knowledge with the other type of knowledge—that is, reasoned knowledge—these two being related but having very different processes. Kant also credited <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> with awakening him from a "dogmatic slumber" in which he had unquestioningly accepted the tenets of both religion and <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-1952-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> Hume, in his 1739 <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Human_Nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatise on Human Nature">Treatise on Human Nature</a>, had argued that we only know the mind through a subjective, essentially illusory series of perceptions. Ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a> are not evident in experience, so their reality may be questioned. Kant felt that reason could remove this skepticism, and he set himself to solving these problems. Although fond of company and conversation with others, Kant isolated himself, and resisted friends' attempts to bring him out of his isolation.<a href="#cite_note-40">[d]</a> When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the Critique of Pure Reason, printed by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Hartknoch" title="Johann Friedrich Hartknoch">Johann Friedrich Hartknoch</a>. Kant countered Hume's <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> by claiming that some knowledge exists inherently in the mind, independent of experience.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-1952-37">[34]</a> He drew a parallel to the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution#Immanuel_Kant" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican revolution</a> in his proposal that worldly objects can be intuited <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priori</a>, and that <a href="/wiki/Anschauung" title="Anschauung">intuition</a> is consequently distinct from <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objective reality</a>. Perhaps the most direct contested matter was Hume's argument against any necessary connection between causal events, which Hume characterized as the "cement of the universe." In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant argues for what he takes to be the a priori justification of such necessary connection.<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_(1724-1804)_engraving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_%281724-1804%29_engraving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1038" data-file-height="1428" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of Kant</figcaption></figure> Although now recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, the Critique disappointed Kant's readers upon its initial publication.<a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a> The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a convoluted style. Kant was quite upset with its reception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001250–254-43">[39]</a> His former student, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> criticized it for placing reason as an entity worthy of criticism by itself instead of considering the process of reasoning within the context of language and one's entire personality.<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> Similarly to <a href="/wiki/Christian_Garve" title="Christian Garve">Christian Garve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Heinrich_Feder" title="Johann Georg Heinrich Feder">Johann Georg Heinrich Feder</a>, he rejected Kant's position that space and time possess a form that can be analyzed. Garve and Feder also faulted the Critique for not explaining differences in perception of sensations.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> Its density made it, as Herder said in a letter to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a>, a "tough nut to crack", obscured by "all this heavy gossamer".<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> Its reception stood in stark contrast to the praise Kant had received for earlier works, such as his Prize Essay and shorter works that preceded the first Critique. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the <a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_any_Future_Metaphysics" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics</a> in 1783 as a summary of its main views. Shortly thereafter, Kant's friend Johann Friedrich Schultz (1739–1805), a professor of mathematics, published Explanations of Professor Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (Königsberg, 1784), which was a brief but very accurate commentary on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001268–269-47">[43]</a> Kant's reputation gradually rose through the latter portion of the 1780s, sparked by a series of important works: the 1784 essay, "<a href="/wiki/Answer_to_the_Question:_What_is_Enlightenment%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?">Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?</a>"; 1785's <a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> (his first work on moral philosophy); and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_Foundations_of_Natural_Science" title="Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science">Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science</a> from 1786. Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source. In 1786, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Karl Leonhard Reinhold</a> published a series of public letters on Kantian philosophy. In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the <a href="/wiki/Pantheism_controversy" title="Pantheism controversy">pantheism controversy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Jacobi" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Jacobi">Friedrich Jacobi</a> had accused the recently deceased <a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</a> (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of <a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a>. Such a charge, tantamount to an accusation of atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>, leading to a bitter public dispute among partisans. The controversy gradually escalated into a debate about the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason. Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's Critique of Pure Reason could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. Reinhold's <a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">letters</a> were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.<a href="#cite_note-48">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_work">Later work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later work">edit</a>]</div> Kant published a second edition of the Critique of Pure Reason in 1787, heavily revising the first parts of the book. Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in 1788's <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> (known as the second Critique), and 1797's <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a>. The 1790 <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_the_Power_of_Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Critique of the Power of Judgment">Critique of the Power of Judgment</a> (the third Critique) applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleology</a>. In 1792, Kant's attempt to publish the Second of the four Pieces of <a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a>,<a href="#cite_note-KReligion-49">[45]</a> in the journal Berlinische Monatsschrift, met with opposition from the King's <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> commission, which had been established that same year in the context of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-50">[46]</a> Kant then arranged to have all four pieces published as a book, routing it through the philosophy department at the University of Jena to avoid the need for theological censorship.<a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-50">[46]</a> This insubordination earned him a now-famous reprimand from the King.<a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-50">[46]</a> When he nevertheless published a second edition in 1794, the censor was so irate that he arranged for a royal order that required Kant never to publish or even speak publicly about religion.<a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-50">[46]</a> Kant then published his response to the King's reprimand and explained himself in the preface of The Conflict of the Faculties.<a href="#cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-50">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant_doerstling2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kant_doerstling2.jpg/220px-Kant_doerstling2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kant_doerstling2.jpg/330px-Kant_doerstling2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kant_doerstling2.jpg/440px-Kant_doerstling2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="995" /></a><figcaption>Kant with friends, including <a href="/wiki/Christian_Jakob_Kraus" title="Christian Jakob Kraus">Christian Jakob Kraus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Georg_Hamann" title="Johann Georg Hamann">Johann Georg Hamann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Gottlieb_von_Hippel_the_Elder" title="Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Elder">Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Gottfried_Hagen" title="Karl Gottfried Hagen">Karl Gottfried Hagen</a></figcaption></figure> He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics, and other topics. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in eighteenth-century philosophy. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy. Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. Many of Kant's most important disciples and followers (including <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Reinhold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Sigismund_Beck" title="Jakob Sigismund Beck">Beck</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>) transformed the Kantian position. The progressive stages of revision of Kant's teachings marked the emergence of <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>. In what was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions, Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799.<a href="#cite_note-Fichte-51">[47]</a> In 1800, a student of Kant named Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) published a manual of logic for teachers called Logik, which he had prepared at Kant's request. Jäsche prepared the Logik using a copy of a textbook in logic by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_Meier" title="Georg Friedrich Meier">Georg Friedrich Meier</a> entitled Excerpt from the Doctrine of Reason, in which Kant had written copious notes and annotations. The Logik has been considered of fundamental importance to Kant's philosophy, and the understanding of it. The great 19th-century logician <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> remarked, in an incomplete review of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kingsmill_Abbott" title="Thomas Kingsmill Abbott">Thomas Kingsmill Abbott</a>'s English translation of the introduction to Logik, that "Kant's whole philosophy turns upon his logic."<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Schirokauer_Hartman" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Schirokauer Hartman">Robert Schirokauer Hartman</a> and Wolfgang Schwarz wrote in the translators' introduction to their English translation of the Logik, "Its importance lies not only in its significance for the Critique of Pure Reason, the second part of which is a restatement of fundamental tenets of the Logic, but in its position within the whole of Kant's work."<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death_and_burial">Death and burial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Death and burial">edit</a>]</div> Kant's health, long poor, worsened. He died at Königsberg on 12 February 1804, uttering Es ist gut ("It is good") before expiring.<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> His unfinished final work was published as <a href="/wiki/Opus_Postumum" title="Opus Postumum">Opus Postumum</a>. Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike. <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Heine" title="Heinrich Heine">Heinrich Heine</a> observed the magnitude of "his destructive, world-crushing thoughts" and considered him a sort of philosophical "executioner", comparing him to <a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> with the observation that both men "represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois. Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god."<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a> When his body was transferred to a new burial spot, his skull was measured during the exhumation and found to be larger than the average German male's with a "high and broad" forehead.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> His forehead has been an object of interest ever since it became well known through his portraits: "In Döbler's portrait and in Kiefer's faithful if expressionistic reproduction of it—as well as in many of the other late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century portraits of Kant—the forehead is remarkably large and decidedly retreating."<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg/170px-Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg/255px-Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg/340px-Kaliningrad_05-2017_img05_Kant_Island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3535" data-file-height="4419" /></a><figcaption>Kant's tomb in <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, Russia</figcaption></figure> Kant's <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">mausoleum</a> adjoins the northeast corner of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg_Cathedral" title="Königsberg Cathedral">Königsberg Cathedral</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, Russia. The mausoleum was constructed by the architect <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Lahrs" title="Friedrich Lahrs">Friedrich Lahrs</a> and was finished in 1924, in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a <a href="/wiki/Neo-Gothic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Gothic">neo-Gothic</a> chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location. The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the <a href="/wiki/Soviets" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviets">Soviets</a> after they captured the city.<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a> Into the 21st century, many newlyweds bring flowers to the mausoleum. Artifacts previously owned by Kant, known as Kantiana, were included in the <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg_City_Museum" title="Königsberg City Museum">Königsberg City Museum</a>; however, the museum was destroyed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. A replica of the statue of Kant that in German times stood in front of the main <a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a> building was donated by a German entity in the early 1990s and placed in the same grounds. After <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%931950)" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)">the expulsion</a> of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>'s German population at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the University of Königsberg where Kant taught was replaced by the Russian-language Kaliningrad State University, which appropriated the campus and surviving buildings. In 2005, the university was renamed Immanuel Kant State University of Russia.<a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> The name change, which was considered a politically-charged issue due to the residents having mixed feelings about its German past,<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> was announced at a ceremony attended by Russian president <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> and German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Gerhard Schröder">Gerhard Schröder</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> and the university formed a Kant Society, dedicated to the study of <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>. In 2010, the university was again renamed to <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant_Baltic_Federal_University" title="Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University">Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou,_view_2,_Berlin,_1798,_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou%2C_view_2%2C_Berlin%2C_1798%2C_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG/200px-Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou%2C_view_2%2C_Berlin%2C_1798%2C_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou%2C_view_2%2C_Berlin%2C_1798%2C_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG/300px-Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou%2C_view_2%2C_Berlin%2C_1798%2C_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou%2C_view_2%2C_Berlin%2C_1798%2C_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG/400px-Immanuel_Kant_by_Emanuel_Bardou%2C_view_2%2C_Berlin%2C_1798%2C_marble_-_Bode-Museum_-_DSC02884.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Kant by <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Bardou" title="Emanuel Bardou">Emanuel Bardou</a>, 1798</figcaption></figure> Like many of his contemporaries, Kant was greatly impressed with the scientific advances made by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> and others. This new evidence of the power of human reason called into question for many the traditional authority of politics and religion. In particular, the modern mechanistic view of the world called into question the very possibility of morality; for, if there is no agency, there cannot be any responsibility.<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2005-66">[62]</a> The aim of Kant's critical project is to secure human autonomy, the basis of religion and morality, from this threat of mechanism—and to do so in a way that preserves the advances of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.1-67">[63]</a> In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant summarizes his philosophical concerns in the following three questions: <ol><li>What can I know?</li> <li>What should I do?</li> <li>What may I hope?<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a></li></ol> The <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> focuses upon the first question and opens a conceptual space for an answer to the second question. It argues that even though we cannot strictly know that we are free, we can—and for practical purposes, must—think of ourselves as free. In Kant's own words, "I had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith."<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> Our rational faith in morality is further developed in the <a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer20147–8-70">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023-71">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of the Power of Judgment</a> argues we may rationally hope for the harmonious unity of the theoretical and practical domains treated in the first two Critiques on the basis, not only of its conceptual possibility, but also on the basis of our affective experience of natural beauty and, more generally, the organization of the natural world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer20146–8-72">[68]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason</a>, Kant endeavors to complete his answer to this third question.<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> These works all place the active, rational human <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subject</a> at the center of the cognitive and moral worlds. In brief, Kant argues that the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020-74">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kant's_critical_project">Kant's critical project</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kant's critical project">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Kant017.jpg/220px-Kant017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Kant017.jpg/330px-Kant017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Kant017.jpg/440px-Kant017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="487" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Kant by <a href="/wiki/Carle_Vernet" title="Carle Vernet">Carle Vernet</a> (1758–1836)</figcaption></figure> Kant's 1781 (revised 1787) Critique of Pure Reason has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> in modern philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a> In the first Critique, and later on in other works as well, Kant frames the "general" and "real problem of pure reason" in terms of the following question: "How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?"<a href="#cite_note-76">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201451-77">[73]</a> To understand this claim, it is necessary to define some terms. First, Kant makes a distinction between two sources of knowledge: <ol><li>Cognitions a priori: "cognition independent of all experience and even of all the impressions of the senses".</li> <li>Cognitions a posteriori: cognitions that have their sources in experience—that is, which are empirical.<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a></li></ol> Second, he makes a distinction in terms of the form of knowledge: <ol><li>Analytic judgements: judgements in which the predicate concept is contained in the subject concept; e.g., "All bachelors are unmarried", or "All bodies take up space". These can also be called "judgments of clarification".</li> <li>Synthetic judgements: judgements in which the predicate concept is not contained in the subject concept; e.g., "All bachelors are alone", "All swans are white", or "All bodies have weight". These can also be called "judgments of amplification".<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a></li></ol> An analytic judgement is true by nature of strictly conceptual relations. All analytic judgements are a priori since basing an analytic judgement on experience would be absurd.<a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a> By contrast, a synthetic judgement is one the content of which includes something new in the sense that it is includes something not already contained in the subject concept. The truth or falsehood of a synthetic statement depends upon something more than what is contained in its concepts. The most obvious form of synthetic judgement is a simple empirical observation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201452–54-81">[77]</a> Philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> believed that these were the only possible kinds of human reason and investigation, which Hume called "relations of ideas" and "matters of fact".<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> Establishing the synthetic a priori as a third mode of knowledge would allow Kant to push back against Hume's skepticism about such matters as causation and metaphysical knowledge more generally. This is because, unlike a posteriori cognition, a priori cognition has "true or strict ... universality" and includes a claim of "necessity".<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201452–54-81">[77]</a> Kant himself regards it as uncontroversial that we do have synthetic a priori knowledge—most obviously, that of mathematics. That 7 + 5 = 12, he claims, is a result not contained in the concepts of seven, five, and the addition operation.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> Yet, although he considers the possibility of such knowledge to be obvious, Kant nevertheless assumes the burden of providing a philosophical proof that we have a priori knowledge in mathematics, the natural sciences, and metaphysics. It is the twofold aim of the Critique both to prove and to explain the possibility of this knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201455-85">[81]</a> Kant says "There are two stems of human cognition, which may perhaps arise from a common but to us unknown root, namely sensibility and understanding, through the first of which objects are given to us, but through the second of which they are thought."<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> Kant's term for the object of sensibility is intuition, and his term for the object of the understanding is concept. In general terms, the former is a non-discursive representation of a particular object, and the latter is a discursive (or mediate) representation of a general type of object.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201432,_61-87">[83]</a> The conditions of possible experience require both intuitions and concepts, that is, the affection of the receptive sensibility and the actively synthesizing power of the understanding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.12-88">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[e]</a> Thus the statement: "Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind."<a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a> Kant's basic strategy in the first half of his book will be to argue that some intuitions and concepts are pure—that is, are contributed entirely by the mind, independent of anything empirical. Knowledge generated on this basis, under certain conditions, can be synthetic a priori. This insight is known as Kant's "Copernican revolution", because, just as Copernicus advanced astronomy by way of a radical shift in perspective, so Kant here claims do the same for metaphysics.<a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.2-93">[88]</a> The second half of the Critique is the explicitly critical part. In this "transcendental dialectic", Kant argues that many of the claims of traditional rationalist metaphysics violate the criteria he claims to establish in the first, "constructive" part of his book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak20232(g)-94">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer2014ch._4-95">[90]</a> As Kant observes, however, "human reason, without being moved by the mere vanity of knowing it all, inexorably pushes on, driven by its own need to such questions that cannot be answered by any experiential use of reason".<a href="#cite_note-96">[91]</a> It is the project of "the critique of pure reason" to establish the limits as to just how far reason may legitimately so proceed.<a href="#cite_note-97">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doctrine_of_transcendental_idealism">Doctrine of transcendental idealism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Doctrine of transcendental idealism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></div> The section of the Critique entitled "The transcendental aesthetic" introduces Kant's famous metaphysics of <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>. Something is "transcendental" if it is a necessary condition for the possibility of experience, and "idealism" denotes some form of mind-dependence that must be further specified. The correct interpretation of Kant's own specification remains controversial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(d)-98">[93]</a> The metaphysical thesis then states that human beings only experience and know phenomenal appearances, not independent things-in-themselves, because space and time are nothing but the subjective forms of intuition that we ourselves contribute to experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§3-99">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[95]</a> Nevertheless, although Kant says that space and time are "transcendentally ideal"—the pure forms of human sensibility, rather than part of nature or reality as it exists in-itself—he also claims that they are "empirically real", by which he means "that 'everything that can come before us externally as an object' is in both space and time, and that our internal intuitions of ourselves are in time".<a href="#cite_note-101">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§3-99">[94]</a> However Kant's doctrine is interpreted, he wished to distinguish his position from the <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">subjective idealism</a> of <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang2022§2.3-102">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Paul Guyer</a>, although critical of many of Kant's arguments in this section, writes of the "Transcendental Aesthetic" that it "not only lays the first stone in Kant's constructive theory of knowledge; it also lays the foundation for both his critique and his reconstruction of traditional metaphysics. It argues that all genuine knowledge requires a sensory component, and thus that metaphysical claims that transcend the possibility of sensory confirmation can never amount to knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201460-103">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interpretive_disagreements">Interpretive disagreements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Interpretive disagreements">edit</a>]</div> One interpretation, known as the "two-world" interpretation, regards Kant's position as a statement of epistemological limitation, meaning that we are not able to transcend the bounds of our own mind, and therefore cannot access the "<a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">thing-in-itself</a>". On this particular view, the thing-in-itself is not numerically identical to the phenomenal empirical object.<a href="#cite_note-104">[99]</a> Kant also spoke, however, of the thing-in-itself or transcendent object as a product of the (human) understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility. Following this line of thought, a different interpretation argues that the thing-in-itself does not represent a separate ontological domain but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone; this is known as the "two-aspect" view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§§3.1–3.2-105">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang2022§§4–5-106">[101]</a> On this alternative view, the same objects to which we attribute empirical properties like color, size, and shape are also, when considered as they are in themselves, the things-in-themselves, otherwise inaccessible to human knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-107">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kant's_theory_of_judgment">Kant's theory of judgment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kant's theory of judgment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Category (Kant)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuelkant.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Immanuelkant.JPG/220px-Immanuelkant.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Immanuelkant.JPG/330px-Immanuelkant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Immanuelkant.JPG/440px-Immanuelkant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Kant statue in the School of Philosophy and Human Sciences (FAFICH) in the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), <a href="/wiki/Belo_Horizonte" title="Belo Horizonte">Belo Horizonte</a>, Brazil</figcaption></figure> Following the "Transcendental Analytic" is the "Transcendental Logic". Whereas the former was concerned with the contributions of the sensibility, the latter is concerned, first, with the contributions of the understanding ("Transcendental Analytic") and, second, with the faculty of reason as the source of both metaphysical errors and genuine regulatory principles ("Transcendental Dialectic"). The "Transcendental Analytic" is further divided into two sections. The first, "Analytic of Concepts", is concerned with establishing the universality and necessity of the pure concepts of the understanding (i.e., the categories). This section contains Kant's famous "transcendental deduction". The second, "Analytic of Principles", is concerned with the application of those pure concepts in empirical judgments. This second section is longer than the first and is further divided into many sub-sections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19984–13-108">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transcendental_deduction_of_the_categories_of_the_understanding">Transcendental deduction of the categories of the understanding</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Transcendental deduction of the categories of the understanding">edit</a>]</div> The "Analytic of Concepts" argues for the universal and necessary validity of the pure concepts of the understanding, or the categories, for instance, the concepts of substance and causation. These twelve basic categories define what it is to be a thing in general—that is, they articulate the necessary conditions according to which something is a possible object of experience. These, in conjunction with the a priori forms of intuition, are the basis of all synthetic a priori cognition. According to <a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Guyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Wood</a>, "Kant's idea is that just as there are certain essential features of all judgments, so there must be certain corresponding ways in which we form the concepts of objects so that judgments may be about objects."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19988-109">[104]</a> Kant provides two central lines of argumentation in support of his claims about the categories. The first, known as the "metaphysical deduction", proceeds analytically from a table of the Aristotelian logical functions of judgment. As Kant was aware, this assumes precisely what the skeptic rejects, namely, the existence of synthetic a priori cognition. For this reason, Kant also supplies a synthetic argument that does not depend upon the assumption in dispute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201489–90-110">[105]</a> This argument, provided under the heading "Transcendental Deduction of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding", is widely considered to be both the most important and the most difficult of Kant's arguments in the Critique. Kant himself said that it is the one that cost him the most labor.<a href="#cite_note-111">[106]</a> Frustrated by its confused reception in the first edition of his book, he rewrote it entirely for the second edition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(e)-112">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§4-113">[108]</a> The "Transcendental Deduction" gives Kant's argument that these pure concepts apply universally and necessarily to the objects that are given in experience. According to Guyer and Wood, "He centers his argument on the premise that our experience can be ascribed to a single identical subject, via what he calls the 'transcendental unity of apperception,' only if the elements of experience given in intuition are synthetically combined so as to present us with objects that are thought through the categories."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19989-114">[109]</a> Kant's principle of apperception is that "The I think must be able to accompany all my representations; for otherwise something would be represented in me that could not be thought at all, which is as much as to say that the representation would either be impossible or else at least would be nothing for me."<a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a> The necessary possibility of the self-ascription of the representations of self-consciousness, identical to itself through time, is an a priori conceptual truth that cannot be based on experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§4.1-116">[111]</a> This is only a bare sketch of one of the arguments that Kant presents. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Principles_of_pure_understanding">Principles of pure understanding</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Principles of pure understanding">edit</a>]</div> Kant's deduction of the categories in the "Analytic of Concepts", if successful, demonstrates its claims about the categories only in an abstract way. The task of the "Analytic of Principles" is to show both that they must universally apply to objects given in actual experience (i.e., manifolds of intuition) and how it is they do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19989–10-117">[112]</a> In the first book of this section on the "<a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">schematism</a>", Kant connects each of the purely logical categories of the understanding to the temporality of intuition to show that, although non-empirical, they do have purchase upon the objects of experience. The second book continues this line of argument in four chapters, each associated with one of the category groupings. In some cases, it adds a connection to the spatial dimension of intuition to the categories it analyzes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199810–11-118">[113]</a> The fourth chapter of this section, "The Analogies of Experience", marks a shift from "mathematical" to "dynamical" principles, that is, to those that deal with relations among objects. Some commentators consider this the most significant section of the Critique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199811-119">[114]</a> The analogies are three in number: <ol><li>Principle of persistence of substance: Kant is here concerned with the general conditions of determining time-relations among the objects of experience. He argues that the unity of time implies that "all change must consist in the alteration of states in an underlying substance, whose existence and quantity must be unchangeable or conserved."<a href="#cite_note-120">[115]</a></li> <li>Principle of temporal succession according to the law of causality: Here Kant argues that "we can make determinate judgments about the objective succession of events, as contrasted to merely subjective successions of representations, only if every objective alteration follows a necessary rule of succession, or a causal law." This is Kant's most direct rejoinder to <a href="/wiki/Humeanism#Causality_and_necessity" title="Humeanism">Hume's skepticism about causality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[116]</a></li> <li>Principle of simultaneity according to the law of reciprocity or community: The final analogy argues that "determinate judgments that objects (or states of substance) in different regions of space exists simultaneously are possible only if such objects stand in mutual causal relation of community or reciprocal interaction." This is Kant's rejoinder to <a href="/wiki/Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a>'s thesis in the <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199811–12-123">[118]</a></li></ol> The fourth section of this chapter, which is not an analogy, deals with the empirical use of the modal categories. That was the end of the chapter in the A edition of the Critique. The B edition includes one more short section, "The Refutation of Idealism". In this section, by analysis of the concept of self-consciousness, Kant argues that his transcendental idealism is a "critical" or "formal" idealism that does not deny the existence of reality apart from our subjective representations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199812-124">[119]</a> The final chapter of "The Analytic of Principles" distinguishes phenomena, of which we can have genuine knowledge, from noumena, a term which refers to objects of pure thought that we cannot know, but to which we may still refer "in a negative sense".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199812–13-125">[120]</a> An Appendix to the section further develops Kant's criticism of Leibnizian-Wolffian rationalism by arguing that its "dogmatic" metaphysics confuses the "mere features of concepts through which we think things ... [with] features of the objects themselves". Against this, Kant reasserts his own insistence upon the necessity of a sensible component in all genuine knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199813-126">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critique_of_metaphysics">Critique of metaphysics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Critique of metaphysics">edit</a>]</div> The second of the two Divisions of "The Transcendental Logic", "The Transcendental Dialectic", contains the "negative" portion of Kant's Critique, which builds upon the "positive" arguments of the preceding "Transcendental Analytic" to expose the limits of metaphysical speculation. In particular, it is concerned to demonstrate as spurious the efforts of reason to arrive at knowledge independent of sensibility. This endeavor, Kant argues, is doomed to failure, which he claims to demonstrate by showing that reason, unbounded by sense, is always capable of generating opposing or otherwise incompatible conclusions. Like "the light dove, in free flight cutting through the air, the resistance of which it feels", reason "could get the idea that it could do even better in airless space".<a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a> Against this, Kant claims that, absent epistemic friction, there can be no knowledge. Nevertheless, Kant's critique is not entirely destructive. He presents the speculative excesses of traditional metaphysics as inherent in our very capacity of reason. Moreover, he argues that its products are not without some (carefully qualified) regulative value.<a href="#cite_note-128">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="On_the_concepts_of_pure_reason">On the concepts of pure reason</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: On the concepts of pure reason">edit</a>]</div> Kant calls the basic concepts of metaphysics "ideas". They are different from the concepts of understanding in that they are not limited by the critical stricture limiting knowledge to the conditions of possible experience and its objects. "Transcendental illusion" is Kant's term for the tendency of reason to produce such ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g)-129">[124]</a> Although reason has a "logical use" of simply drawing inferences from principles, in "The Transcendental Dialectic", Kant is concerned with its purportedly "real use" to arrive at conclusions by way of unchecked regressive syllogistic ratiocination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199815-130">[125]</a> The three categories of relation, pursued without regard to the limits of possible experience, yield the three central ideas of traditional metaphysics: <ol><li>The soul: the concept of substance as the ultimate subject;</li> <li>The world in its entirety: the concept of causation as a completed series; and</li> <li>God: the concept of community as the common ground of all possibilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199815-130">[125]</a></li></ol> Although Kant denies that these ideas can be objects of genuine cognition, he argues that they are the result of reason's inherent drive to unify cognition into a systematic whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g)-129">[124]</a> Leibnizian-Wolffian metaphysics was divided into four parts: ontology, psychology, cosmology, and theology. Kant replaces the first with the positive results of the first part of the Critique. He proposes to replace the following three with his later doctrines of anthropology, the metaphysical foundations of natural science, and the critical postulation of human freedom and morality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199814-131">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dialectical_inferences_of_pure_reason">Dialectical inferences of pure reason</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Dialectical inferences of pure reason">edit</a>]</div> In the second of the two Books of "The Transcendental Dialectic", Kant undertakes to demonstrate the contradictory nature of unbounded reason. He does this by developing contradictions in each of the three metaphysical disciplines that he contends are in fact pseudosciences. This section of the Critique is long and Kant's arguments are extremely detailed. In this context, it not possible to do much more than enumerate the topics of discussion. The first chapter addresses what Kant terms the paralogisms—i.e., false inferences—that pure reason makes in the metaphysical discipline of rational psychology. He argues that one cannot take the mere thought of "I" in the proposition "I think" as the proper cognition of "I" as an object. In this way, he claims to debunk various metaphysical theses about the substantiality, unity, and self-identity of the soul.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.i)-132">[127]</a> The second chapter, which is the longest, takes up the topic Kant calls the <a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">antinomies</a> of pure reason—that is, the contradictions of reason with itself—in the metaphysical discipline of rational cosmology. Originally, Kant had thought that all transcendental illusion could be analyzed in antinomic terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199816-133">[128]</a> He presents four cases in which he claims reason is able to prove opposing theses with equal plausibility: <ol><li>That "reason seems to be able to prove that the universe is both finite and infinite in space and time";</li> <li>that "reason seems to be able to prove that matter both is and is not infinitely divisible into ever smaller parts";</li> <li>that "reason seems to be able to prove that free will cannot be a causally efficacious part of the world (because all of nature is deterministic) and yet that it must be such a cause"; and,</li> <li>that "reason seems to be able to prove that there is and there is not a necessary being (which some would identify with God)".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.ii)-134">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199816–17-135">[130]</a></li></ol> Kant further argues in each case that his doctrine of transcendental idealism is able to resolve the antinomy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.ii)-134">[129]</a> The third chapter examines fallacious arguments about God in rational theology under the heading of the "Ideal of Pure Reason". (Whereas an idea is a pure concept generated by reason, an ideal is the concept of an idea as an individual thing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199817-136">[131]</a>) Here Kant addresses and claims to refute three traditional arguments for the existence of God: the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological argument</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from design">physio-theological argument</a> (i.e., the argument from design).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.iii)-137">[132]</a> The results of the transcendental dialectic so far appear to be entirely negative. In an Appendix to this section, Kant rejects such a conclusion. The ideas of pure reason, he argues, have an important regulatory function in directing and organizing our theoretical and practical inquiry. Kant's later works elaborate upon this function at length and in detail.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199818-138">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_thought">Moral thought</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Moral thought">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></div> Kant developed his ethics, or moral philosophy, in three works: <a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1785), <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> (1788), and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1797). With regard to <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, Kant argued that the source of the <a href="/wiki/Goodness_and_value_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Goodness and value theory">good</a> lies not in anything outside the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> subject, either in <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> or given by <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>, but rather is only the good will itself. A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity—understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others—as an <a href="/wiki/End_in_itself" class="mw-redirect" title="End in itself">end in itself</a> rather than (merely) as <a href="/wiki/Means_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Means (philosophy)">means</a> to other ends the individual might hold. Kant is known for his theory that all <a href="/wiki/Moral_obligation" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral obligation">moral obligation</a> is grounded in what he calls the "<a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>", which is derived from the concept of <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duty</a>. He argues that the moral law is a principle of <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a> itself, not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy; to act on the moral law has no other motive than "worthiness to be happy".<a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Idea_of_freedom">Idea of freedom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Idea of freedom">edit</a>]</div> In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant distinguishes between the transcendental idea of freedom, which as a psychological concept is "mainly empirical" and refers to "whether a faculty of beginning a series of successive things or states from itself is to be assumed",<a href="#cite_note-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467-140">[135]</a> and the practical concept of freedom as the independence of our will from the "coercion" or "necessitation through sensuous impulses". Kant finds it a source of difficulty that the practical idea of freedom is founded on the transcendental idea of freedom,<a href="#cite_note-141">[136]</a> but for the sake of practical interests uses the practical meaning, taking "no account of ... its transcendental meaning", which he feels was properly "disposed of" in the Third Antinomy, and as an element in the question of the freedom of the will is for philosophy "a real stumbling block" that has embarrassed speculative reason.<a href="#cite_note-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467-140">[135]</a> Kant calls practical "everything that is possible through freedom"; he calls the pure practical laws that are never given through sensuous conditions, but are held analogously with the universal law of causality, moral laws. Reason can give us only the "pragmatic laws of free action through the senses", but pure practical laws given by reason a priori dictate "what is to be done".<a href="#cite_note-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467-140">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[137]</a> Kant's categories of freedom function primarily as conditions for the possibility for actions (i) to be free, (ii) to be understood as free, and (iii) to be morally evaluated. For Kant, although actions as theoretical objects are constituted by means of the theoretical categories, actions as practical objects (objects of practical use of reason, and which can be good or bad) are constituted by means of the categories of freedom. Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such.<a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Categorical_imperative">Categorical imperative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Categorical imperative">edit</a>]</div> Kant makes a distinction between categorical and <a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">hypothetical imperatives</a>. A hypothetical imperative is one that we must obey to satisfy contingent desires. A categorical imperative binds us regardless of our desires: for example, everyone has a duty to respect others as individual ends in themselves, regardless of circumstances, even though it is sometimes in our narrowly selfish interest to not do so. These imperatives are morally binding because of the categorical form of their maxims, rather than contingent facts about an agent.<a href="#cite_note-144">[139]</a> Unlike hypothetical imperatives, which bind us insofar as we are part of a group or society which we owe duties to, we cannot opt out of the categorical imperative, because we cannot opt out of being <a href="/wiki/Rational_agent" title="Rational agent">rational agents</a>. We owe a duty to rationality by virtue of being rational agents; therefore, rational moral principles apply to all rational agents at all times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008-145">[140]</a> Stated in other terms, with all forms of instrumental rationality excluded from morality, "the moral law itself, Kant holds, can only be the form of lawfulness itself, because nothing else is left once all content has been rejected".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneewind2010261-146">[141]</a> Kant provides three formulations for the categorical imperative. He claims that these are necessarily equivalent, as all being expressions of the pure universality of the moral law as such;<a href="#cite_note-147">[142]</a> many scholars are not convinced.<a href="#cite_note-148">[143]</a> The formulas are as follows: <ul><li>Formula of Universal Law: <ul><li>"Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you at the same time can will that it become a universal law";<a href="#cite_note-Kant,_G_4:421-149">[144]</a> alternatively, <ul><li>Formula of the Law of Nature: "So act, as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature."<a href="#cite_note-Kant,_G_4:421-149">[144]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Formula of Humanity as End in Itself: <ul><li>"So act that you use humanity, as much in your own person as in the person of every other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means".<a href="#cite_note-150">[145]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Formula of Autonomy: <ul><li>"the idea of the will of every rational being as a will giving universal law",<a href="#cite_note-151">[146]</a> or "Not to choose otherwise than so that the maxims of one's choice are at the same time comprehended with it in the same volition as universal law";<a href="#cite_note-152">[147]</a> alternatively, <ul><li>Formula of the Realm of Ends: "Act in accordance with maxims of a universally legislative member for a merely possible realm of ends."<a href="#cite_note-153">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[149]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> Kant defines maxim as a "subjective principle of volition", which is distinguished from an "objective principle or 'practical law.'" While "the latter is valid for every rational being and is a 'principle according to which they ought to act[,]' a maxim 'contains the practical rule which reason determines in accordance with the conditions of the subject (often their ignorance or inclinations) and is thus the principle according to which the subject does act.'"<a href="#cite_note-155">[150]</a> Maxims fail to qualify as practical laws if they produce a contradiction in conception or a contradiction in the will when universalized. A contradiction in conception happens when, if a maxim were to be universalized, it ceases to make sense, because the "maxim would necessarily destroy itself as soon as it was made a universal law".<a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a> For example, if the maxim 'It is permissible to break promises' was universalized, no one would trust any promises made, so the idea of a promise would become meaningless; the maxim would be <a href="/wiki/Self-refuting_idea" title="Self-refuting idea">self-contradictory</a> because, when it is universalized, promises cease to be meaningful. The maxim is not moral because it is logically impossible to universalize—that is, we could not conceive of a world where this maxim was universalized.<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a> A maxim can also be immoral if it creates a contradiction in the will when universalized. This does not mean a logical contradiction, but that universalizing the maxim leads to a state of affairs that no rational being would desire. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""The_Doctrine_of_Virtue"">"The Doctrine of Virtue"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: "The Doctrine of Virtue"">edit</a>]</div> As Kant explains in the 1785 <a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> and as its title directly indicates, that text is "nothing more than the search for and establishment of the supreme principle of morality".<a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a> His promised Metaphysics of Morals was much delayed and did not appear until its two parts, "The Doctrine of Right" and "The Doctrine of Virtue", were published separately in 1797 and 1798.<a href="#cite_note-159">[154]</a> The first deals with political philosophy, the second with ethics. "The Doctrine of Virtue" provides "a very different account of ordinary moral reasoning" than the one suggested by the Groundwork.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200668-160">[155]</a> It is concerned with duties of virtue or "ends that are at the same time duties".<a href="#cite_note-161">[156]</a> It is here, in the domain of ethics, that the greatest innovation by The Metaphysics of Morals is to be found. According to Kant's account, "ordinary moral reasoning is fundamentally teleological—it is reasoning about what ends we are constrained by morality to pursue, and the priorities among these ends we are required to observe".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200669-162">[157]</a> <blockquote>There are two sorts of ends that it is our duty to have: our own perfection and the happiness of others (MS 6:385). "Perfection" includes both our natural perfection (the development of our talents, skills, and capacities of understanding) and moral perfection (our virtuous disposition) (MS 6:387). A person's "happiness" is the greatest rational whole of the ends the person set for the sake of her own satisfaction (MS 6:387–388).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200670-163">[158]</a></blockquote> Kant's elaboration of this teleological doctrine offers up a moral theory very different from the one typically attributed to him on the basis of his foundational works alone. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_philosophy">Political philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Political philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #C5C12B; background:var( --background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism" title="Category:Liberalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Yellow" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/75px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/113px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/150px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a> (contributions to liberal theory)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">Regional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Liberalism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Czechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Czechia">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Philippines" title="Liberalism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Poland" title="Liberalism in Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Economics" title="Kraków School of Economics">Cracovian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobdenism" title="Cobdenism">Cobdenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Arizona School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Venezuela)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Party (Venezuela)">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Feminist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Internationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Catholicism" title="Liberal Catholicism">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/15px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/22px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/30px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhairi_Black" title="Mhairi Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burgon" title="Richard Burgon">Burgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Campbell" title="Ronnie Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flynn_(politician)" title="Paul Flynn (politician)">Flynn (Paul)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Greer" title="Ross Greer">Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (54–51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a> (1531)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a> (1649)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a> (1656)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a> (1698)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a> (1755)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a> (1787–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a> (1794)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a> (1963)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha">Gaṇasaṅgha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_without_republicans" title="Republic without republicans">Republic without republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Republican empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Republican Party (disambiguation)">Republican Party</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republicanism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In Towards Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Project, Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace. They included a world of constitutional republics.<a href="#cite_note-164">[159]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Classical_republican" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical republican">classical republican</a> theory was extended in the Doctrine of Right, the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1797).<a href="#cite_note-165">[160]</a> Kant believed that <a href="/wiki/Universal_history_(genre)" title="Universal history (genre)">universal history</a> leads to the ultimate world of republican states at peace, but his theory was not pragmatic. The process was described in Perpetual Peace as natural rather than rational: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">What affords this guarantee (surety) is nothing less than the great artist nature (natura daedala rerum) from whose mechanical course purposiveness shines forth visibly, letting concord arise by means of the discord between human beings even against their will; and for this reason nature, regarded as necessitation by a cause the laws of whose operation are unknown to us, is called fate, but if we consider its purposiveness in the course of the world as the profound wisdom of a higher cause directed to the objective final end of the human race and predetermining this course of the world, it is called providence.<a href="#cite_note-166">[161]</a></blockquote> Kant's political thought can be summarized as republican government and international organization: "In more characteristically Kantian terms, it is doctrine of the state based upon the law (<a href="/wiki/Rechtsstaat" title="Rechtsstaat">Rechtsstaat</a>) and of eternal peace. Indeed, in each of these formulations, both terms express the same idea: that of legal constitution or of 'peace through law.'"<a href="#cite_note-167">[162]</a> "Kant's political philosophy, being essentially a legal doctrine, rejects by definition the opposition between moral education and the play of passions as alternate foundations for social life. The state is defined as the union of men under law. The state rightly so called is constituted by laws which are necessary a priori because they flow from the very concept of law. A regime can be judged by no other criteria nor be assigned any other functions, than those proper to the lawful order as such."<a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a> Kant opposed "democracy", which at his time meant <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a>, believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty. He stated that "democracy in the strict sense of the word is necessarily a despotism because it establishes an executive power in which all decide for and, if need be, against one (who thus does not agree), so that all, who are nevertheless not all, decide; and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom."<a href="#cite_note-169">[164]</a> As with most writers at the time, Kant distinguished three forms of government—namely, democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy—with <a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">mixed government</a> as the most ideal form of it.<a href="#cite_note-170">[165]</a> He believed in <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republican</a> ideals and forms of governance, and <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> brought on by them.<a href="#cite_note-171">[166]</a> Although Kant published this as a "popular piece", <a href="/wiki/Mary_J._Gregor" title="Mary J. Gregor">Mary J. Gregor</a> points out that two years later, in The Metaphysics of Morals, Kant claims to demonstrate systematically that "establishing universal and lasting peace constitutes not merely a part of the doctrine of right, but rather the entire final end of the doctrine of right within the limits of mere reason".<a href="#cite_note-172">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[168]</a> The Doctrine of Right, published in 1797, contains Kant's most mature and systematic contribution to political philosophy. It addresses duties according to law, which are "concerned only with protecting the external freedom of individuals" and indifferent to incentives. Although there is a moral duty "to limit ourselves to actions that are right, that duty is not part of [right] itself".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200668-160">[155]</a> Its basic political idea is that "each person's entitlement to be his or her own master is only consistent with the entitlements of others if public legal institutions are in place".<a href="#cite_note-174">[169]</a> He formulates the universal principle of right as: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Any action is right if it can coexist with everyone's freedom in accordance with a universal law, or if on its maxim the freedom of choice of each can coexist with everyone's freedom in accordance with a universal law. (MS 6:230).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200668-160">[155]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_writings">Religious writings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Religious writings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a></div> Starting in the 20th century, commentators tended to see Kant as having a strained relationship with religion, although in the nineteenth century this had not been the prevalent view. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Karl Leonhard Reinhold</a>, whose letters helped make Kant famous, wrote: "I believe that I may infer without reservation that the interest of religion, and of Christianity in particular, accords completely with the result of the Critique of Reason."<a href="#cite_note-175">[170]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Johann_Schultz" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Schultz">Johann Schultz</a>, who wrote one of the first commentaries on Kant: "And does not this system itself cohere most splendidly with the Christian religion? Do not the divinity and beneficence of the latter become all the more evident?"<a href="#cite_note-176">[171]</a> The reason for these views was Kant's moral theology and the widespread belief that his philosophy was the great antithesis to <a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a>, which was widely seen as a form of sophisticated pantheism or even atheism. As Kant's philosophy disregarded the possibility of arguing for God through pure reason alone, for the same reasons it also disregarded the possibility of arguing against God through pure reason alone. Kant directs his strongest criticisms of the organization and practices of religious organizations at those that encourage what he sees as a religion of counterfeit service to God.<a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a> Among the major targets of his criticism are external ritual, superstition, and a hierarchical church order. He sees these as efforts to make oneself pleasing to God in ways other than conscientious adherence to the principle of moral rightness in choosing and acting upon one's maxims. Kant's criticisms on these matters, along with his rejection of certain theoretical proofs for the existence of God that were grounded in pure reason (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a>) and his philosophical commentary on some Christian doctrines, have resulted in interpretations that see Kant as hostile to religion in general and to Christianity in particular.<a href="#cite_note-178">[173]</a> Other interpreters, nevertheless, consider that Kant was trying to mark off defensible from indefensible Christian belief.<a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a> Regarding Kant's conception of religion, some critics have argued that he was sympathetic to deism.<a href="#cite_note-180">[175]</a> Other critics have argued that Kant's moral conception moves from deism to theism (as moral theism), for example Allen W. Wood,<a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> as well as Merold Westphal.<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> As for Kant's book <a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason</a>, it was emphasized that Kant reduced religiosity to rationality, religion to morality, and Christianity to ethics;<a href="#cite_note-183">[178]</a> however, many interpreters, including Wood,<a href="#cite_note-184">[179]</a> alongside Lawrence Pasternack,<a href="#cite_note-185">[180]</a> now agree with <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Palmquist" title="Stephen Palmquist">Stephen Palmquist</a>'s claim that a better way of reading Kant's Religion is to see him as raising morality to the status of religion.<a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Aesthetics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_teleology" title="Kant's teleology">Kant's teleology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Immanuel_Kant.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Immanuel_Kant.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Immanuel_Kant.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of Kant by Friedrich Rosmäsler, 1822, from a painting by Todd Schorr</figcaption></figure> Kant discusses the subjective nature of aesthetic qualities and experiences in <a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a> (1764). Kant's contribution to <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic theory</a> is developed in the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of the Power of Judgment</a> (1790), where he investigates the possibility and logical status of "judgments of taste". In the "Critique of Aesthetic Judgment", the first major division of the Critique of the Power of Judgment, Kant used the term "aesthetic" in a manner that resembles its modern sense.<a href="#cite_note-187">[182]</a> In the Critique of Pure Reason, to note essential differences between judgments of taste, moral judgments, and scientific judgments, Kant abandoned the term "aesthetic" as "designating the critique of taste", noting that judgments of taste could never be "directed" by "laws a priori".<a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">A. G. Baumgarten</a>, who wrote Aesthetica (1750–58),<a href="#cite_note-189">[f]</a> Kant was one of the first philosophers to develop and integrate aesthetic theory into a unified and comprehensive philosophical system, utilizing ideas that played an integral role throughout his philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-190">[184]</a> In the chapter "Analytic of the Beautiful" in the Critique of the Power of Judgment, Kant states that beauty is not a property of an artwork or natural phenomenon, but is instead consciousness of the pleasure that attends the 'free play' of the imagination and the understanding. Even though it appears that we are using reason to decide what is beautiful, the judgment is not a cognitive judgment,<a href="#cite_note-191">[g]</a> "and is consequently not logical, but aesthetical".<a href="#cite_note-192">[185]</a> A pure judgement of taste is subjective since it refers to the emotional response of the subject and is based upon nothing but esteem for an object itself: it is a disinterested pleasure, and we feel that pure judgements of taste (i.e., judgements of beauty), lay claim to universal validity.<a href="#cite_note-193">[186]</a> This universal validity is not derived from a determinate concept of beauty but from common sense.<a href="#cite_note-194">[187]</a> Kant also believed that a judgment of taste shares characteristics with a moral judgment: both are disinterested, and we hold them to be universal.<a href="#cite_note-195">[188]</a> In the chapter "Analytic of the Sublime," Kant identifies the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a> as an aesthetic quality that, like beauty, is subjective, but unlike beauty, it refers to an indeterminate relationship between the faculties of the imagination and reason. It also shares the character of moral judgments in its engagement with reason.<a href="#cite_note-196">[189]</a> The feeling of the sublime, divided into two distinct modes (the mathematical and the dynamical sublime),<a href="#cite_note-197">[190]</a> describes two subjective moments that concern the relationship of the faculty of the imagination to reason. Some commentators argue that Kant's critical philosophy contains a third kind of the sublime, the moral sublime, which is the aesthetic response to the moral law or a representation, and a development of the "noble" sublime in Kant's theory of 1764.<a href="#cite_note-198">[191]</a> The mathematical sublime results from the failure of the imagination to comprehend natural objects that appear boundless and formless, or appear "absolutely great".<a href="#cite_note-199">[192]</a> This imaginative failure is then recuperated through the pleasure taken in reason's assertion of the concept of infinity. In this move the faculty of reason proves itself superior to our fallible sensible self.<a href="#cite_note-200">[193]</a> In the dynamical sublime, there is the sense of annihilation of the sensible self as the imagination tries to comprehend a vast might. This power of nature threatens us but through the resistance of reason to such sensible annihilation, the subject feels a pleasure and a sense of the human moral vocation. This appreciation of moral feeling through exposure to the <a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a> helps to develop moral character. Kant developed a theory of <a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">humor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-201">[194]</a> which has been interpreted as an "incongruity" theory. He illustrated his theory of humor by telling three narrative jokes in the Critique of Judgment. He thought that the physiological impact of humor is akin to that of music.<a href="#cite_note-202">[195]</a> Kant developed a distinction between an object of art as a material value subject to the conventions of society and the transcendental condition of the judgment of taste as a "refined" value in his Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Aim (1784). In the Fourth and Fifth Theses of that work he identified all art as the "fruits of unsociableness" due to men's "antagonism in society"<a href="#cite_note-203">[196]</a> and, in the Seventh Thesis, asserted that while such material property is indicative of a civilized state, only the ideal of morality and the universalization of refined value through the improvement of the mind "belongs to culture".<a href="#cite_note-204">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Anthropology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg/220px-German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg/330px-German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg/440px-German_5_DM_1974_D_Silver_Coin_Immanuel_Kant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2399" data-file-height="1162" /></a><figcaption>5 DM 1974 D silver coin commemorating the 250th birthday of Kant in <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a></figcaption></figure> Kant lectured on <a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">anthropology</a>, the study of human nature, for twenty-three years.<a href="#cite_note-205">[198]</a> His <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_from_a_Pragmatic_Point_of_View" title="Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View">Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</a> was published in 1798. Transcripts of Kant's lectures on anthropology were published for the first time in 1997 in German.<a href="#cite_note-206">[199]</a> Kant was among the first people of his time to introduce anthropology as an intellectual area of study, long before the field gained popularity, and his texts are considered to have advanced the field. His point of view was to influence the works of later philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ricoeur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Ricoeur">Paul Ricoeur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[200]</a> Kant was the first to suggest using a dimensionality approach to human diversity. He analyzed the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>-<a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">four temperaments</a> and plotted in two dimensions "what belongs to a human being's faculty of desire": "his natural aptitude or natural predisposition" and "his temperament or sensibility".<a href="#cite_note-208">[201]</a> Cholerics were described as emotional and energetic, phlegmatics as balanced and weak, sanguines as balanced and energetic, and melancholics as emotional and weak. These two dimensions reappeared in all subsequent models of temperament and personality traits. Kant viewed anthropology in two broad categories: (1) the physiological approach, which he referred to as "what nature makes of the human being"; and (2) the pragmatic approach, which explores the things that a human "can and should make of himself".<a href="#cite_note-209">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Racism">Racism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Racism">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant_drawing.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Kant_drawing.png/100px-Kant_drawing.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Kant_drawing.png/150px-Kant_drawing.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Kant_drawing.png/200px-Kant_drawing.png 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="1033" /></a><figcaption>Kant Mixing Mustard, drawn by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_Friedrich_Hagemann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl Friedrich Hagemann (page does not exist)">Carl Friedrich Hagemann</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Hagemann" class="extiw" title="de:Carl Friedrich Hagemann">de</a>], 1801</figcaption></figure> Kant's theory of race and his prejudicial beliefs are among the most contentious areas of recent Kant scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-:0-210">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-211">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592-212">[205]</a> While few, if any, dispute the overt racism and chauvinism present in his work, a more contested question is the degree to which it degrades or invalidates his other contributions. His most severe critics assert that Kant intentionally manipulated science to support chattel slavery and discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-213">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-210">[203]</a> Others acknowledge that he lived in an era of immature science, with many erroneous beliefs, some racist, all appearing decades before evolution, molecular genetics, and other sciences that today are taken for granted.<a href="#cite_note-:0-210">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-211">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[209]</a> Kant was one of the most notable Enlightenment thinkers to defend <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>. Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Mills" title="Charles W. Mills">Charles W. Mills</a> is unequivocal: "Kant is also seen as one of the central figures in the birth of modern 'scientific' racism. Whereas other contributors to early racial thought like Carolus Linnaeus and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach had offered only 'empirical' (scare-quotes necessary!) observation, Kant produced a full-blown theory of race."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills20179591–112-217">[210]</a> Using the <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">four temperaments</a> of ancient Greece, Kant proposed a hierarchy of racial categories including white Europeans, black Africans, and red Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-:2-218">[211]</a> Although he was a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a> for much of his career, Kant's views on race changed significantly in the last decade of his life, and he ultimately rejected racial hierarchies and European <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a> (1795).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592-212">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills201791–112-219">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-218">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[h]</a> Kant was an opponent of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a>, believing that whites would be "degraded" and that "fusing of races" is undesirable, for "not every race adopts the morals and customs of the Europeans". He states that "instead of assimilation, which was intended by the melting together of the various races, nature has here made a law of just the opposite".<a href="#cite_note-223">[215]</a> Kant was also an anti-Semite, believing that Jews were incapable of transcending material forces, which a moral order required. In this way, Jews are presented as the opposite of autonomous, rational Christians, and therefore incapable of being incorporated into an ethical Christian society. In his "Anthropology", Kant called the Jews "a nation of cheaters" and portrayed them as "a group that has followed not the path of transcendental freedom but that of enslavement to the material world".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShrage2019-224">[216]</a> Mills wrote that Kant has been "sanitized for public consumption", his racist works conveniently ignored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills201795–97-225">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bernasconi" title="Robert Bernasconi">Robert Bernasconi</a> stated that Kant "supplied the first scientific definition of race". <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Chukwudi_Eze" title="Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze">Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze</a> is credited with bringing Kant's contributions to racism to light in the 1990s among Western philosophers, who he believed often glossed over this part of his life and works.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouie2018-226">[218]</a> Pauline Kleingeld argues that, while Kant "did defend a racial hierarchy until at least the end of the 1780s", his views on race changed significantly in works published in the last decade of his life. In particular, she argues that Kant rejected past views related to racial hierarchies and the diminished rights or moral status of non-whites in <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace</a> (1795). This work also saw him providing extended arguments against European <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, which he claimed was morally unjust and incompatible with the equal rights held by indigenous populations. Kleingeld argues that this shift in Kant's views later in life has often been forgotten or ignored in the literature on Kant's racist anthropology, and that the shift suggests a belated recognition of the fact that racial hierarchy was incompatible with a universalized moral framework.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592-212">[205]</a> While Kant's racist rhetoric is indicative of the state of scholarship and science during the 18th century, German philosopher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel-Pascal_Zorn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel-Pascal Zorn (page does not exist)">Daniel-Pascal Zorn</a> explains the risk of taking period quotations out of context. Many of Kant's most outrageous quotations are from a series of articles from 1777–1788, a public exchange among Kant, Herder, natural scientist <a href="/wiki/Georg_Forster" title="Georg Forster">Georg Forster</a>, and other scholars prominent in that period.<a href="#cite_note-227">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001298–301,_343–345-228">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[221]</a> Kant asserts that all races of humankind are of the same species, challenging the position of Forster and others that the races were distinct species. While his commentary is clearly biased at times, certain extreme statements were patterned specifically to paraphrase or counter Forster and other authors.<a href="#cite_note-:0-210">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-211">[204]</a> By considering the full arc of Kant's scholarship, Zorn notes the progression in both his philosophical and his anthropological works, "with which he argues, against the zeitgeist, for the unity of humanity".<a href="#cite_note-:1-211">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence_and_legacy">Influence and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Influence and legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:300Jahrfeier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/300Jahrfeier.jpg/220px-300Jahrfeier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/300Jahrfeier.jpg/330px-300Jahrfeier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/300Jahrfeier.jpg/440px-300Jahrfeier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="2406" /></a><figcaption>Poster celebrating the 300 years of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="University of Königsberg">University of Königsberg</a>, 1844. Among others, Kant and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Herbart" title="Johann Friedrich Herbart">Johann Friedrich Herbart</a> are honored.</figcaption></figure> Kant's influence on Western thought has been profound.<a href="#cite_note-230">[i]</a> Although the basic tenets of Kant's <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> (i.e., that space and time are a priori forms of human perception rather than real properties and the claim that formal logic and transcendental logic coincide) have been claimed to be falsified by modern science and logic,<a href="#cite_note-231">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[224]</a> and no longer set the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers, Kant is credited with having innovated the way philosophical inquiry has been carried on at least up to the early nineteenth century. This shift consisted of several closely related innovations that, although highly contentious in themselves, have become important in subsequent philosophy and in the social sciences broadly construed: <ul><li>The human subject seen as the center of inquiry into human knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they exist independently of human perception or of how they are "for us";<a href="#cite_note-234">[225]</a></li> <li>the notion that is possible to discover and systematically explore the inherent limits of the human ability to know entirely a priori;</li> <li>the notion of the "categorical imperative", an assertion that people are naturally endowed with the ability and obligation toward right reason and acting. Perhaps his most famous quote is drawn from the Critique of Practical Reason: "Two things fill my mind with ever new and increasing admiration and reverence ... : the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me";<a href="#cite_note-235">[226]</a></li> <li>the concept of "conditions of possibility", as in his notion of "the conditions of possible experience"; that is, that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, several conditions must be understood:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>the claim that objective experience is actively constituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind;</li> <li>the concept of moral autonomy as central to humanity; and</li> <li>the assertion of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as mere means.</li></ul></dd></dl> Kant's ideas have been incorporated into a variety of schools of thought. These include <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-236">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-237">[228]</a> <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-238">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-239">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-240">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>,<a href="#cite_note-241">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_philosophy" title="Linguistic philosophy">linguistic philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-242">[233]</a> <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-243">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-244">[235]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_influence">Historical influence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Historical influence">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg/180px-Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg/270px-Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg/360px-Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Kant in <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, Russia. Replica by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harald_Haacke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harald Haacke (page does not exist)">Harald Haacke</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harald_Haacke" class="extiw" title="de:Harald Haacke">de</a>] of the original by <a href="/wiki/Christian_Daniel_Rauch" title="Christian Daniel Rauch">Christian Daniel Rauch</a> was lost in 1945.</figcaption></figure> During his own life, much critical attention was paid to Kant's thought. He influenced <a href="/wiki/Karl_Leonhard_Reinhold" title="Karl Leonhard Reinhold">Reinhold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling">Schelling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a> during the 1780s and 1790s. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a> was greatly influenced by Kant and helped to spread awareness of him, and of German Idealism generally, in the UK and the US. In his <a href="/wiki/Biographia_Literaria" title="Biographia Literaria">Biographia Literaria</a> (1817), he credits Kant's ideas in coming to believe that the mind is not a passive, but an active agent in the apprehension of reality. Hegel was one of Kant's first major critics. In Hegel's view the entire project of setting a "transcendental subject" (i.e., human consciousness) apart from the living individual as well as from nature, history, and society was fundamentally flawed,<a href="#cite_note-246">[237]</a> although parts of that very project could be put to good use in a new direction. Similar concerns motivated Hegel's criticisms of Kant's concept of moral autonomy, to which Hegel opposed an ethic focused on the "ethical life" of the community.<a href="#cite_note-247">[j]</a> In a sense, Hegel's notion of "ethical life" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a>. And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "desires", by means of reason. Thus, in contrast to later critics like Nietzsche or Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's concerns.<a href="#cite_note-248">[k]</a> Kant's thinking on religion was used in Britain by philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[238]</a> to challenge the nineteenth-century decline in religious faith. British Catholic writers, notably <a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">G. K. Chesterton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Hilaire Belloc</a>, followed this approach.<a href="#cite_note-250">[239]</a> Criticisms of Kant were common in the realist views of the new <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a> at that time. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a> was strongly influenced by Kant's <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a>. Like <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Ernst_Schulze" title="Gottlob Ernst Schulze">G. E. Schulze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">Jacobi</a>, and Fichte before him, Schopenhauer was critical of Kant's theory of the thing-in-itself. Things-in-themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe, nor are they completely beyond our access. Ever since the Critique of Pure Reason, philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing-in-itself. Many have argued that, if such a thing exists beyond experience, then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category "causality" beyond the realm of experience.<a href="#cite_note-251">[l]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg/170px-DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg/255px-DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg/340px-DR_1926_391_Immanuel_Kant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> stamp honoring Kant, 1926</figcaption></figure> With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's own influence began to wane, but a re-examination of his ideas began in Germany in 1865 with the publication of Kant und die Epigonen by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Liebmann" title="Otto Liebmann">Otto Liebmann</a>, whose motto was "Back to Kant". There proceeded an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a>. Kant's notion of "critique" has been more broadly influential. The early German Romantics, especially <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">Friedrich Schlegel</a> in his "Athenaeum Fragments", used Kant's reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry.<a href="#cite_note-252">[240]</a> Also in <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a>, in his classic essay "Modernist Painting", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as "immanent criticism", to justify the aims of <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstract painting</a>, a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitation—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting.<a href="#cite_note-253">[241]</a> French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> was also greatly influenced by Kant's notion of "critique" and wrote several pieces on Kant for a re-thinking of the Enlightenment as a form of "critical thought". He went so far as to classify his own philosophy as a "critical history of modernity, rooted in Kant".<a href="#cite_note-254">[242]</a> Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_a_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic a priori">synthetic a priori</a> knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through the a priori intuition of space and time, as transcendental preconditions of experience.<a href="#cite_note-255">[243]</a> Kant's often brief remarks about <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> influenced the mathematical school known as <a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">intuitionism</a>, a movement in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> opposed to <a href="/wiki/David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">formalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-256">[m]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_on_modern_thinkers">Influence on modern thinkers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Influence on modern thinkers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg/170px-DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg/255px-DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg/340px-DBP_-_250_Jahre_Immanuel_Kant_-_90_Pfennig_-_1974.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/West_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West German">West German</a> postage stamp, 1974, commemorating the 250th anniversary of Kant's birth</figcaption></figure> With his Perpetual Peace, Kant is considered to have foreshadowed many of the ideas that have come to form the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">democratic peace theory</a>, one of the main controversies in <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[244]</a> More concretely, constructivist theorist Alexander Wendt proposed that the anarchy of the international system could evolve from the "brutish" Hobbesian anarchy understood by realist theorists, through Lockean anarchy, and ultimately a Kantian anarchy in which states would see their self-interests as inextricably linked to the well being of other states, thus transforming international politics into a far more peaceful form.<a href="#cite_note-258">[245]</a> Prominent recent Kantians include the British philosophers <a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-259">[n]</a> <a href="/wiki/Onora_O%27Neill" title="Onora O'Neill">Onora O'Neill</a>,<a href="#cite_note-260">[246]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quassim_Cassam" title="Quassim Cassam">Quassim Cassam</a>,<a href="#cite_note-261">[247]</a> and the American philosophers <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[248]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[o]</a> Due to the influence of Strawson and Sellars, among others, there has been a renewed interest in Kant's view of the mind. Central to many debates in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">philosophy of psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-264">[p]</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> are two significant political and moral philosophers whose work is strongly influenced by Kant's moral philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-265">[q]</a> They have argued against relativism,<a href="#cite_note-266">[249]</a> supporting the Kantian view that universality is essential to any viable moral philosophy. <a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a>'s study of Kant has been cited as a highly crucial part in the development of Mou's personal philosophy, namely <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a>. Widely regarded as the most influential Kant scholar in China, Mou's rigorous critique of Kant's philosophy—having translated all three of Kant's <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">critiques</a>—served as an ardent attempt to reconcile Chinese and Western philosophy whilst increasing pressure to <a href="/wiki/Westernize" class="mw-redirect" title="Westernize">Westernize</a> in China.<a href="#cite_note-267">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[251]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg/170px-Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg/255px-Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg/340px-Kant-M%C3%BCnze_DDR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/East_German" class="mw-redirect" title="East German">East German</a> commemorative coin honoring Kant, 1974</figcaption></figure> Because of the thoroughness of Kant's paradigm shift, his influence extends well beyond this to thinkers who neither specifically refer to his work nor use his terminology. Kant's influence extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciences—as in the sociology of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, the psychology of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Gustav Jung">Carl Gustav Jung</a>.<a href="#cite_note-269">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[253]</a> Kant's work on mathematics and synthetic a priori knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> as an early influence on his intellectual development, although it was one which he later criticized and rejected.<a href="#cite_note-271">[254]</a> In the 2020s, there was a renewed interest in Kant's theory of mind from the point of view of <a href="/wiki/Formal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal logic">formal logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-272">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> Unless otherwise noted, all citations are to The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant in English Translation, 16 vols., ed. Guyer, Paul, and Wood, Allen W. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Citations in the article are to individual works per abbreviations in List of Major works below. <ul><li>Theoretical Philosophy, 1755-1770. Ed. and trans. David Walford with Ralf Meerbote. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.</li> <li>Lectures on Logic. Ed. and trans. J. Michael Young. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.</li> <li>Opus postumum. Ed. Eckart Förster, trans. Eckart Förster and Michael Rosen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993</li> <li>Practical Philosophy. Ed. and trans. Mary J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.</li> <li>Religion and Rational Theology. Ed. and trans.Allen W. Wood and George di Giovanni. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996</li> <li>Lectures on Metaphysics. Ed. and trans. Karl Ameriks and Steve Naragon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li> <li>Lectures on Ethics. Ed. Peter Heath and J.B. Schneewind, trans. Peter Heath. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.</li> <li>Critique of Pure Reason. Ed. and trans. Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.</li> <li>Correspondence. Ed. and trans. Arnulf Zweig. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.</li> <li>Critique of the Power of Judgment. Ed. Paul Guyer, trans. Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.</li> <li>Theoretical Philosophy after 1781. Ed. Henry Allison and Peter Heath, trans. Gary Hatfield, Michael Friedman, Henry Allison, and Peter Heath. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.</li> <li>Notes and Fragments. Ed. Paul Guyer, trans. Curtis Bowman, Paul Guyer, and Frederick Rauscher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.</li> <li>Anthropology, History, and Education, Ed. Günter Zöller and Robert B. Louden. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.</li> <li>Lectures on Anthropology, Ed. Allen W. Wood and Robert B. Louden Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.</li> <li>Natural Science, Ed. Eric Watkins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_major_works">List of major works</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: List of major works">edit</a>]</div> Abbreviations used in body of article are boldface in brackets. Unless otherwise noted, pagination is to the critical Akademie edition, which can be found in the margins of the Cambridge translations. <ul><li>1749: <a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_the_True_Estimation_of_Living_Forces" title="Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces">Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces</a> (Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte)</li> <li>1755: <a href="/wiki/Universal_Natural_History_and_Theory_of_the_Heavens" title="Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens">Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens</a> [UNH] (Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels)</li> <li>1755: Brief Outline of Certain Meditations on Fire (Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio (<a href="/wiki/Master%27s_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Master's thesis">master's thesis</a> under <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Teske" title="Johann Gottfried Teske">Johann Gottfried Teske</a>))<a href="#cite_note-273">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[259]</a></li> <li>1755: A New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition (Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio (<a href="/wiki/Doctoral_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral thesis">doctoral thesis</a>))<a href="#cite_note-277">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[r]</a></li> <li>1756: The Use in Natural Philosophy of Metaphysics Combined with Geometry, Part I: Physical Monadology [PM] (Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam, abbreviated as Monadologia Physica (thesis as a prerequisite of associate professorship))<a href="#cite_note-279">[261]</a></li> <li>1762: <a href="/wiki/The_False_Subtlety_of_the_Four_Syllogistic_Figures" title="The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures">The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures</a> (Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren)</li> <li>1763: <a href="/wiki/The_Only_Possible_Argument_in_Support_of_a_Demonstration_of_the_Existence_of_God" title="The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God">The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God</a> (Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes)</li> <li>1763: Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy [NQ] (Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen)</li> <li>1764: <a href="/wiki/Observations_on_the_Feeling_of_the_Beautiful_and_Sublime" title="Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime">Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime</a> [OFBS] (Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen)</li> <li>1764: Essay on the Illness of the Head (Über die Krankheit des Kopfes)</li> <li>1764: Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality (the Prize Essay) [PNTM] (Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral)</li> <li>1766: Dreams of a Spirit-Seer [DSS] (Träume eines Geistersehers)<a href="#cite_note-280">[262]</a></li> <li>1768: On the Ultimate Ground of the Differentiation of Regions in Space [1768] (Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume)<a href="#cite_note-281">[263]</a></li> <li>1770: Dissertation on the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World [ID] (De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis [doctoral thesis])<a href="#cite_note-282">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[266]</a></li> <li>1775: On the Different Races of Man (Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen)</li> <li>1781: First edition of the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> [CPuR A]<a href="#cite_note-285">[267]</a> (Kritik der reinen Vernunft)<a href="#cite_note-286">[268]</a></li> <li>1783: <a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> [PFM] (Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik)</li> <li>1784: "<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" title="What Is Enlightenment?">An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?</a>" [WE?] ("Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?")<a href="#cite_note-287">[269]</a></li> <li>1784: "<a href="/wiki/Idea_for_a_Universal_History_with_a_Cosmopolitan_Purpose" title="Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose">Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose</a>" [UH] ("Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht")</li> <li>1785: "Determination of the Concept of a Human Race" [DCHR] (Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace)</li> <li>1785: <a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> [G] (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten)</li> <li>1786: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_Foundations_of_Natural_Science" title="Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science">Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science</a> [MFNS] (Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft)</li> <li>1786: "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/KantOrientFerrerMarch2014">What does it mean to orient oneself in thinking?</a>" [OT]("Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?")</li> <li>1786: Conjectural Beginning of Human History [CB] (Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte)</li> <li>1787: Second edition of the <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> [CPuR B]<a href="#cite_note-288">[270]</a> (Kritik der reinen Vernunft)<a href="#cite_note-289">[271]</a></li> <li>1788: <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> [CPracR] (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft)<a href="#cite_note-290">[272]</a></li> <li>1790: <a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a> [CPJ] (Kritik der Urteilskraft)<a href="#cite_note-291">[273]</a></li> <li>1793: <a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a> [RBMR] (Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft)<a href="#cite_note-KReligion-49">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-292">[274]</a></li> <li>1793: On the Old Saw: That May be Right in Theory But It Won't Work in Practice [TP] (Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis)</li> <li>1795: <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[275]</a> [PP] ("Zum ewigen Frieden")<a href="#cite_note-294">[276]</a></li> <li>1797: <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Metaphysics of Morals">Metaphysics of Morals</a> [MM] (Metaphysik der Sitten). First part is The Doctrine of Right, which has often been published separately as The Science of Right.</li> <li>1798: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology_from_a_Pragmatic_Point_of_View" title="Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View">Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View</a> [APPV] (Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht)</li> <li>1798: Conflict of Faculties [CF]<a href="#cite_note-295">[277]</a> (Der Streit der Fakultäten)<a href="#cite_note-296">[278]</a></li> <li>1800: Logic (Logik)</li> <li>1803: On Pedagogy (Über Pädagogik)<a href="#cite_note-297">[279]</a></li> <li>1804: Opus Postumum [OP]</li> <li>1817: Lectures on Philosophical Theology (Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre edited by K.H.L. Pölitz) [The English edition of A.W. Wood & G.M. Clark (Cornell, 1978) is based on Pölitz' second edition, 1830, of these lectures.]<a href="#cite_note-298">[s]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collected_works_in_German">Collected works in German</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Collected works in German">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a> inaugurated the Academy edition (the Akademie-Ausgabe abbreviated as AA or Ak) of Kant's writings (Gesammelte Schriften, <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Prussian Academy of Sciences">Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften</a>, Berlin, 1902–38) in 1895,<a href="#cite_note-299">[280]</a> and served as its first editor. The volumes are grouped into four sections: <ul><li>I. Kant's published writings (vols. 1–9),</li> <li>II. Kant's correspondence (vols. 10–13),</li> <li>III. Kant's literary remains, or <a href="/wiki/Nachlass" title="Nachlass">Nachlass</a> (vols. 14–23), and</li> <li>IV. Student notes from Kant's lectures (vols. 24–29).</li></ul> An electronic version is also available: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190619210921/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/Kant/">Elektronische Edition der Gesammelten Werke Immanuel Kants</a> (vols. 1–23). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/kænt/</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/kɑːnt/</a>,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">German: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant]</a>;<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Kant himself seems to have found his contribution not significant enough that he published his arguments in a newspaper commentary on the prize question and did not submit them to the Academy: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.54018/page/n113/mode/2up">"Whether the Earth has Undergone an Alteration of its Axial Rotation"</a>. Kant's Cosmogony. Translated by Hastie, William. Glasgow: James Maclehose. 1900 [1754]. pp. 1–11. Retrieved 29 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Whether+the+Earth+has+Undergone+an+Alteration+of+its+Axial+Rotation&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Cosmogony&rft.place=Glasgow&rft.pages=1-11&rft.pub=James+Maclehose&rft.date=1900&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.54018%2Fpage%2Fn113%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988">. The prize was instead awarded in 1756 to P. Frisi, who incorrectly argued against the slowing down of the spin.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Since he had written his last <a href="/wiki/Habilitation_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Habilitation thesis">habilitation thesis</a> 14 years earlier, a new habilitation thesis was required (see S.J. McGrath, Joseph Carew (eds.), Rethinking German Idealism, Palgrave Macmillan, 2016, p. 24). </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> It has been noted that in 1778, in response to one of these offers by a former pupil, Kant wrote, "Any change makes me apprehensive, even if it offers the greatest promise of improving my condition, and I am persuaded by this natural instinct of mine that I must take heed if I wish that the threads which the Fates spin so thin and weak in my case to be spun to any length. My great thanks, to my well-wishers and friends, who think so kindly of me as to undertake my welfare, but at the same time a most humble request to protect me in my current condition from any disturbance."<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> More technically, Kant puts his general point that all genuine knowledge requires both sensory input and intellectual organization by saying that all knowledge requires both "intuitions" and "concepts" (e.g., A 50 / B 74). Intuitions and concepts are two different species of the genus "representation" (Vorstellung), Kant's most general term for any cognitive state (see A 320 / B 376–7). At the outset of the "Transcendental Aesthetic", Kant states that an "intuition" is our most direct or "immediate" kind of representation of objects, in contrast to a "concept" which always represents an object "through a detour (indirecte)"—that is, merely by some "mark" or property that the object has (A 19 / B 33). In his logic textbook, Kant defines an intuition as a "singular representation"—that is, one that represents a particular object—while a concept is always a "universal (repraesentation per notas communes)", which represents properties common to many objects (Logic, §1, 9:91).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201460–61-89">[85]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Beardsley, Monroe. "History of Aesthetics". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1, section on "Toward a unified aesthetics", p. 25, Macmillan 1973. Baumgarten coined the term "aesthetics" and expanded, clarified, and unified Wolffian aesthetic theory, but had left the Aesthetica unfinished (See also: Tonelli, Giorgio. "Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 1, Macmillan 1973). In Bernard's translation of the Critique of Judgment he indicates in the notes that Kant's reference in § 15 in regard to the identification of perfection and beauty is probably a reference to Baumgarten. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Kant's general discussions of the distinction between "cognition" and "conscious of" are also given in the Critique of Pure Reason (notably A320/B376), and section V and the conclusion of section VIII of his Introduction in Logic. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Kant wrote that "[Whites] contain all the impulses of nature in affects and passions, all talents, all dispositions to culture and civilization and can as readily obey as govern. They are the only ones who always advance to perfection." He describes South Asians as "educated to the highest degree but only in the arts and not in the sciences". He goes on that Hindustanis can never reach the level of abstract concepts and that a "great hindustani man" is one who has "gone far in the art of deception and has much money". He states that the Hindus always stay the way they are and can never advance. About black Africans, Kant wrote that "they can be educated but only as servants, that is they allow themselves to be trained". To Kant, "the Negro can be disciplined and cultivated, but is never genuinely civilized. He falls of his own accord into savagery." Native Americans, Kant opined, "cannot be educated". He calls them unmotivated, lacking affect, passion and love, and describes them as too weak for labor, unfit for any culture, and too <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">phlegmatic</a> for diligence. He said that Native Americans are "far below the Negro, who undoubtedly holds the lowest of all remaining levels by which we designate the different races". Kant stated that "Americans and Blacks cannot govern themselves. They thus serve only for slaves."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills2017169–193-220">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersox2016-221">[214]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Oliver A. Johnson claims, "With the possible exception of Plato's Republic, (Critique of Pure Reason) is the most important philosophical book ever written." Article on Kant within the collection Great thinkers of the Western World, Ian P. McGreal, Ed., HarperCollins, 1992. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Sciences. trans. T. M. Knox. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975. Hegel's mature view and his concept of "ethical life" is elaborated in his Philosophy of Right. Hegel, Philosophy of Right. trans. T. M. Knox. Oxford University Press, 1967. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> Robert Pippin's Hegel's Idealism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) emphasizes the continuity of Hegel's concerns with Kant's. Robert Wallace, Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) explains how Hegel's Science of Logic defends Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations", contra skeptics such as David Hume. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> For a review of this problem and the relevant literature see The Thing in Itself and the Problem of Affection in the revised edition of Henry Allison's Kant's Transcendental Idealism. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephan_K%C3%B6rner" title="Stephan Körner">Körner, Stephan</a>, The Philosophy of Mathematics, Dover, 1986. For an analysis of Kant's writings on mathematics see, Friedman, Michael, Kant and the Exact Sciences, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Strawson, P. F., The Bounds of Sense: An Essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge: 2004. When first published in 1966, this book forced many Anglo-American philosophers to reconsider Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> Korsgaard, Christine. Creating the Kingdom of Ends. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49644-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49644-5">978-0-521-49644-5</a> Not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics. </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Brook" title="Andrew Brook">Brook, Andrew</a>. Kant and the Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. See also, Meerbote, R. "Kant's <a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a>". In: J. C. Smith, ed. Historical Foundations of Cognitive Science. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1991. Brook has an article on Kant's View of the Mind in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/">Stanford Encyclopedia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100709014732/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-mind/">Archived</a> 9 July 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> See Habermas, J. Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Trans. Christian Lenhardt and Shierry Weber Nicholsen. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. For Rawls see, Rawls, John. Theory of Justice Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971. Rawls has a well-known essay on Kant's concept of good. See, Rawls, "Themes in Kant's Moral Philosophy" in Kant's Transcendental Deductions. Ed. Eckart Förster. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html">online at Bonner Kant-Korpus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131856/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/385.html">Archived</a> 6 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> As noted by <a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Allen W. Wood</a> in his Introduction, p. 12. Wood further speculates that the lectures themselves were delivered in the Winter of 1783–84. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant">"Kant"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190927133528/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/kant">Archived</a> 27 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant">"Kant"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023143832/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/kant">Archived</a> 23 October 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-8118-0"><bdi>978-1-4058-8118-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jones_(phonetician)" title="Daniel Jones (phonetician)">Jones, Daniel</a> (2011). <a href="/wiki/Peter_Roach_(phonetician)" title="Peter Roach (phonetician)">Roach, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jane_Setter" title="Jane Setter">Setter, Jane</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Esling" title="John Esling">Esling, John</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/English_Pronouncing_Dictionary" title="English Pronouncing Dictionary">Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary</a> (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15255-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-15255-6"><bdi>978-0-521-15255-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cambridge+English+Pronouncing+Dictionary&rft.edition=18th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-521-15255-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname">"Immanuel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Duden" title="Duden">Duden</a> (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055817/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Immanuel_maennlicher_Vorname">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Duden&rft.atitle=Immanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.duden.de%2Frechtschreibung%2FImmanuel_maennlicher_Vorname&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant">"Kant"</a>. Duden (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181020182053/https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Kant">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Duden&rft.atitle=Kant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.duden.de%2Frechtschreibung%2FKant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJemberie2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jemberie, Abraham Tsehay (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philarchive.org/rec/JEMACA-2">"A Critical Analysis of Immanuel Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals"</a>. International Journal of Research and Review. 4 (3): 54–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Research+and+Review&rft.atitle=A+Critical+Analysis+of+Immanuel+Kant%27s+Groundwork+of+the+Metaphysics+of+Morals&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=54-75&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Jemberie&rft.aufirst=Abraham+Tsehay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilarchive.org%2Frec%2FJEMACA-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenfell2017" class="citation web cs1">Grenfell, Michael (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.michaelgrenfell.co.uk/bourdieu/bourdieu-kant-and-art/">"Bourdieu, Kant and Art – Michael Grenfell"</a>. Michael Grenfell. Retrieved 22 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Michael+Grenfell&rft.atitle=Bourdieu%2C+Kant+and+Art+%E2%80%93+Michael+Grenfell&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Grenfell&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michaelgrenfell.co.uk%2Fbourdieu%2Fbourdieu-kant-and-art%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirdDuignan1998" class="citation web cs1">Bird, Otto Allen; Duignan, Brian (20 July 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Immanuel-Kant">"Immanuel Kant"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 23 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica+Online&rft.atitle=Immanuel+Kant&rft.date=1998-07-20&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Otto+Allen&rft.au=Duignan%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FImmanuel-Kant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/modern-german-thought-from-kant-to-habermas/immanuel-kant-17241804/148CBBC8FBD283D8E3F199CDDE11CE78">Modern German Thought from Kant to Habermas: An Annotated German-Language Reader</a>. Studies in German Literature Linguistics and Culture. Boydell & Brewer. 16 August 2023. pp. 21–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781571137708" title="Special:BookSources/9781571137708"><bdi>9781571137708</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Immanuel+Kant+%281724%E2%80%931804%29&rft.btitle=Modern+German+Thought+from+Kant+to+Habermas%3A+An+Annotated+German-Language+Reader&rft.series=Studies+in+German+Literature+Linguistics+and+Culture&rft.pages=21-56&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2023-08-16&rft.isbn=9781571137708&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fmodern-german-thought-from-kant-to-habermas%2Fimmanuel-kant-17241804%2F148CBBC8FBD283D8E3F199CDDE11CE78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhan2021" class="citation journal cs1">Khan, Naveeda (25 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/66103774/KhanKantandAnthropology-libre.pdf">"Kant and Anthropology"</a> (PDF). Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190854584.013.311">10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.311</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-085458-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-085458-4"><bdi>978-0-19-085458-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 9 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Kant+and+Anthropology&rft.date=2021-03-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190854584.013.311&rft.isbn=978-0-19-085458-4&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Naveeda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fd1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net%2F66103774%2FKhanKantandAnthropology-libre.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html">"Cosmopolis"</a>. Koenigsberg-is-dead.de. 23 April 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090322094741/http://www.koenigsberg-is-dead.de/I_Cosmopolis.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cosmopolis&rft.pub=Koenigsberg-is-dead.de&rft.date=2001-04-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.koenigsberg-is-dead.de%2FI_Cosmopolis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200126-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn200126_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn200126_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> R.K. Murray, "The Origin of Immanuel Kant's Family Name", Kantian Review 13(1), March 2008, pp. 190–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Rosa Kohlheim, Volker Kohlheim, Duden – Familiennamen: Herkunft und Bedeutung von 20.000 Nachnamen, Bibliographisches Institut & F.A. Brockhaus AG, Mannheim 2005, p. 365. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaupt" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Haupt, Viktor. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925124214/http://www.freunde-kants.com/attachments/article/137/Bohnenrede%202015%20%28de%29.pdf">"Rede des Bohnenkönigs – Von Petersburg bis Panama – Die Genealogie der Familie Kant"</a> (PDF). freunde-kants.com (in German). p. 7. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freunde-kants.com/kopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1">the original</a> on 25 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=freunde-kants.com&rft.atitle=Rede+des+Bohnenk%C3%B6nigs+%E2%80%93+Von+Petersburg+bis+Panama+%E2%80%93+Die+Genealogie+der+Familie+Kant&rft.pages=7&rft.aulast=Haupt&rft.aufirst=Viktor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freunde-kants.com%2Fkopie-von-kant-war-ostpreusse-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasternackFugate2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pasternack, Lawrence; Fugate, Courtney (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/kant-religion/">"Kant's Philosophy of Religion"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 25 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Pasternack&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Fugate%2C+Courtney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2020%2Fentries%2Fkant-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Kuehn 2001, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001169-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001169_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> The American International Encyclopedia (New York: J.J. Little & Ives, 1954), Vol. IX. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2010" class="citation book cs1">Porter, Burton (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port">What the Tortoise Taught Us: The Story of Philosophy</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whattortoisetaug00port/page/n145">133</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+the+Tortoise+Taught+Us%3A+The+Story+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Burton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhattortoisetaug00port&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf">"Die Freimaurer im Alten Preußen 1738–1806"</a> (PDF) (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201119104900/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2/497779.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Die+Freimaurer+im+Alten+Preu%C3%9Fen+1738%E2%80%931806&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fbitstream%2Fid%2F9c2c6b4d-7481-4e73-b443-bf29054680c2%2F497779.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200194-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn200194_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn200198-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn200198_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, p. 98. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Eric Watkins (ed.), Immanuel Kant: Natural Science, Cambridge University Press, 2012: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf">"Thoughts on the true estimation..."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213516/http://assets.cambridge.org/97805213/63945/excerpt/9780521363945_excerpt.pdf">Archived</a> 7 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchönfeld2000" class="citation book cs1">Schönfeld, Martin (2000). The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project. Oxford University Press. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513218-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513218-2"><bdi>978-0-19-513218-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+the+Young+Kant%3A+The+Precritical+Project&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513218-2&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%B6nfeld&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nebulous-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nebulous_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nebulous_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrush2014" class="citation book cs1">Brush, Stephen G. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7">A History of Modern Planetary Physics: Nebulous Earth</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp0000brus/page/7">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44171-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-44171-1"><bdi>978-0-521-44171-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Planetary+Physics%3A+Nebulous+Earth&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-44171-1&rft.aulast=Brush&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofmodernp0000brus%2Fpage%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> See: <ul><li>Kant, I. (1756a) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=448">"Von den Ursachen der Erderschütterungen bei Gelegenheit des Unglücks, welches die westliche Länder von Europa gegen das Ende des vorigen Jahres betroffen hat"</a> [On the causes of the earthquakes on the occasion of the disaster which affected the western countries of Europe towards the end of last year] In: Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences), ed.s (1902) Kant's gesammelte Schriften [Kant's collected writings] (in German) Berlin, Germany: G. Reimer. vol. 1, pp. 417–427.</li> <li>Kant, I. (1756b) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=460">"Geschichte und Naturbeschreibung der merkwürdigsten Vorfälle des Erdbebens, welches an dem Ende des 1755sten Jahres einen großen Theil der Erde erschüttert hat"</a> [History and description of the nature of the most remarkable events of the earthquake which shook a large part of the Earth at the end of the year 1755], ibid. pp. 429–461.</li> <li>Kant, I. (1756c) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951001073880s;view=1up;seq=494">"Immanuel Kants fortgesetzte Betrachtung der seit einiger Zeit wahrgenommenen Erderschütterungen"</a> [Immanuel Kant's continued consideration of the earthquakes that were felt some time ago], ibid. pp. 463–472.</li> <li>Amador, Filomena (2004) "The causes of 1755 Lisbon earthquake on Kant" In: Escribano Benito, J.J.; Español González, L.; Martínez García, M.A., ed.s. Actas VIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española de Historia de las Ciencias y de las Técnicas [Proceedings of the Eighth Congress of the Spanish Society of the History of the Sciences and Technology] (in English) Logroño, Spain: Sociedad Española de Historia de las Ciencias y de las Técnicas (Universidad de la Rioja), vol. 2, pp. 485–495.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richards-1974-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richards-1974_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richards-1974_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards1974" class="citation journal cs1">Richards, Paul (1974). "Kant's Geography and Mental Maps". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (61): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F621596">10.2307/621596</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-2754">0020-2754</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/621596">621596</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Institute+of+British+Geographers&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Geography+and+Mental+Maps&rft.issue=61&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0020-2754&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F621596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F621596&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElden2009" class="citation journal cs1">Elden, Stuart (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf">"Reassessing Kant's geography"</a> (PDF). Journal of Historical Geography. 35 (1): 3–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhg.2008.06.001">10.1016/j.jhg.2008.06.001</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801205430/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/6836/1/6836.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Historical+Geography&rft.atitle=Reassessing+Kant%27s+geography&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-25&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhg.2008.06.001&rft.aulast=Elden&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F6836%2F1%2F6836.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamow1947" class="citation book cs1">Gamow, George (1947). <a href="/wiki/One_Two_Three..._Infinity" title="One Two Three... Infinity">One Two Three... Infinity</a>. New York: Viking P. pp. 300ff.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Two+Three...+Infinity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=300ff&rft.pub=Viking+P.&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Gamow&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Cf., for example, Susan Shell, The Embodiment of Reason (Chicago, 1996) </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins2009" class="citation book cs1">Watkins, Erik (2009). Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Background Source Materials. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78162-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78162-6"><bdi>978-0-521-78162-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Critique+of+Pure+Reason%3A+Background+Source+Materials&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78162-6&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-1952-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-1952_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-1952_37-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Homer_W._Smith" title="Homer W. Smith">Smith, Homer W.</a> (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit">Man and His Gods</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Grosset_%26_Dunlap" title="Grosset & Dunlap">Grosset & Dunlap</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/404">404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+and+His+Gods&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=404&rft.pub=Grosset+%26+Dunlap&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Homer+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanhisgods00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Kant, PFM 4:260 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Christopher Kul-Want and Andrzej Klimowski, Introducing Kant (Cambridge: Icon Books, 2005).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-664-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-664-5">978-1-84046-664-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Kant, CPuR A188-211/B233-56 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorrien2012" class="citation book cs1">Dorrien, Gary (2012). Kantian Reason and Hegelian Spirit: The Idealistic Logic of Modern Theology. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-67331-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-67331-7"><bdi>978-0-470-67331-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kantian+Reason+and+Hegelian+Spirit%3A+The+Idealistic+Logic+of+Modern+Theology&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-470-67331-7&rft.aulast=Dorrien&rft.aufirst=Gary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001250–254-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001250–254_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, pp. 250–254. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston, Frederick Charles</a> (2003). The Enlightenment: Voltaire to Kant. p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Sassen, Brigitte. Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy. 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Ein Jahrhundert deutscher Literaturkritik, vol. III, Der Aufstieg zur Klassik in der Kritik der Zeit (Berlin, 1959), p. 315; as quoted in Gulyga, Arsenij. Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought. Trans. Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001268–269-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001268–269_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, pp. 268–269. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyer2006" class="citation book cs1">Guyer, Paul (2006). The Cambridge Companion to Kant and Modern Philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 631. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82303-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82303-6"><bdi>978-0-521-82303-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Kant+and+Modern+Philosophy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=631&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82303-6&rft.aulast=Guyer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KReligion-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KReligion_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KReligion_49-1">b</a> Werner S. Pluhar, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200304020309/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7">Archived</a> 4 March 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC">Description</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200201192948/https://books.google.com/books/about/Religion_Within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reaso.html%3Fid%3Dda8RrM-qkiwC">Archived</a> 1 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR7">Contents.</a> With an <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15">Introduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803085237/https://books.google.com/books?id=da8RrM-qkiwC&pg=PR15">Archived</a> 3 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Stephen Palmquist. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, </li> <li id="cite_note-DerridaKantCensorship-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_50-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DerridaKantCensorship_50-4">e</a> Derrida, Vacant Chair p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-Fichte-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Fichte_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html">"Open letter by Kant denouncing Fichte's Philosophy"</a>. Korpora.org (in German). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719150635/http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa12/370.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Korpora.org&rft.atitle=Open+letter+by+Kant+denouncing+Fichte%27s+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.korpora.org%2FKant%2Faa12%2F370.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Peirce, C.S., Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, v. 1, (HUP, 1960), 'Kant and his Refutation of Idealism' p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Kant, Immanuel, Logic, G.B. Jäsche (ed), R.S. Hartman, W. Schwarz (translators), Indianapolis, 1984, p. xv. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Karl Vorländer, Immanuel Kant: Der Mann und das Werk, Hamburg: Meiner, 1992, p. II 332. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf">"Heine on Immanuel Kant"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151123060538/http://philosophy.uchicago.edu/resources/files/On%20Kant.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 10 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Heine+on+Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphilosophy.uchicago.edu%2Fresources%2Ffiles%2FOn%2520Kant.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Examined Lives, From Socrates to Nietzsche, James Miller p. 284 </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Immanuel Kant and the Bo(a)rders of Art History Mark Cheetham, in The Subjects of Art History: Historical Objects in Contemporary Perspectives, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeyer2014" class="citation news cs1">Beyer, Susanne (25 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html">"Resurrecting Königsberg: Russian City Looks to German Roots"</a>. Spiegel Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180204192755/http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/architectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2018. Retrieved 3 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Spiegel+Online&rft.atitle=Resurrecting+K%C3%B6nigsberg%3A+Russian+City+Looks+to+German+Roots&rft.date=2014-07-25&rft.aulast=Beyer&rft.aufirst=Susanne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fzeitgeist%2Farchitectural-competition-held-to-rebuild-koenigsberg-city-center-a-980260.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZieliński2018" class="citation journal cs1">Zieliński, Miłosz J. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305">"Kant's Future: Debates about the Identity of Kaliningrad Oblast"</a>. Slavic Review. 77 (4): 937–956. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fslr.2018.291">10.1017/slr.2018.291</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6779">0037-6779</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26644305">26644305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Future%3A+Debates+about+the+Identity+of+Kaliningrad+Oblast&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=937-956&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=0037-6779&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26644305%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fslr.2018.291&rft.aulast=Zieli%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Mi%C5%82osz+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26644305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/kaliningrad-struggles-with-german-legacy/a-1635700">"Kaliningrad Struggles With German Legacy"</a>. 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The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. 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Retrieved 23 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=President+of+Russia&rft.atitle=Executive+order+on+establishing+Immanuel+Kant+University&rft.date=2010-10-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.kremlin.ru%2Fevents%2Fpresident%2Fnews%2F9234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Kant CPuR Bxxviii–Bxxx </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2005-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEdi_Giovanni2005_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFdi_Giovanni2005">di Giovanni 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.1-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.1_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §2.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Kant, CPuR A804–05/B833 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Kant, CPuR Bxxx </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer20147–8-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer20147–8_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer20146–8-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer20146–8_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. 6–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> di Giovanni, George. (1996) "Translator's Introduction", In Religion and Rational Theology. Cambridge University Press. p.49, citing Kant in correspondence with Stäudlin. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohlf" class="citation web cs1">Rohlf, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">"Immanuel Kant"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191114014720/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Immanuel+Kant&rft.aulast=Rohlf&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Kant, CPuR B135 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201451-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201451_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Kant, CPuR B1–3 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Kant, CPuR A6–8/B10–12 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Kant, CPuR B11 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201452–54-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201452–54_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201452–54_81-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. 52–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Section 4; Part 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Kant, CPuR B3–4 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Kant, CPuR B14–17 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201455-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201455_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Kant, CPuR A15/B29, emphases added </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201432,_61-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201432,_61_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. 32, 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.12-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.12_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §2.12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201460–61-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201460–61_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. 60–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Kant, CPuR A51/B75 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Kant, CPuR Bxvi–xviii </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.2-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§2.2_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §2.2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak20232(g)-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak20232(g)_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, 2(g). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer2014ch._4-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer2014ch._4_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, ch. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Kant, CPuR B21 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Kant, CPuR Axi–xii </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(d)-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(d)_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, §2(d). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§3-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§3_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§3_99-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §3. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Kant CPuR A43/B59–60, A369 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Kant CPuR A28/B44, A34–35/B51–51 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang2022§2.3-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStang2022§2.3_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStang2022">Stang 2022</a>, §2.3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201460-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201460_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllison2004" class="citation book cs1">Allison, Henry E. (2004). Kant's Transcendental Idealism: An Interpretation and Defense. Yale University Press. pp. 25–28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300102666" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300102666"><bdi>978-0300102666</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Transcendental+Idealism%3A+An+Interpretation+and+Defense&rft.pages=25-28&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0300102666&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§§3.1–3.2-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§§3.1–3.2_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §§3.1–3.2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang2022§§4–5-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStang2022§§4–5_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStang2022">Stang 2022</a>, §§4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangton1998" class="citation book cs1">Langton, Rae (1998). Kantian Humility: Our Ignorance of Things in Themselves. Oxford University Press. pp. 105–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199243174" title="Special:BookSources/9780199243174"><bdi>9780199243174</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kantian+Humility%3A+Our+Ignorance+of+Things+in+Themselves&rft.pages=105-107&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780199243174&rft.aulast=Langton&rft.aufirst=Rae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19984–13-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19984–13_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 4–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19988-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19988_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyer201489–90-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyer201489–90_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyer2014">Guyer 2014</a>, pp. 89–90. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Kant, CPuR Axi </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(e)-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(e)_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, §2(e). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§4-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§4_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19989-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19989_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Kant, CPuR B131-32 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§4.1-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERohlf2020§4.1_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRohlf2020">Rohlf 2020</a>, §4.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19989–10-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood19989–10_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199810–11-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199810–11_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199811-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199811_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> see Kant, CPuR A182–26/B224–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> see Kant, CPuR A186–211/B232–56 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> see Kant, CPuR A211-15/B256-62 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199811–12-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199811–12_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199812-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199812_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199812–13-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199812–13_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199813-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199813_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Kant, CPuR A5/B8 </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyer1987" class="citation book cs1">Guyer, Paul (1987). Kant and the Claims of Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521317245" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521317245"><bdi>978-0521317245</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+the+Claims+of+Knowledge&rft.pages=52-55&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0521317245&rft.aulast=Guyer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g)-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g)_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g)_129-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, §2(g). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199815-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199815_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199815_130-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199814-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199814_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.i)-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.i)_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, §2(g.i). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199816-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199816_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.ii)-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.ii)_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.ii)_134-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, §2(g.ii). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199816–17-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199816–17_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199817-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199817_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.iii)-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJankowiak2023§2(g.iii)_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJankowiak2023">Jankowiak 2023</a>, §2(g.iii). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199818-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGuyerWood199818_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGuyerWood1998">Guyer & Wood 1998</a>, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Kant, CPuR A806/B834 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kant,_CPuR_A448/B467_140-2">c</a> Kant, CPuR A448/B467 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Kant, CPuR A533–34/B561–62 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Kant, CPuR A800–02/B 828–30 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Susanne_Bobzien" title="Susanne Bobzien">Susanne Bobzien</a>, 'Die Kategorien der Freiheit bei Kant', in Kant: Analysen, Probleme, Kritik Vol. 1, 1988, 193–220. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Driver 2007, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2008_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson2008">Johnson 2008</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneewind2010261-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneewind2010261_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchneewind2010">Schneewind 2010</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Kant, G. 4:420–421, 436. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Wood, Allen. (2017) Formulas of the Moral Law. Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–78 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kant,_G_4:421-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kant,_G_4:421_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kant,_G_4:421_149-1">b</a> Kant, G 4:421 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Kant, G 4:429 </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Kant, G 4:431; cf. 4:432 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Kant, G 4:440; cf. 4:432, 434, 438 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Kant, G 4:439; cf. 4:433, 437–439 </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Wood, Allen. (2017) Formulas of the Moral Law. Cambridge University Press, p.6 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Caygill, Howard. (1995) A Kant Dictionary. Blackwell Publishing, p. 289, citing GMM. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Kant, G 4:403. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Driver 2007, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Kant, GMM 4:392. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In Practical Philosophy. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 355. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200668-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200668_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200668_160-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200668_160-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood2006">Wood 2006</a>, p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Kant, MM. 6:382–391. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200669-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200669_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood2006">Wood 2006</a>, p. 69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood200670-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWood200670_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWood2006">Wood 2006</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Kant, PP 8:349–353 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Manfred Riedel, Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy, Cambridge 1984 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Kant, PP 8:360–362 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 581–582 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Hassner, Pierre. "Immanuel Kant", in History of Political Philosophy, edited by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, The University of Chicago Press, 1987, p. 603 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Kant, PP 8:352 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Kant, PP 8:352 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Kant, PP 8:349-8:353 </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Kant, MM 6:355 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Gregor, Mary J. "Introduction", in Practical Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, p. 313 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Ripstein, Arthur. (2009) Force and Freedom: Kant's Legal and Political Philosophy. Harvard University Press, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Letters on the Kantian Philosophy (1786), 3rd Letter </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Johann Schultz, Exposition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1784), 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Kant, RBMR Part IV, First part, First section [6:157–163] </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> E.g., Walsh, W. H., 1967, "Kant, Immanuel: Philosophy of Religion", The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume Four, Paul Edwards (ed.), New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. & The Free Press, 322. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasternackRossi" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pasternack, Lawrence; Rossi, Philip. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/">"Kant's Philosophy of Religion"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100709212423/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2014&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.aulast=Pasternack&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Rossi%2C+Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> For example Peter Byrne, who wrote about Kant's relationship with deism. Byrne, Peter (2007), Kant on God, London: Ashgate, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Wood, Allen W. (1970), Kant's moral religion, London and Ithaca: Cornell University Press, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Westphal, Merold (2010), The Emergence of Modern Philosophy of Religion, in Taliaferro, Charles, Draper, Paul and Quinn, Philip (editors), A Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Iţu, Mircia (2004), Dumnezeu şi religia în concepţia lui Immanuel Kant din Religia în limitele raţiunii, in Boboc, Alexandru and Mariş, N.I. (editors), Studii de istoria filosofiei universale, volume 12, Bucharest: Romanian Academy. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Wood, Allen W. (2020), Kant and Religion, Cambridge University Press, p.2. </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> See e.g., Lawrence Pasternack, Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant on Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason (New York, Routledge, 2014), pp. 239–240. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Palmquist, Stephen (1992), "Does Kant Reduce Religion to Morality?", Kant-Studien 83.2, pp. 129–148. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Critique of Judgment in "Kant, Immanuel", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia601704.us.archive.org/23/items/encyclopedia-of-philosophy_202010/Volume%205.pdf">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, volume 5, Macmillan, 2006, accessed on 16 November 2024 </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Kant, CPuR A22/B36 </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> German Idealism in "History of Aesthetics" Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol 1. Macmillan, 1973. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Kant, CPJ §1 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Kant, CPJ §§ 20–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Kant, CPJ §40 </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyer1997" class="citation book cs1">Guyer, Paul (1997). Kant and the Claims of Taste. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674500358" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674500358"><bdi>978-0674500358</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+the+Claims+of+Taste&rft.pages=15-20&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0674500358&rft.aulast=Guyer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClewis2009" class="citation book cs1">Clewis, Robert R. (2009). The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521760867" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521760867"><bdi>978-0521760867</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kantian+Sublime+and+the+Revelation+of+Freedom&rft.pages=48-52&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0521760867&rft.aulast=Clewis&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Kant, CPJ §24 </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClewis2009" class="citation web cs1">Clewis, Robert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US">"The Kantian Sublime and the Revelation of Freedom"</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121020224616/http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item2326741/?site_locale=en_US">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Kantian+Sublime+and+the+Revelation+of+Freedom&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Clewis&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Fknowledge%2Fisbn%2Fitem2326741%2F%3Fsite_locale%3Den_US&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Kant, CPJ §§23–25 </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Kant, CPJ §§25–26 </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Kant, CPJ §54 </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakobidze-Gitman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Jakobidze-Gitman, Alexander (2020). "Kant's Situated Approach to Musicking and Joking". Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies. 10: 17–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.25364%2F24.10%3A2020.2">10.25364/24.10:2020.2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+Music+Studies&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Situated+Approach+to+Musicking+and+Joking&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=17-33&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.25364%2F24.10%3A2020.2&rft.aulast=Jakobidze-Gitman&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Kant, UH 8:20–22 </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Kant, UH 8:24–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2006" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Holly (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils">Kant's Pragmatic Anthropology</a>. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kantspragmatican00wils/page/n21">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6849-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6849-4"><bdi>978-0-7914-6849-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Pragmatic+Anthropology&rft.place=Albany&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6849-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkantspragmatican00wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Thomas Sturm, Kant und die Wissenschaften vom Menschen (Paderborn: Mentis Verlag, 2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierceyPhilosophy_Documentation_Center2011" class="citation journal cs1">Piercey, Robert; Philosophy Documentation Center (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdcnet.org/oom/service?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=&rft.imuse_id=idstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202&svc_id=info:www.pdcnet.org/collection">"Kant and the Problem of Hermeneutics: Heidegger and Ricoeur on the Transcendental Schematism"</a>. Idealistic Studies. 41 (3): 187–202. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fidstudies201141315">10.5840/idstudies201141315</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0046-8541">0046-8541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Idealistic+Studies&rft.atitle=Kant+and+the+Problem+of+Hermeneutics%3A+Heidegger+and+Ricoeur+on+the+Transcendental+Schematism&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=187-202&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fidstudies201141315&rft.issn=0046-8541&rft.aulast=Piercey&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Philosophy+Documentation+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdcnet.org%2Foom%2Fservice%3Furl_ver%3DZ39.88-2004%26rft_val_fmt%3D%26rft.imuse_id%3Didstudies_2011_0041_0003_0187_0202%26svc_id%3Dinfo%3Awww.pdcnet.org%2Fcollection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Kant APPV 7:285 </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Kant APPV 7:119 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_210-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_210-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_210-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkelsen2013" class="citation book cs1">Mikkelsen, Jon M., ed. (2013). Kant and the Concept of Race. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 12–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438443614" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438443614"><bdi>978-1438443614</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+the+Concept+of+Race&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pages=12-30&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1438443614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_211-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_211-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_211-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZorn2020" class="citation journal cs1">Zorn, Daniel-Pascal (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://public-history-weekly.degruyter.com/?p=17156">"Kant—a Racist?"</a>. Public History Weekly. 2020 (8). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fphw-2020-17156">10.1515/phw-2020-17156</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2197-6376">2197-6376</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225247836">225247836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+History+Weekly&rft.atitle=Kant%E2%80%94a+Racist%3F&rft.volume=2020&rft.issue=8&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225247836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2197-6376&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fphw-2020-17156&rft.aulast=Zorn&rft.aufirst=Daniel-Pascal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublic-history-weekly.degruyter.com%2F%3Fp%3D17156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592-212">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592_212-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592_212-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKleingeld2007573–592_212-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKleingeld2007">Kleingeld 2007</a>, pp. 573–592. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEze1997" class="citation book cs1">Eze, Emmanuel (1997). "The Color of Reason: the Idea of 'Race' in Kant's Anthropology". In Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/EZETCO">Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader</a>. Blackwell. pp. 103–140. Retrieved 20 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Color+of+Reason%3A+the+Idea+of+%27Race%27+in+Kant%27s+Anthropology&rft.btitle=Postcolonial+African+Philosophy%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=103-140&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Eze&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FEZETCO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerequeberhan1996" class="citation journal cs1">Serequeberhan, T. (1996). "Eurocentrism in Philosophy: the Case of Immanuel Kant". The Philosophical Forum. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170547963">170547963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Forum&rft.atitle=Eurocentrism+in+Philosophy%3A+the+Case+of+Immanuel+Kant&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170547963%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Serequeberhan&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/immanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors/id1512137924?i=1000496715962">"The Philosophy Junkie: Immanuel Kant's Racism and Sexism with Professors Lucy Allais and Helga Varden on Apple Podcasts"</a>. Apple Podcasts. Retrieved 20 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Apple+Podcasts&rft.atitle=The+Philosophy+Junkie%3A+Immanuel+Kant%27s+Racism+and+Sexism+with+Professors+Lucy+Allais+and+Helga+Varden+on+Apple+Podcasts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpodcasts.apple.com%2Fus%2Fpodcast%2Fimmanuel-kants-racism-and-sexism-with-professors%2Fid1512137924%3Fi%3D1000496715962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeismann2022" class="citation journal cs1">Geismann, Georg (1 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elibrary.duncker-humblot.com/article/69870/why-kant-was-not-a-racist">"Why Kant Was Not a 'Racist'"</a>. Jahrbuch für Recht und Ethik/Annual Review of Law and Ethics. 30 (1): 263–357. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3790%2Fjre.30.1.263">10.3790/jre.30.1.263</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0944-4610">0944-4610</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255676303">255676303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jahrbuch+f%C3%BCr+Recht+und+Ethik%2FAnnual+Review+of+Law+and+Ethics&rft.atitle=Why+Kant+Was+Not+a+%27Racist%27&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=263-357&rft.date=2022-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A255676303%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0944-4610&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3790%2Fjre.30.1.263&rft.aulast=Geismann&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felibrary.duncker-humblot.com%2Farticle%2F69870%2Fwhy-kant-was-not-a-racist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills20179591–112-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMills20179591–112_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMills2017">Mills 2017</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_218-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant1997" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1997) [1775, 1777]. "On the Different Races of Man". In Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34663347">Race and the Enlightenment: a reader</a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 38–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20136-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-20136-X"><bdi>0-631-20136-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34663347">34663347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Different+Races+of+Man&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Enlightenment%3A+a+reader&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=38-49&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34663347&rft.isbn=0-631-20136-X&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F34663347&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills201791–112-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMills201791–112_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMills2017">Mills 2017</a>, pp. 91–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills2017169–193-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMills2017169–193_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMills2017">Mills 2017</a>, pp. 169–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowersox2016-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowersox2016_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowersox2016">Bowersox 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Kant APPV 7:320 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShrage2019-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShrage2019_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShrage2019">Shrage 2019</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMills201795–97-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMills201795–97_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMills2017">Mills 2017</a>, pp. 95–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouie2018-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBouie2018_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBouie2018">Bouie 2018</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkelsen2013" class="citation book cs1">Mikkelsen, Jon M., ed. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/861693001">Kant and the Concept of Race: late eighteenth-century writings</a>. Jon M. Mikkelsen. Albany: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4619-4312-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4619-4312-9"><bdi>978-1-4619-4312-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/861693001">861693001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+the+Concept+of+Race%3A+late+eighteenth-century+writings&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F861693001&rft.isbn=978-1-4619-4312-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F861693001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001298–301,_343–345-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuehn2001298–301,_343–345_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuehn2001">Kuehn 2001</a>, pp. 298–301, 343–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> cf. Kant, DCHR 8:91-106 </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrawson" class="citation book cs1">Strawson, Peter. Bounds of Sense: Essay on Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason". <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0415040302">0415040302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bounds+of+Sense%3A+Essay+on+Kant%27s+%22Critique+of+Pure+Reason%22&rft.aulast=Strawson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.">"Einstein on Kant"</a>. University of Pittsburgh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809030743/https://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/teaching/HPS_0410/chapters/significance_GR_geometry/Einstein_on_Kant.html#:~:text=Einstein%20wrote:,withstand%20the%20test%20of%20time.&text=However,%20if%20one%20does%20not,and%20norms%20of%20Kant%27s%20system.">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Einstein+on+Kant&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pitt.edu%2F~jdnorton%2Fteaching%2FHPS_0410%2Fchapters%2Fsignificance_GR_geometry%2FEinstein_on_Kant.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DEinstein%2520wrote%3A%2Cwithstand%2520the%2520test%2520of%2520time.%26text%3DHowever%2C%2520if%2520one%2520does%2520not%2Cand%2520norms%2520of%2520Kant%2527s%2520system.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrick1985" class="citation journal cs1">Perrick, Michael (1985). "Kant and Kripke on Necessary Empirical Truths". Mind. 94 (376): 596–598. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FXCIV.376.596">10.1093/mind/XCIV.376.596</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4423">0026-4423</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2254731">2254731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Kant+and+Kripke+on+Necessary+Empirical+Truths&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=376&rft.pages=596-598&rft.date=1985&rft.issn=0026-4423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2254731%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FXCIV.376.596&rft.aulast=Perrick&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Stephen Palmquist, "The Architectonic Form of Kant's Copernican Logic", Metaphilosophy 17:4 (October 1986), pp. 266–288; revised and reprinted as Chapter III of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1">Kant's System of Perspectives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120414204136/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1">Archived</a> 14 April 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993). </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Kant, CPracR 5:161 </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiser2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Beiser, Frederick C.</a> (2002). German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. Part I. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674007703" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674007703"><bdi>978-0674007703</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Idealism%3A+The+Struggle+Against+Subjectivism%2C+1781%E2%80%931801&rft.pages=Part+I&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0674007703&rft.aulast=Beiser&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLellan1998" class="citation book cs1">McLellan, David (1998). Marxism after Marx. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 22–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333738399" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333738399"><bdi>978-0333738399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marxism+after+Marx&rft.pages=22-25&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0333738399&rft.aulast=McLellan&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolakowski1972" class="citation book cs1">Kolakowski, Leszek (1972). Positivist Philosophy: From Hume to the Vienna Circle. Penguin Books. pp. 67–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140212248" title="Special:BookSources/0140212248"><bdi>0140212248</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Positivist+Philosophy%3A+From+Hume+to+the+Vienna+Circle&rft.pages=67-69&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0140212248&rft.aulast=Kolakowski&rft.aufirst=Leszek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarman2008" class="citation book cs1">Carman, Taylor (2008). Merleau-Ponty. Routledge. pp. 34–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415360616" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415360616"><bdi>978-0415360616</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Merleau-Ponty&rft.pages=34-36&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0415360616&rft.aulast=Carman&rft.aufirst=Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann1989" class="citation book cs1">Kaufmann, Walter (1989). Existentialism: From Dostoevsky to Sartre. Meridian Books. pp. 9–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0452009301" title="Special:BookSources/978-0452009301"><bdi>978-0452009301</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Existentialism%3A+From+Dostoevsky+to+Sartre&rft.pages=9-12&rft.pub=Meridian+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0452009301&rft.aulast=Kaufmann&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHabermas1987" class="citation book cs1">Habermas, Jürgen (1987). The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures. MIT Press. pp. 109–113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745608303" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745608303"><bdi>978-0745608303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Discourse+of+Modernity%3A+Twelve+Lectures&rft.pages=109-113&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0745608303&rft.aulast=Habermas&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDummett1996" class="citation book cs1">Dummett, Michael (1996). Origins of Analytical Philosophy. Harvard University Press. pp. 45–47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674644731" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674644731"><bdi>978-0674644731</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+Analytical+Philosophy&rft.pages=45-47&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0674644731&rft.aulast=Dummett&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiaget2001" class="citation book cs1">Piaget, Jean (2001). Structuralism. Routledge. pp. 10–12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415262491" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415262491"><bdi>978-0415262491</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structuralism&rft.pages=10-12&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0415262491&rft.aulast=Piaget&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorris2003" class="citation book cs1">Norris, Christopher (2003). Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. Routledge. pp. 40–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415061742" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415061742"><bdi>978-0415061742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deconstruction%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pages=40-42&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0415061742&rft.aulast=Norris&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuller2007" class="citation book cs1">Culler, Jonathan (2007). On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Cornell University Press. pp. 53–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801479182" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801479182"><bdi>978-0801479182</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Deconstruction%3A+Theory+and+Criticism+after+Structuralism&rft.pages=53-56&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0801479182&rft.aulast=Culler&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1827" class="citation book cs1">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1827). Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline. Heidelberg. pp. 14–15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Philosophical+Sciences+in+Basic+Outline&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pages=14-15&rft.date=1827&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCody" class="citation web cs1">Cody, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://victorianweb.org/authors/carlyle/sources.html">"Carlyle: Sources and Influence"</a>. The Victorian Web. Retrieved 28 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Victorian+Web&rft.atitle=Carlyle%3A+Sources+and+Influence&rft.aulast=Cody&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvictorianweb.org%2Fauthors%2Fcarlyle%2Fsources.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorse2000" class="citation book cs1">Morse, David (2000). The Age of Virtue: British Culture from the Restoration to Romanticism. Macmillan. pp. 198–200. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333913918" title="Special:BookSources/978-0333913918"><bdi>978-0333913918</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Virtue%3A+British+Culture+from+the+Restoration+to+Romanticism&rft.pages=198-200&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0333913918&rft.aulast=Morse&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Schlegel, Friedrich. "Athenaeum Fragments", in Philosophical Fragments. Trans. Peter Firchow. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. See especially fragments Nos. 1, 43, 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Greenberg, Clement. "Modernist Painting", in The Philosophy of Art, ed. Alex Neill and Aaron Ridley, McGraw-Hill, 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> See "Essential Works of Foucault: 1954–1984 vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology". Ed. by James Faubion, Trans. Robert Hurley et al. New York City: The New Press, 1998 (2010 reprint). See "Foucault, Michel, 1926 –" entry by Maurice Florence. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> For a discussion and qualified defense of this position, see Stephen Palmquist, "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (I) Mathematics, Method and Pure Intuition", The Review of Metaphysics 41:1 (September 1987), pp. 3–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay1998" class="citation journal cs1">Ray, James Lee (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080217032515/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm">"Does Democracy Cause Peace?"</a>. Annual Review of Political Science. 1: 27–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.polisci.1.1.27">10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.27</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/ray.htm">the original</a> on 17 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Does+Democracy+Cause+Peace%3F&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=27-46&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.polisci.1.1.27&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=James+Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Fray.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWendt1999" class="citation book cs1">Wendt, Alexander (1999). Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge University Press. pp. chapter 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Theory+of+International+Politics&rft.pages=chapter+6&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Wendt&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAridi2017" class="citation news cs1">Aridi, Sara (14 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html">"Onora O'Neill Wins Holberg Prize for Academic Research"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190109111404/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/14/books/onora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 January 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Onora+O%27Neill+Wins+Holberg+Prize+for+Academic+Research&rft.date=2017-03-14&rft.aulast=Aridi&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F03%2F14%2Fbooks%2Fonora-oneill-wins-holberg-prize.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> Cassam, Q. The Possibility of Knowledge Oxford: 2009 </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> Sellars, Wilfrid, Science and Metaphysics: Variations on Kantian Themes. Ridgeview Publishing Company, 1967 </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Habermas, J. (1994): The Unity of Reason in the Diversity of Its Voices. In: Habermas, J. (Ed.): Postmetaphysical Thinking. Political Essays, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 115–148. </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmquist2010" class="citation book cs1">Palmquist, Stephen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm">Cultivating Personhood: Kant and Asian Philosophy</a>. Hong Kong: De Gruyter, Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cultivatingperso00palm/page/n43">25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022624-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022624-9"><bdi>978-3-11-022624-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultivating+Personhood%3A+Kant+and+Asian+Philosophy&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=De+Gruyter%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-11-022624-9&rft.aulast=Palmquist&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcultivatingperso00palm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWing-Cheuk2006" class="citation journal cs1">Wing-Cheuk, Chan (21 February 2006). "Mou Zongsan's Transformation of Kant's Philosophy". Journal of Chinese Philosophy. 33 (1): 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-6253.2006.00340.x">10.1111/j.1540-6253.2006.00340.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Mou+Zongsan%27s+Transformation+of+Kant%27s+Philosophy&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2006-02-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-6253.2006.00340.x&rft.aulast=Wing-Cheuk&rft.aufirst=Chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalanovskiy2016" class="citation journal cs1">Balanovskiy, Valentin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719">"Whether jung was a kantian?"</a>. Con-Textos Kantianos (4): 118–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.2550828">10.5281/zenodo.2550828</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055819/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323218719_Whether_jung_was_a_kantian">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Con-Textos+Kantianos&rft.atitle=Whether+jung+was+a+kantian%3F&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=118-126&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5281%2Fzenodo.2550828&rft.aulast=Balanovskiy&rft.aufirst=Valentin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F323218719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalanovskiy2017" class="citation journal cs1">Balanovskiy, Valentin (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323540339">"Kant and Jung on the prospects of Scientific Psychology"</a>. Estudos Kantianos. 5 (1): 357–390. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36311%2F2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375">10.36311/2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055820/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323540339_Kant_and_Jung_on_the_prospects_of_Scientific_Psychology">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estudos+Kantianos&rft.atitle=Kant+and+Jung+on+the+prospects+of+Scientific+Psychology&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=357-390&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.36311%2F2318-0501.2017.v5n1.26.p375&rft.aulast=Balanovskiy&rft.aufirst=Valentin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F323540339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> Isaacson, Walter. "Einstein: His Life and Universe". p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Theodora Achourioti & Michiel van Lambalgen, 'A Formalization of Kant's Transcendental Logic', The Review of Symbolic Logic, 4 (2011), 254–289. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> The thesis was submitted on 17 April 1755. "The public examination was held four weeks later on 13 May, and the degree was formally awarded on 12 June" (Eric Watkins, Kant: Natural Science, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 309). </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> Eric Watkins (ed.), Kant and the Sciences, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Martin Schonfeld, The Philosophy of the Young Kant: The Precritical Project, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html">online at Bonner Kant-Korpus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306131152/https://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/kant/aa01/369.html">Archived</a> 6 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> The thesis was publicly disputed on 27 September 1755 (Kuehn 2001, p. 100). </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Kant's application for the position was unsuccessful. He defended it on 10 April 1756 (Kuehn 2001, p. 102). </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsofspiritse00kant">online at Archive.org</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> Immanuel Kant, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU">"Concerning the ultimate ground of the differentiation of directions in space"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180716082315/https://philpapers.org/rec/KANCTU">Archived</a> 16 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> The thesis was publicly disputed on 21 August 1770 (Kuehn 2001, p. 189). </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123">online at Google Books</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105335/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNRKAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA123">Archived</a> 3 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> English translation available <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kant%27s_Inaugural_Dissertation_of_1770" class="extiw" title="s:Kant's Inaugural Dissertation of 1770">online at Wikisource</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Kant" class="citation web cs1">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202072513/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/">"The Critique of Pure Reason"</a>. Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/k/kant/immanuel/k16p/">the original</a> on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Etext.library.adelaide.edu.au&rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.library.adelaide.edu.au%2Fk%2Fkant%2Fimmanuel%2Fk16p%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Kant" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm">"Immanuel Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 1. Auflage – Kapitel 1"</a> (in German). Projekt Gutenberg-DE. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150201/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Kritik+der+reinen+Vernunft+%E2%80%93+1.+Auflage+%E2%80%93+Kapitel+1&rft.pub=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE&rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fkrva%2Fkrva.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank-Christian_Lilienweihs1999" class="citation web cs1">Frank-Christian Lilienweihs (10 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm">"Immanuel Kant: Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklaerung?"</a>. Prometheusonline.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090801001752/http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Beantwortung+der+Frage%3A+Was+ist+Aufklaerung%3F&rft.pub=Prometheusonline.de&rft.date=1999-06-10&rft.au=Frank-Christian+Lilienweihs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.prometheusonline.de%2Fheureka%2Fphilosophie%2Fklassiker%2Fkant%2Faufklaerung.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html">"Critique of Pure Reason"</a>. Hkbu.edu.hk. 31 October 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Hkbu.edu.hk&rft.date=2003-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hkbu.edu.hk%2F~ppp%2Fcpr%2Ftoc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm">"Immanuel Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft – 2. Auflage – Kapitel 1"</a> (in German). Projekt Gutenberg-DE. 20 July 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051226212924/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2005. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Kritik+der+reinen+Vernunft+%E2%80%93+2.+Auflage+%E2%80%93+Kapitel+1&rft.pub=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE&rft.date=2009-07-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fkrvb%2Fkrvb.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Kant" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm">"Immanuel Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft – Kapitel 1"</a> (in German). Projekt Gutenberg-DE. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150443/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Kritik+der+praktischen+Vernunft+%E2%80%93+Kapitel+1&rft.pub=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE&rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fkritikpr%2Fkritikpr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Critique_of_Judgment" class="extiw" title="s:The Critique of Judgment">s:The Critique of Judgment</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Kant" class="citation web cs1">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm">"Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone by Immanuel Kant 1793"</a>. Marxists.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090601192705/http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religion+within+the+Limits+of+Reason+Alone+by+Immanuel+Kant+1793&rft.pub=Marxists.org&rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Freference%2Fsubject%2Fethics%2Fkant%2Freligion%2Freligion-within-reason.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm">"Immanuel Kant, "Perpetual Peace""</a>. Mountr Holyoke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190406161945/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%2C+%22Perpetual+Peace%22&rft.pub=Mountr+Holyoke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Fkant%2Fkant1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html">"Immanuel Kant: Zum ewigen Frieden, 12.02.2004 (Friedensratschlag)"</a>. Uni-kassel.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923155158/http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2009. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Zum+ewigen+Frieden%2C+12.02.2004+%28Friedensratschlag%29&rft.pub=Uni-kassel.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-kassel.de%2Ffb5%2Ffrieden%2Fthemen%2FTheorie%2Fkant.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/">"Kant, The Contest of Faculties"</a>. Chnm.gmu.edu. 1798. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110804222523/http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 August 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kant%2C+The+Contest+of+Faculties&rft.pub=Chnm.gmu.edu&rft.date=1798&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchnm.gmu.edu%2Frevolution%2Fd%2F564%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Kant" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Immanuel Kant. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm">"Immanuel Kant: Der Streit der Facultäten – Kapitel 1"</a> (in German). Projekt Gutenberg-DE. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609150025/http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%3A+Der+Streit+der+Facult%C3%A4ten+%E2%80%93+Kapitel+1&rft.pub=Projekt+Gutenberg-DE&rft.au=Immanuel+Kant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgutenberg.spiegel.de%2Fkant%2Fstreit%2Fstreit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803">online at DeutschesTextArchiv.de</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160310102744/http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/book/show/kant_paedagogik_1803">Archived</a> 10 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> Immanuel Kant, Notes and Fragments, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. xvi. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernasconi2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bernasconi, Robert (2010). "Defining Race Scientifically: A response to Michael Banton". Ethnicities. 10 (1): 141–148. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14687968100100010802">10.1177/14687968100100010802</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-7968">1468-7968</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23890861">23890861</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143925406">143925406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnicities&rft.atitle=Defining+Race+Scientifically%3A+A+response+to+Michael+Banton&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=141-148&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=1468-7968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143925406%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23890861%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14687968100100010802&rft.aulast=Bernasconi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouie2018" class="citation web cs1">Bouie, Jamelle (5 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/06/taking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html">"How the Enlightenment Created Modern Race Thinking and Why We Should Confront It"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200615090940/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2018/06/taking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=How+the+Enlightenment+Created+Modern+Race+Thinking+and+Why+We+Should+Confront+It&rft.date=2018-06-05&rft.aulast=Bouie&rft.aufirst=Jamelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Fnews-and-politics%2F2018%2F06%2Ftaking-the-enlightenment-seriously-requires-talking-about-race.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersox2016" class="citation web cs1">Bowersox, Jeff (4 February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/">"Kant on the different human races (1777)"</a>. Black Central Europe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200616003834/https://blackcentraleurope.com/sources/1750-1850/kant-on-the-different-human-races-1777/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Black+Central+Europe&rft.atitle=Kant+on+the+different+human+races+%281777%29&rft.date=2016-02-04&rft.aulast=Bowersox&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblackcentraleurope.com%2Fsources%2F1750-1850%2Fkant-on-the-different-human-races-1777%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaygill1995" class="citation book cs1">Caygill, Howard (1995). A Kant Dictionary. Blackwell Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Kant+Dictionary&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Caygill&rft.aufirst=Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEze1997a" class="citation book cs1">Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi (1997a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BwkRtAEACAAJ">Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader</a>. Wiley. pp. 103–131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20339-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20339-1"><bdi>978-0-631-20339-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055821/https://books.google.com/books?id=BwkRtAEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postcolonial+African+Philosophy%3A+A+Critical+Reader&rft.pages=103-131&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20339-1&rft.aulast=Eze&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel+Chukwudi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBwkRtAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEze1997b" class="citation book cs1">Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi (1997b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0BaguAEACAAJ">Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader</a>. Wiley. pp. 39–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20136-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-20136-6"><bdi>978-0-631-20136-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201220055823/https://books.google.com/books?id=0BaguAEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Enlightenment%3A+A+Reader&rft.pages=39-48&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20136-6&rft.aulast=Eze&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel+Chukwudi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0BaguAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriver,_Julia2007" class="citation book cs1">Driver, Julia (2007). Ethics: The Fundamentals. Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1154-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-1154-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-1154-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics%3A+The+Fundamentals&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-1154-6&rft.au=Driver%2C+Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdi_Giovanni2005" class="citation book cs1">di Giovanni, George (2005). Freedom and Religion in Kant and His Immediate Successors. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+and+Religion+in+Kant+and+His+Immediate+Successors&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=di+Giovanni&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyer2014" class="citation book cs1">Guyer, Paul (2014). Kant. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Guyer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyerWood1998" class="citation book cs1">Guyer, Paul; Wood, Alan W. (1998). "Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason [Editors' Introduction]". The Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+the+Critique+of+Pure+Reason+%5BEditors%27+Introduction%5D&rft.btitle=The+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Guyer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Wood%2C+Alan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJankowiak2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Jankowiak, Tim (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/kantview/">Immanuel Kant</a>. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 4 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant&rft.pub=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Jankowiak&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fkantview%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Johnson, Robert (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/#DutResForMorLaw">"Kant's Moral Philosophy"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 11 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Moral+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant-moral%2F%23DutResForMorLaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant2010" class="citation web cs1">Kant, Immanuel (2010). Eze, Emmanuel Chukwudi (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.umass.edu/afroam391g-shabazz/files/2010/01/Kant-on-the-Different-Races-of-Man1.pdf">"Kant on the Different Races of Man"</a> (PDF). UMass Amherst. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801194450/https://blogs.umass.edu/afroam391g-shabazz/files/2010/01/Kant-on-the-Different-Races-of-Man1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kant+on+the+Different+Races+of+Man&rft.pub=UMass+Amherst&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.umass.edu%2Fafroam391g-shabazz%2Ffiles%2F2010%2F01%2FKant-on-the-Different-Races-of-Man1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleingeld2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kleingeld, Pauline (October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2768306/Kants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf">"Kant's Second Thoughts on Race"</a> (PDF). The Philosophical Quarterly. 57 (229): 573–592. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9213.2007.498.x">10.1111/j.1467-9213.2007.498.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11370%2Fe15b6815-5eab-42d6-a789-24a2f6ecb946">11370/e15b6815-5eab-42d6-a789-24a2f6ecb946</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55185762">55185762</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190216193713/https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2768306/Kants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philosophical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Second+Thoughts+on+Race&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=229&rft.pages=573-592&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11370%2Fe15b6815-5eab-42d6-a789-24a2f6ecb946&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55185762%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9213.2007.498.x&rft.aulast=Kleingeld&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.rug.nl%2Fws%2Ffiles%2F2768306%2FKants_second_thoughts_on_race.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuehn2001" class="citation book cs1">Kuehn, Manfred (2001). Kant: a Biography. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49704-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-49704-6"><bdi>978-0-521-49704-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%3A+a+Biography&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-49704-6&rft.aulast=Kuehn&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills2017" class="citation book cs1">Mills, Charles W. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190245412.001.0001/acprof-9780190245412">Black Rights/White Wrongs: The Critique of Racial Liberalism</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 169–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190245412.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190245412.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-024545-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-024545-0"><bdi>978-0-19-024545-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200616003829/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190245412.001.0001/acprof-9780190245412">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Rights%2FWhite+Wrongs%3A+The+Critique+of+Racial+Liberalism&rft.pages=169-193&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190245412.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-024545-0&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=Charles+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780190245412.001.0001%2Facprof-9780190245412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohlf2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Rohlf, Michael (2020). Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/kant/">Immanuel Kant</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 Edition).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant&rft.pub=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Fall+2020+Edition%29&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Rohlf&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2020%2Fentries%2Fkant%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneewind2010" class="citation book cs1">Schneewind, J. B. (2010). "Autonomy, Obligation, and Virtue: An Overview of Kant's Moral Philosophy". Essays on the History of Moral Philosophy. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Autonomy%2C+Obligation%2C+and+Virtue%3A+An+Overview+of+Kant%27s+Moral+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Essays+on+the+History+of+Moral+Philosophy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Schneewind&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShrage2019" class="citation news cs1">Shrage, Laurie (18 March 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/18/opinion/philosophy-anti-semitism.html">"Should we continue to teach thinkers like Kant, Voltaire and Hume without mention of the harmful prejudices they helped legitimize?"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 10 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Should+we+continue+to+teach+thinkers+like+Kant%2C+Voltaire+and+Hume+without+mention+of+the+harmful+prejudices+they+helped+legitimize%3F&rft.date=2019-03-18&rft.aulast=Shrage&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F03%2F18%2Fopinion%2Fphilosophy-anti-semitism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStang2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Stang, Nicholas F. (2022). Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/">Kant's Transcendental Idealism</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2022 Edition).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Transcendental+Idealism&rft.pub=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Winter+2022+Edition%29&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Stang&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2022%2Fentries%2Fkant-transcendental-idealism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1999" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Allen (1999). Kant's Ethical Thought. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521648363" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521648363"><bdi>978-0521648363</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Ethical+Thought&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0521648363&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2006" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Allen (2006). "Kant's Practical Philosophy". In Karl Ameriks (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to German Idealism. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801486043" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801486043"><bdi>978-0801486043</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Practical+Philosophy&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+German+Idealism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0801486043&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2008" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Allen (2008). Kantian Ethics. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521671149" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521671149"><bdi>978-0521671149</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kantian+Ethics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0521671149&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Allen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmanuel+Kant" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/1312">Works by Immanuel Kant</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kantpapers.org">KantPapers</a>, authors and papers database powered by PhilPapers, focused on Kant, and located at Cornell University</li> <li>At the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantview/">Immanuel Kant: An Overview</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantaest/">Aesthetics</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/k-logic/">Logic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/">Metaphysics</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmind/">Philosophy of Mind</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/kant-rel/">Philosophy of Religion</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/rad-evil/">Radical Evil</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/kant-transcendental-idealism/">Transcendental Idealism</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></li> <li>At the <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/">Immanuel Kant</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-hume-causality/">Kant and Hume on Causality</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-hume-morality/">Kant and Hume on Morality</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-reason/">Kant's Account of Reason</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-aesthetics/">Kant's Aesthetics and Teleology</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" 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href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopédistes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">Enlightened absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumi%C3%A8res" title="Lumières">Lumières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Methodological skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midlands_Enlightenment" title="Midlands Enlightenment">Midlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_Enlightenment" title="Spanish American Enlightenment">Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">Universality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopianism">Utopianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Addison" title="Joseph Addison">Addison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Ashley-Cooper,_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury">Ashley-Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Collins_(philosopher)" title="Anthony Collins (philosopher)">Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pope" title="Alexander Pope">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Reynolds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tindal" title="Matthew Tindal">Tindal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">France</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louis_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson" class="mw-redirect" title="René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson">d'Argenson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Bayle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Chamfort" title="Nicolas Chamfort">Chamfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet" title="Émilie du Châtelet">Châtelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Bonnot_de_Condillac" title="Étienne Bonnot de Condillac">Condillac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Jaucourt" title="Louis de Jaucourt">Jaucourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Bonnot_de_Mably" title="Gabriel Bonnot de Mably">Mably</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Maréchal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gabriel_Morelly" title="Étienne-Gabriel Morelly">Morelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">Quesnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Thomas_Fran%C3%A7ois_Raynal" title="Guillaume Thomas François Raynal">Raynal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geneva</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firmin_Abauzit" title="Firmin Abauzit">Abauzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonnet" title="Charles Bonnet">Bonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Burlamaqui" title="Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui">Burlamaqui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pr%C3%A9vost_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Prévost (physicist)">Prévost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dict_de_Saussure" title="Horace Bénédict de Saussure">Saussure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gotthold_Ephraim_Lessing" title="Gotthold Ephraim Lessing">Lessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Christoph_Lichtenberg" title="Georg Christoph Lichtenberg">Lichtenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Thomasius" title="Christian Thomasius">Thomasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Weishaupt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Martin_Wieland" title="Christoph Martin Wieland">Wieland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_Enlightenment" title="Modern Greek Enlightenment">Greece</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theoklitos_Farmakidis" title="Theoklitos Farmakidis">Farmakidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigas_Feraios" title="Rigas Feraios">Feraios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_Kairis" title="Theophilos Kairis">Kairis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ireland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Toland" title="John Toland">Toland</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Enlightenment" title="Italian Enlightenment">Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Galiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Galvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Genovesi" title="Antonio Genovesi">Genovesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Mario_Pagano" title="Francesco Mario Pagano">Pagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Verri" title="Pietro Verri">Verri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Netherlands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balthasar_Bekker" title="Balthasar Bekker">Bekker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pieter_de_la_Court" title="Pieter de la Court">de la Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Koerbagh" title="Adriaan Koerbagh">Koerbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lodewijk_Meyer" title="Lodewijk Meyer">Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Nieuwentyt" title="Bernard Nieuwentyt">Nieuwentyt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Swammerdam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Poland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Konarski" title="Stanisław Konarski">Konarski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Krasicki" title="Ignacy Krasicki">Krasicki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Ursyn_Niemcewicz" title="Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz">Niemcewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski" title="Stanisław August Poniatowski">Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_%C5%9Aniadecki" title="Jędrzej Śniadecki">Śniadecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic" title="Stanisław Staszic">Staszic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki" title="Józef Wybicki">Wybicki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_de_Carvalho_e_Melo,_1st_Marquis_of_Pombal" title="Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal">Carvalho e Melo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Romania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Budai-Deleanu" title="Ion Budai-Deleanu">Budai-Deleanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petru_Maior" title="Petru Maior">Maior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuil_Micu-Klein" title="Samuil Micu-Klein">Micu-Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_%C8%98incai" title="Gheorghe Șincai">Șincai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_the_Great" title="Catherine the Great">Catherine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin" title="Denis Fonvizin">Fonvizin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_Kantemir" title="Antiochus Kantemir">Kantemir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kheraskov" title="Mikhail Kheraskov">Kheraskov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Novikov" title="Nikolay Novikov">Novikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Radishchev" title="Alexander Radishchev">Radishchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Vorontsova-Dashkova" title="Yekaterina Vorontsova-Dashkova">Vorontsova-Dashkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Serbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dositej_Obradovi%C4%87" title="Dositej Obradović">Obradović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avram_Mrazovi%C4%87" title="Avram Mrazović">Mrazović</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cadalso" title="José Cadalso">Cadalso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain" title="Charles III of Spain">Charles III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Jer%C3%B3nimo_Feij%C3%B3o_y_Montenegro" title="Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro">Feijóo y Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leandro_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Morat%C3%ADn" title="Leandro Fernández de Moratín">Moratín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Melchor_de_Jovellanos" title="Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos">Jovellanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Torres_Villarroel" title="Diego de Torres Villarroel">Villarroel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scotland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(poet)" title="James Beattie (poet)">Beattie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">Boswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Burns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">Cullen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Ferguson" title="Adam Ferguson">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Playfair" title="John Playfair">Playfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Stewart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div><div style="position:relative;"> <div style="position:absolute;right:0;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanticism" title="Template:Romanticism">Romanticism</a> →</div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Category:Age of Enlightenment">Category</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a> (c. 200 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> (c. 80 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a> (c. 50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a> (c. 270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a> (c. 1000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a> (1641)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a> (1710)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a> (1714)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a> (1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a> (1807)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a> (1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a> (1846)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a> (1981)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" 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title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A priori knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">A posteriori knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> (c. 322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> (1726)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> (1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> (1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div> (by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800 1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920 postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970 1990 2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aesthetics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aesthetics" title="Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aesthetics" title="Template talk:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aesthetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_aesthetics" title="Ancient aesthetics">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_aesthetic" title="Internet aesthetic">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a> (c. 390 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (c. 335 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a> (c. 100)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 500)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a> (1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a> (1835)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a> (1934)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" (1935)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jurisprudence" 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norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a> (c. 355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1270)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law without the state">Law without the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_country_legal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="List of country legal systems">Legal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational-legal_authority" title="Rational-legal authority">Rational-legal authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usul_al-Fiqh" class="mw-redirect" title="Usul al-Fiqh">Usul al-Fiqh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_law" title="Category:Philosophy of law">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Liberalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism" title="Template:Liberalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism" title="Template talk:Liberalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism"><abbr title="Edit this 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title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopaedist</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_liberalism" title="Constitutional liberalism">Constitutional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_patriotism" title="Constitutional patriotism">Constitutional patriotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_corporatism" title="Liberal corporatism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geolibertarianism" title="Geolibertarianism">Geolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinilpa#Anti-Chinilpa_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinilpa">Anti-Chinilpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_reformism" title="Centrist reformism">Centrist reformist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">Progressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Philippines)" title="Liberal Party (Philippines)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Czech_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in the Czech lands">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Switzerland" title="Liberalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicals_(UK)" title="Radicals (UK)">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moderates_(Liberal_Party_of_Australia)" title="Moderates (Liberal Party of Australia)">Small-l</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li>Kant</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" 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class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00159992?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=106921">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=55978295100">Scopus</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:kant.immanuel">zbMATH</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xJTpOQ8AAAAJ">Google Scholar</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/97940">MathSciNet</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500107055">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/871df78f-da37-417c-a898-a5de1f9a7ef0">MusicBrainz</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/447563">RKD Artists</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/886004">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118559796.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118559796">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02694507X">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w62r3q53">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&oldid=1258361350">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&oldid=1258361350</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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