Scientists and the Scientific Community | Process of Science

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head>  <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <base href="https://www.visionlearning.com"> <title>Scientists and the Scientific Community | Process of Science | Visionlearning</title> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172"> <meta name="description" content="Discover the human side of science. Learn how science benefits from a diversity of interests and points of view, as well as how personal motivation affects scientific research."> <meta name="keywords" content="What is scientific community, how do scientists meet, human side of science, motivations of scientists"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta name="msvalidate.01" content="D8E20F39AD48052260032E56DE409970"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org/", "@type": "Article", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage", "@id": "https://visionlearning.com/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172" }, "name": "Scientists and the Scientific Community", "headline": "Scientists and the Scientific Community: The experiences that shape scientists", "author": [ { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anthony Carpi, Ph.D." } , { "@type": "Person", "name": "Anne E. Egger, Ph.D." }], "datePublished": "2009-07-10 17:49:23", "dateModified": "2017-02-12T08:30:00+05:00", "image": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_172-23061210061158.jpeg", "width": 696, "height": 464 }, "publisher": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc.", "logo": { "@type": "ImageObject", "url": "http://visionlearning.com/images/logo.png", "width": 278, "height": 60 } }, "description": "Science benefits from diverse interests and different points of view. This module explores at the human side of science. With a look at the unique background and motivations of individual scientists, it is clear how personal experience, varied perspectives, creativity, and even chance contribute to progress in science.", "keywords": "What is scientific community, how do scientists meet, human side of science, motivations of scientists", "inLanguage": { "@type": "Language", "name": "English", "alternateName": "en" }, "copyrightHolder": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "Visionlearning, Inc." }, "copyrightYear": "2009"} </script> <meta property="og:url" content="https://visionlearning.com/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172"> <meta property="og:title" content="Scientists and the Scientific Community | Process of Science | Visionlearning" /> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Visionlearning"> <meta property="og:description" content="Discover the human side of science. 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Atmosphere</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-hazards" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-hazards" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Hazards </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-hazards" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-hazards" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/natural-hazards-and-risk/288">Natural Hazards and Risk</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-history" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-history" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth History </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-history" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-history" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/earth-science/6/extinction/295">Extinction</a></li> <li><a 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href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/biodiversity-i/276">Biodiversity I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/biodiversity-ii/281">Biodiversity II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/ecosystem-services/279">Ecosystem Services</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/population-biology/287">Population Biology</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-earth-cycles" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-earth-cycles" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Earth Cycles </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-earth-cycles" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-earth-cycles" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-nitrogen-cycle/98">The Nitrogen Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-carbon-cycle/95">The Carbon Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/the-phosphorus-cycle/197">The Phosphorus Cycle</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/environmental-science/61/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-general-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-general-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> General Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-general-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-general-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-scientific-method/45">The Scientific Method</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-measurement" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-measurement" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Measurement </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-measurement" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-measurement" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/the-metric-system/47">The Metric System</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physical-properties" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physical-properties" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physical Properties </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physical-properties" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physical-properties" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/temperature/48">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/general-science/3/density-and-buoyancy/37">Density and Buoyancy</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-math-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-math-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Math in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-math-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-math-in-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-equations" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-equations" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Equations </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-equations" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-equations" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/unit-conversion/144">Unit Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/linear-equations/194">Linear Equations</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-i/206">Exponential Equations I</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/exponential-equations-ii/210">Exponential Equations II</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/scientific-notation/250">Scientific Notation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/measurement/257">Measurement</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-statistics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-statistics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Statistics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-statistics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-statistics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-descriptive-statistics/218">Introduction to Descriptive Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/introduction-to-inferential-statistics/224">Introduction to Inferential Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/statistical-techniques/239">Statistical Techniques</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Trigonometric Functions </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-trigonometric-functions" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-trigonometric-functions" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/math-in-science/62/wave-mathematics/131">Wave Mathematics</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-physics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-physics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Physics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-physics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-physics" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-light-and-optics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-light-and-optics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Light and Optics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-light-and-optics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-light-and-optics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/the-nature-of-light/132">The Nature of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/electromagnetism-and-light/138">Electromagnetism and Light</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-mechanics" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-mechanics" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Mechanics </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-mechanics" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-mechanics" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/defining-energy/199">Defining Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/waves-and-wave-motion/102">Waves and Wave Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/gravity/118">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/physics/24/thermodynamics-i/200">Thermodynamics I</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-process-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-process-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Process of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-process-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-process-of-science" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li class="current">Scientists and the Scientific Community</li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181">Scientific Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientists and Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientists-and-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientists-and-research" role="region"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-scientific-research" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-scientific-research" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Research </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-scientific-research" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-scientific-research" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/collaborative-research-in-the-arctic-towards-understanding-climate-change/183">Collaborative Research in the Arctic Towards Understanding Climate Change</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/from-stable-chromosomes-to-jumping-genes/184">From Stable Chromosomes to Jumping Genes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/an-elegant-experiment-to-test-the-process-of-dna-replication/187">An Elegant Experiment to Test the Process of DNA Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/the-founding-of-neuroscience/233">The Founding of Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/tracking-endangered-jaguars-across-the-border/189">Tracking Endangered Jaguars across the Border</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/atmospheric-chemistry-research-that-changed-global-policy/211">Atmospheric Chemistry Research that Changed Global Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/revolutionizing-medicine-with-monoclonal-antibodies/220">Revolutionizing Medicine with Monoclonal Antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/uncovering-the-mysteries-of-chronic-mountain-sickness/238">Uncovering the Mysteries of Chronic Mountain Sickness</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Profiles in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-profiles-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-profiles-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-e.-miramontes/232">Luis E. Miramontes</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/bernardo-houssay/237">Bernardo Houssay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/craig-lee/256">Craig Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/david-ho/241">David Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/louis-tompkins-wright/244">Louis Tompkins Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/carlos-j.-finlay/217">Carlos J. Finlay</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/cecilia-payne/290">Cecilia Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/jazmin-scarlett/291">Jazmin Scarlett</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ramari-stewart/292">Ramari Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/johnson-cerda/300">Johnson Cerda</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ellen-ochoa/201">Ellen Ochoa</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/ruth-benerito/205">Ruth Benerito</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/franklin-chang-díaz/219">Franklin Chang Díaz</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/percy-lavon-julian/221">Percy Lavon Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/luis-walter-alvarez/229">Luis Walter Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/scientists-and-research/58/france-anne-dominic-córdova/230">France Anne-Dominic Córdova</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li>  <button class="button" data-toggle="dropdown">Process of Science </button> <div class="nav__dropdown box-shadow-1 padding-1"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary font-size-sm"> <div class="accordion accordion--secondary"> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-introduction" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-introduction" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Introduction </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-introduction" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-introduction" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-process-of-science/176">The Process of Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-the-culture-of-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> The Culture of Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-the-culture-of-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-the-culture-of-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-nature-of-scientific-knowledge/185">The Nature of Scientific Knowledge</a></li> <li class="current">Scientists and the Scientific Community</li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-ethics/161">Scientific Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-institutions-and-societies/162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-ideas-in-science" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Ideas in Science </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-ideas-in-science" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-ideas-in-science" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/theories-hypotheses-and-laws/177">Theories, Hypotheses, and Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/scientific-controversy/181">Scientific Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/creativity-in-science/182">Creativity in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-research-methods" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-research-methods" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Research Methods </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-research-methods" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-research-methods" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-practice-of-science/148">The Practice of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/experimentation-in-scientific-research/150">Experimentation in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/description-in-scientific-research/151">Description in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/comparison-in-scientific-research/152">Comparison in Scientific Research</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/modeling-in-scientific-research/153">Modeling in Scientific Research</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-data" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-data" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Data </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-data" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-data" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/data-analysis-and-interpretation/154">Data Analysis and Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/uncertainty-error-and-confidence/157">Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/statistics-in-science/155">Statistics in Science</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/using-graphs-and-visual-data-in-science/156">Using Graphs and Visual Data in Science</a></li> </ul> </div> <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-sub-button-scientific-communication" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-sub-panel-scientific-communication" aria-expanded="false"> <span class="accordion__button__label"> Scientific Communication </span> </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-sub-panel-scientific-communication" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-sub-button-scientific-communication" role="region"> <ul class="nav text-color-link"> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/understanding-scientific-journals-and-articles/158">Understanding Scientific Journals and Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/utilizing-the-scientific-literature/173">Utilizing the Scientific Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/peer-review-in-scientific-publishing/159">Peer Review in Scientific Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/en/library/process-of-science/49/the-how-and-why-of-scientific-meetings/186">The How and Why of Scientific Meetings</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="theTop"></div> <main id="skip-header-content"> <div class="margin-bottom-5"> <article class="container wide module"> <header class="grid grid--sidebar-right module__header"> <div class="module__header__title"> <span class="subcategory"> <strong><em>The Culture of Science</em></strong> </span> <h1>Scientists and the Scientific Community: <sub><em>The experiences that shape scientists</em></sub></h1> <p class="byline">by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D., Anne E. Egger, Ph.D.</p> <nav class="module__header__tabs"> <ul class="tabs-nav tabs-nav--horizontal library"> <li> <a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172/reading" aria-current="page" >Reading</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172/quiz">Quiz</a> </li> <li> <a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172/resources">Teach with this</a> </li> </ul> </nav> </div> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "AudioObject", "contentUrl": "https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_172.mp3", "description": "Recording of Scientists and the Scientific Community : Science benefits from diverse interests and different points of view. This module explores at the human side of science. With a look at the unique background and motivations of individual scientists, it is clear how personal experience, varied perspectives, creativity, and even chance contribute to progress in science.", "encodingFormat": "mp3", "name": "module_172.mp3" } </script> <div class="module_header_audio"> <div class="audio-player border border-radius"> <audio id="audio"> <source src="https://www.visionlearning.com/img/library/moduleAudio/module_172.mp3" type="audio/mpeg"> Your browser does not support the audio element. </audio> <div class="audio-player__title"> <p>Listen to this reading</p> <span class="audio-player__timestamp" id="timestamp"> 00:00 </span> </div> <div class="audio-player__controls" id="controls"> <button class="button button--icon-only" id="play-pause-button"> <span class="icon icon-play" aria-hidden="true"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__progress" id="progress-bar" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="0" aria-label="Use arrow keys to forward or rewind the audio" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__progress__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> <div class="audio-player__volume-container"> <button id="mute-button"> <span class="icon icon-volume"></span> </button> <div class="audio-player__volume" tabindex="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100" aria-valuenow="100" aria-label="Use arrow keys to adjust volume" role="slider"> <div class="audio-player__volume__fill"> <span class="audio-player__thumb"></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <hr class="divider"/>   <div class="grid grid--sidebar-right grid--divider"> <div class="order-2 order-1--lg module__main"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto margin-y-5"> <div class="accordion margin-bottom-5">  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-key-concepts" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-key-concepts" aria-expanded="true" tabindex="0"> Did you know? </button> <div class="accordion__panel shown show" id="acc-panel-key-concepts" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-key-concepts" role="region"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <p>Did you know that while the personal interests of scientists may seem to have nothing to do with science, the opposite is true? The process of understanding and explaining the natural world is a very human endeavor. As such, it can be influenced by a scientist's cultural outlook, personal challenges, and even hobbies.</p> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-table-of-contents" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-table-of-contents" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Key concepts </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-table-of-contents" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-table-of-contents" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <ul class="bulleted"> <li><p>Science is a human endeavor. It benefits from the creativity, curiosity, and diligence of individual scientists, and is also subject to human error.</p></li> <li><p>Scientists are diverse in many ways, and their personal experiences – including cultures, backgrounds, and chance – influence the paths they follow.</p></li> <li><p>Scientists benefit from mentoring and collaboration, working in communities within, or across, institutions and disciplines.</p></li> </ul> </div> </div>  <button class="accordion__button" id="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="button" aria-controls="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0"> Terms you should know </button> <div class="accordion__panel" id="acc-panel-terms-you-should-know" data-accordion="panel" aria-labelledby="acc-button-terms-you-should-know" role="region" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="accordion__panel__content"> <dl> <dt>collaboration </dt> <dd> working together </dd> <dt>diverse </dt> <dd> different from each other </dd> <dt>mentor (noun) </dt> <dd> a person who teaches, coaches, or guides someone who is less experienced or less knowledgeable </dd> <dt>mentor (verb) </dt> <dd> to teach or guide a less experienced person</dd> </dl> </div> </div> </div> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <section> <div class="container narrow"> <p>On July 7, 2007, the Live Earth concerts took place on all continents. The global event was meant to promote awareness of a "climate in crisis" and featured a range of musical performers, from the Police and Madonna to Kanye West and the Black Eyed Peas, playing at venues around the world. Perhaps the least heralded performance was by the indie rock band Nunatak, who played to a sold-out crowd of 17 people – all of the current residents at the Rothera Research Station on Adelaide Island, Antarctica, one of the most remote places on the planet (Figure 1). The performance was taped and later broadcast to millions of people.</p> <div class="figure"><figure> <a href="https://www.visionlearning.com/images/figure-images/172-a-2x.jpg" title="<strong>Figure 1:</strong> The Rothera Research Station on Adelaide Island."> <span class="fa fa-search-plus"></span> <img src="https://www.visionlearning.com/images/figure-images/172-a.jpg" alt="The Rothera Research Station"> </a> <figcaption><strong>Figure 1:</strong> The Rothera Research Station on Adelaide Island. <span class="credit">image © Dconnor9</span></figcaption> </figure></div> <p>What does this have to do with science? Actually, it has everything to do with science. The band Nunatak consists entirely of scientists and researchers stationed at Rothera: Matt Balmer, an electronics engineer and the lead vocalist; Alison Massey, a marine biologist and saxophonist; Rob Webster, a meteorologist and drummer; Tris Thorne, a communications engineer and violinist; and Roger Stilwell, a <mark class="term" data-term="polar" data-term-def="Carrying an electrical charge." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/polar/8730">polar</mark> guide and bass guitarist. As scientists, they were each conducting <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> on Adelaide Island in 2007. As people who happen to be scientists, however, they are also musicians, and musicians with an interest in promoting awareness of <mark class="term" data-term="climate" data-term-def="Climate describes the average and patterns of a particular area’s weather over time. Climate includes such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/climate/9334">climate</mark> change. Participating in Live Earth was a natural outgrowth of their personal and professional interests.</p> <p>We often forget the human side of scientists, that they are people who, in addition to their professional labels like professor, physicist, or researcher, also have personal labels like musician, cook, hiker, or parent. At first glance, these personal pursuits may seem irrelevant to the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of science. In fact, the opposite is true – science benefits from the creativity and interests of a diverse group of individuals who bring many different points of view to the table. Individual scientists bring all of the strengths and weaknesses of humans to their profession, from creativity in problem solving to the failures of judgment that create problems. But science could not exist without these unique contributions. Individual scientists are influenced by their personal experiences, mentoring, and collaboration, chance events, their diverse perspectives, and their personal judgment. The role of each of these influences is explored in more detail below.</p> <p><section id="toc_1" class=""> <h2>The influence of personal experience</h2></p> <p>We often think of scientists as people who must be completely removed from emotion in order to perform their work. Indeed, scientists try to remain objective to the <mark class="term" data-term="outcome" data-term-def="Result." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/outcome/8247">outcomes</mark> of the <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> they undertake, but their personal experiences, interests, and background often contribute to the research topics that they pursue. For example, in 2007, Dr. Stefanie Raymond-Whish and several of her colleagues at Northern Arizona University published a paper entitled "Drinking Water with Uranium below the U.S. EPA Water Standard Causes Estrogen Receptor–Dependent Responses in Female Mice." In the paper, they describe a series of <mark class="term" data-term="experiment" data-term-def="A test or trial carried out under controlled conditions so that specific actions can be performed and the results can be observed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/experiment/8292">experiments</mark> in which female mice were exposed to elevated levels of uranium in their drinking water. They found that the mice experienced physical changes similar to those they undergo in response to the <mark class="term" data-term="hormone" data-term-def="A chemical compound that is secreted from a gland directly into the blood that acts as a chemical messenger to tissues&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hormone/10183">hormone</mark> estrogen.</p><p>Raymond-Whish's personal interest in this topic had nothing to do with mice. She was motivated to conduct this <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> for other reasons: As a member of the Navajo tribe and resident of the Four Corners region of the Navajo reservation, she and her family had long experienced elevated levels of uranium in their drinking water due to the presence of numerous unreclaimed uranium mines and mills. Her grandmother had died of breast cancer, and her mother had been diagnosed with the disease and survived. She knew that some forms of breast cancer had been linked with high doses of estrogen. Raymond-Whish began her work on mice in order to <mark class="term" data-term="Test" data-term-def="This is a test glossary term." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Test/12984">test</mark> the <mark class="term" data-term="hypothesis" data-term-def="From the Greek word <em>hypothesis</em> meaning assumption or the basis of an argument, a hypothesis is a proposal intended to explain&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hypothesis/3727">hypothesis</mark> that higher-than-normal breast cancer rates among residents of the Four Corners were related to uranium in the drinking water – a hypothesis intimately connected to her personal experiences.</p><p>Other scientists come to investigate <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> questions as new experiences present themselves. For example, Dr. Adam Sylvester is an anthropologist whose research focuses on the origins of bipedalism in <mark class="term" data-term="hominid" data-term-def="A member of the Hominidae family of erect bipedal primates, which includes modern humans along with our extinct ancestors and related forms." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/hominid/11406">hominids</mark>, or how humans came to walk upright (Sylvester, 2006). While working on his PhD dissertation, he attended a meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists and was interested in a research poster he saw there. The authors compared the thickness of cortical bone (the <mark class="term" data-term="dense" data-term-def="Compact, packed close together; having a high mass in relation to volume." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/dense/8273">dense</mark>, outer layer of all bones that gives them strength) in the hands and fingers of the great apes and humans, and found that apes have thicker cortical bone in their hands than humans, possibly a result of the <mark class="term" data-term="mechanical" data-term-def="Involving physical force or motion." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mechanical/8516">mechanical</mark> stress associated with knuckle-walking and tree climbing. </p><p>Sylvester, an avid rock climber in addition to an anthropologist, began to wonder if climbers might also have thicker cortical bone in their fingers as a result of the <mark class="term" data-term="mechanical" data-term-def="Involving physical force or motion." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/mechanical/8516">mechanical</mark> stress put on them. He knew that there was a tremendous amount of <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> on the response of bone to mechanical stress, but the mechanisms causing this response were not well understood. From this poster, he was inspired to initiate a study of the hand bones of recreational rock climbers as compared to non-climbers, the factors that might contribute to changes in cortical thickness and strength, and whether these changes had any negative impacts on the hand joints (Sylvester, Christensen, & Kramer, 2006). Through measuring bone strength and width of 4 bones in the hands of 27 recreational rock climbers and 35 non-climbers, the research team found that the climbers did have larger hand bones with greater cortical thickness than non-climbers, but they are at no greater risk of joint problems like osteoarthritis. Sylvester's combination of personal and professional interests led him to think creatively about his research, resulting in a study that contributed to our understanding of stress response in athletes.</p><div class="figure"><figure> <a href="https://www.visionlearning.com/images/figure-images/172-b-2x.jpg" title="<strong>Figure 2:</strong> Gregor Mendel."> <span class="fa fa-search-plus"></span> <img src="https://www.visionlearning.com/images/figure-images/172-b.jpg" alt="placeholder"> </a> <figcaption><strong>Figure 2:</strong> Gregor Mendel.</figcaption> </figure></div><p>Even those scientists whose personal experiences do not consciously affect their choice of <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> are influenced by their background and upbringing. For example, most school children learn that <mark class="term" data-term="Gregor Mendel" data-term-def="Austrian Augustinian monk and scientist born in Heizendorf (now Hynice, Chech Republic) (1822-1884). In 1865, Mendel wrote <i>Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybride (Treatises&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Mendel%2C+Gregor/4509">Gregor Mendel</mark> was an Austrian monk who studied <mark class="term" data-term="heredity" data-term-def="The passing of genetic traits from parent to offspring." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/heredity/8287">heredity</mark> in pea plants (Figure 2). However, few of us learn any details of Mendel's life, resulting in a common misconception of Mendel as an isolated monk and scientist who happened upon pea plants as a research <mark class="term" data-term="subject" data-term-def="A person or animal used in a research study." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/subject/8252">subject</mark> by chance. But this is far from true. </p><p>Gregor Mendel was born in 1822 in a small village named Hynčice in what is now the Czech Republic. His father was a peasant farmer who raised crops to feed his family and sell for a small profit. As the only son, Gregor was expected to take up his father's profession in farming. However, Mendel demonstrated an early interest and aptitude in school, particularly in <mark class="term" data-term="natural history" data-term-def="The sciences dealing with the study of all objects in nature; used more commonly in the 18th and 19th centuries to&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/natural+history/5271">natural history</mark>. So instead of farming, he went on to study physics, mathematics, and logic at the Philosophical Institute at Olomouc, a prominent college at one of the oldest universities in the Czech Republic. Mendel's family could not afford to pay for his tuition, and financial hardship eventually forced him to withdraw from university.</p> <div class="figure"> <figure> <button class="lightbox-button lightbox-button--icon" data-lightbox="" data-lightbox-src="/img/library/large_images/image_13792.jpeg"> <img src="/img/library/modules/mid172/Image/VLObject13792-24102509104802.jpeg" alt="Figure 3: The monastery of St. Thomas at Brno with a picture of Mendel's gardens." /> </button> <figcaption> <p><strong>Figure 3:</strong> The monastery of St. Thomas at Brno with a picture of Mendel's gardens.</p> <span class="credit">image ©Public Domain</span> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <p>Several of Mendel's teachers recognized potential in the young man and suggested he apply to the Augustinian monastery of St. Thomas at Brno to continue his studies (Figure 3). He was not a particularly religious man, but the monastery was well known as a center for <mark class="term" data-term="learning" data-term-def="The influence of action based off individual experience over time." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/learning/13154">learning</mark> in the natural sciences and agriculture due in part to the influence of a scholarly abbot named Cyrill Napp, the monastery's administrator. Abbot Napp was fascinated with understanding <mark class="term" data-term="breeding" data-term-def="The production of offspring; the propagation of plants or animals by sexual means." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/breeding/8291">breeding</mark> better, particularly the role of <mark class="term" data-term="inheritance" data-term-def="The transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/inheritance/8294">inheritance</mark> in economically important farm animals and plants, and he quickly recognized Mendel's potential as a scholar. </p><p>Mendel brought an aptitude for science and experience in farming to the monastery, where he had access to land, greenhouses, and guidance from a mentor interested in making farming more profitable. Napp even provided financial support for Mendel's education, at one point commenting, "I shall not grudge any requisite expense for the furtherance of his training" (Orel & Wood, 2000). When viewed in the context of events and circumstances in his life, Mendel's work on <mark class="term" data-term="heredity" data-term-def="The passing of genetic traits from parent to offspring." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/heredity/8287">heredity</mark> in pea plants (a crop of enormous economic importance then as well as today) is more than just an intellectual exercise – it was fundamentally influenced by his background, culture, and the economics of the time.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6012"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">When it comes to research topics, scientists</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6012-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6012" type="radio" value="often investigate topics that relate to their personal experiences, interests, and hobbies." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> often investigate topics that relate to their personal experiences, interests, and hobbies. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6012-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6012-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6012" type="radio" value="must choose topics from a list provided by the government or a university." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> must choose topics from a list provided by the government or a university. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6012-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_2"> <h2>The influence of mentoring and collaboration</h2><p>Mendel could not have done his work without the guidance and mentorship of Abbott Napp. In fact, an essential part of graduate education in the sciences (and an increasingly important part of undergraduate education in science) is strongly mentored <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>. Students work with an established scientist for a period of time, <mark class="term" data-term="learning" data-term-def="The influence of action based off individual experience over time." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/learning/13154">learning</mark> how to collect reliable <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> in their discipline, training in specialized laboratory or computer <mark class="term" data-term="analysis" data-term-def="The careful study of data to look for patterns." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/analysis/8553">analysis</mark> procedures, studying data analysis techniques, and gaining experience in many other aspects of science. These skills are difficult to convey in a classroom, and science relies on the personal interaction between mentor and student for passing on not only knowledge, but skills and techniques. In fact, scientists often speak of their scientific "families" in the same way they refer to their real families – students who work with an advisor at the same time are like siblings, and their advisor is like a parent.</p><p>Mentoring has always been a part of science. While this might be easy to imagine now, we often have a hard time thinking about the mentoring <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> when looking back at famous scientists. In addition to Abbott Napp, Mendel worked with a number of scientists at the nearby Brno Philosophical Institute who played a significant role in mentoring him and collaborating with him. He studied under Franz Diebl, a respected expert in agriculture and a teacher of natural science who published several <mark class="term" data-term="manuscript" data-term-def="An article or other document submitted or considered for publication." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/manuscript/8245">manuscripts</mark> on plant <mark class="term" data-term="breeding" data-term-def="The production of offspring; the propagation of plants or animals by sexual means." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/breeding/8291">breeding</mark>. Diebl described a technique for the artificial fertilization of plants, which Mendel read about and later utilized. The technique involved using a small paintbrush to cross-pollinate plants while snipping off the <mark class="term" data-term="anther" data-term-def="Male part of a flowering plant that holds pollen." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/anther/3298">anthers</mark> of the plants to prevent natural pollination.</p><p>Mendel also worked closely with F. Matthew Klácel, a fellow Augustinian monk who held an appointment as a professor of philosophy and managed the experimental garden at the monastery. Klácel recognized that new plant and animal <mark class="term" data-term="species" data-term-def="1. In biological classifications, it is the lowest and most basic unit of the Linnaean taxonomic hierarchy (although it is also&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/species/893">species</mark> that resulted from agricultural (in other words, artificial) crosses were <mark class="term" data-term="evidence" data-term-def="Support for an idea, opinion, or hypothesis." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/evidence/8243">evidence</mark> for the concept of change in <mark class="term" data-term="organism" data-term-def="Any connected living system, such as an animal, plant, fungus, or bacterium. Organisms may be composed of a single cell or&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/organism/2171">organisms</mark>. This idea contradicted a then-popular view called <mark class="term" data-term="Fixity of Species" data-term-def="An idea popular among 16th and 17th century European zoologists and botanists that reflected Western religion and the story of creation&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Fixity+of+Species/4763">Fixity of Species</mark>, which stated that organisms were unchanging and had appeared on Earth in their current form at the time of creation. The concept of change in organisms was in its infancy when Mendel began his work with peas in 1856; in fact, <mark class="term" data-term="Charles Darwin" data-term-def="English naturalist and geologist born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire (1809-1882). While serving as naturalist aboard HMS Beagle, Darwin developed his theory of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Darwin%2C+Charles/4507">Charles Darwin</mark>'s landmark book <em>Origin of Species</em> would not be published until 1859 (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=110">Charles Darwin I: The Origin of Species</a> module for more information). If organisms did not change over time, as the Fixity of Species idea held, there would be no reason to look at patterns of <mark class="term" data-term="inheritance" data-term-def="The transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/inheritance/8294">inheritance</mark> in organisms. Thus, the unconventional views of Klácel and others strongly influenced Mendel's work.</p><p>Collaboration remains a critical aspect of science today, maybe even more so than in Mendel's day because of the complexity and scope of questions scientists study. When Adam Sylvester, the physical anthropologist, became interested in the effects of rock climbing on bone size, he knew he needed some additional expertise and knowledge, so he turned to two colleagues for collaboration. One was Dr. Angi Christensen, an FBI scientist who had been a fellow graduate student at the University of Tennessee – they shared the same mentor. Dr. Christensen was also a friend and forensic anthropologist with expertise in comparing <mark class="term" data-term="X-ray" data-term-def="A form of electromagnetic radiation with higher frequency and energy than any other electromagnetic radiation besides gamma rays. X-rays have various&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/X~ray/7573">x-rays</mark> of human bones to individualize skeletal remains. Thus, in their study, the <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> collected from <mark class="term" data-term="subject" data-term-def="A person or animal used in a research study." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/subject/8252">subjects</mark> consisted of x-rays of their hands, from which the authors measured and compared bone size. The two also sought out Dr. Patricia Kramer, an anthropologist who studies macaque monkeys as a <mark class="term" data-term="model" data-term-def="A representation, pattern, or mathematical description that can help scientists replicate a system." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/model/8236">model</mark> to understand the origins and progression of osteoarthritis in humans. The addition of her expertise to the team allowed the researchers to make predictions about the effect of the bone changes they observed on the <mark class="term" data-term="development" data-term-def="The gradual exposure to stimuli in the early-developmental stages that influences the size, shape, and function of animal once mature." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/development/13147">development</mark> of joint diseases in these individuals. Their combined areas of expertise made for a productive collaboration that resulted in the publication of a peer-reviewed journal article. For more information on this article, see the reading guide titled <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=175">Bone Changes in Rock Climbers</a>.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6013"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">New scientists</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6013-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6013" type="radio" value="develop better skills and techniques if they work alone, provided that their school has a specialized laboratory." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> develop better skills and techniques if they work alone, provided that their school has a specialized laboratory. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6013-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6013-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6013" type="radio" value="learn skills and techniques through mentoring that cannot be taught only in a classroom." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> learn skills and techniques through mentoring that cannot be taught only in a classroom. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6013-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> <p>Though we tend to laud individual scientists for their achievements, it is the rare case that individuals make great achievements without collaborating with other scientists. Scientists constantly work with collaborators at their own institutions and with fellow researchers across the world. In fact, one of the roles of scientific societies is to foster collaboration and improve communication between scientists to facilitate scientific progress (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=162">Scientific Institutions and Societies</a> module).</p></section> <section id="toc_3"> <h2>The influence of chance and luck</h2><p>Because we see only the final results of scientific <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark>, it is easy to believe that scientists pursue their research along well-planned and precise pathways. In reality, however, most scientists' paths are constantly changing based on their evolving interests, the <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> they collect, their interactions with others, and even serendipity.</p><p>In 1997, Mark Erdmann, a marine biology graduate student, was wandering through an Indonesian fish market with his wife on their honeymoon. She pointed out a strange-looking fish that she had never seen before, and Mark immediately recognized it as a coelacanth – a rare fish that closely resembles <mark class="term" data-term="fossil" data-term-def="The preserved impression or remains of an animal or plant whose living tissue has been replaced by minerals." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/fossil/8558">fossils</mark> from 400 million years ago (Figure 4). Their fish market find proved an important scientific discovery as it was only the second known living <mark class="term" data-term="population" data-term-def="In biology, the population is all individuals of a certain kind of plant or animal that live in a particular habitat.&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/population/8283">population</mark> of coelacanths.</p><div class="figure"><figure> <a href="https://www.visionlearning.com/images/figure-images/172-d-2x.jpg" title="<strong>Figure 4:</strong> A coelacanth."> <span class="fa fa-search-plus"></span> <img src="https://www.visionlearning.com/images/figure-images/172-d.jpg" alt="placeholder"> </a> <figcaption><strong>Figure 4:</strong> A coelacanth.</figcaption> </figure></div><p>While chance played a big role in this discovery, it was not random or haphazard. Erdmann's interest in marine biology was one of the reasons he was at the fish market in the first place. <mark class="term" data-term="Louis Pasteur" data-term-def="A French chemist and biologist, born in Dole, France (1822-1895). Pasteur founded the science of microbiology and proved that microorganisms cause&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Pasteur%2C+Louis/4468">Louis Pasteur</mark>, the French microbiologist, notoriously said, "Chance favors the prepared mind," and he could not have been more correct. Erdmann recognized <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> that was relevant to his interests when he saw it, even though it may not have been obvious to someone else without Erdmann's expertise.</p><p>Likewise, most scientists understand that unexpected <mark class="term" data-term="outcome" data-term-def="Result." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/outcome/8247">outcomes</mark> can be significant discoveries in and of themselves, and they are prepared to accept and investigate these occurrences. In 1981, Brian MacMahon, an epidemiologist at Harvard University, came across one such unexpected outcome. He and his colleagues had set out to determine if alcohol or tobacco increased the risk of pancreatic cancer. They asked 369 patients with pancreatic cancer and 644 <mark class="term" data-term="control" data-term-def="In science, a control is a system for which the expected change or outcome is well known and is measured or&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/control/3801">control</mark> patients to complete a survey about their lifestyle habits. The researchers did not find any significant relationships between drinking or smoking and pancreatic cancer. However, their results indicated that survey respondents who had pancreatic cancer were more likely to drink coffee – a relationship they weren't even investigating (MacMahon et al., 1981). </p><p>MacMahon pursued the potential link between coffee and pancreatic cancer for many years, and he even stated in an interview that he had given up drinking coffee (Schmeck, 1981). But just because a scientist pursues a <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> question does not mean that the results will be significant. After more than two decades and 25 published studies of research on the connections between coffee-drinking and pancreatic cancer, the question was resolved. Dominique Michaud, a researcher at the National Cancer Institute, and her colleagues showed that there is in fact no causative link between coffee consumption and pancreatic cancer (Michaud et al., 2001). The <mark class="term" data-term="correlation" data-term-def="Correlation, as measured by the correlation coefficient, provides a measure of the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/correlation/3912">correlation</mark> that MacMahon and colleagues had originally seen was likely due to confounding factors, such as diet, for which they had not controlled in their original study.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6016"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">Unexpected outcomes</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6016-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6016" type="radio" value="can lead to major discoveries." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> can lead to major discoveries. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6016-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6016-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6016" type="radio" value="indicate a research mistake." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> indicate a research mistake. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6016-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_4"> <h2>The influence of diversity</h2><p>You might be discouraged looking at a list of famous scientists – <mark class="term" data-term="Nobel Prize" data-term-def="Awards made annually, beginning in 1901, from funds originally established by Alfred B. Nobel for outstanding achievement in physics, chemistry, medicine&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/Nobel+Prize/3843">Nobel Prize</mark> winners, for example, or members of the National Academy of Sciences. These groups are dominated by men, mostly European and American, mostly white. But look at the membership of any scientific <mark class="term" data-term="society" data-term-def="A group of people who belong to an organization that has been formed because of shared interest in a specific field." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/society/8249">society</mark> today, and you will see something much different, and much more diverse. Gender, race, and culture all influence a person as a scientist, but they don't have to stand in the way of anyone becoming a scientist.</p><p>In fact, science benefits from a diversity of backgrounds and perspectives. One of the disciplines where gender has played a big role is primate anthropology. Through the 1960s, the family groups of several <mark class="term" data-term="species" data-term-def="1. In biological classifications, it is the lowest and most basic unit of the Linnaean taxonomic hierarchy (although it is also&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/species/893">species</mark> of primates were described in the literature as male-dominated, and females of the species were passive and dependent on their more aggressive male counterparts. The authors of these journal articles were all men; in fact, not a single woman received a PhD in the United States in anthropology in the 1960s. </p><p>In 1973, Jane Lancaster, an anthropologist who received her PhD at the University of California at Berkeley while studying primate communication, published the article <em>In praise of the achieving female monkey</em> (Lancaster, 1973). The piece proposed a radical notion at the time: that female monkeys could do anything that male monkeys could. Thelma Rowell, a primate biologist, would show that it was female baboons – not males – that determined the route that groups took in their day-to-day foraging (Rowell, 1972). The biological anthropologist Shirley Strum showed that a male baboon's investment in developing relationships with females was more important in terms of reproductive success than the male's rank in the group (Strum, 1974). As more and more women entered the field of anthropology, they continued to challenge the traditional stereotypes of primate behavior (Schiebinger, 2000). Today, largely as a result of the contribution of women in the field, scientists recognize that females provide the social stability in baboon culture while males move from group to group.</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6018"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">All scientists who study the same subject arrive at the same conclusions.</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6018-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6018" type="radio" value="true" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> true </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6018-0"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6018-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6018" type="radio" value="false" > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> false </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6018-1"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_5"> <h2>The influence of mistakes and misjudgment</h2><p>Of course, with all the benefits of individuals – our creativity, our diversity, and our ability to capitalize on serendipity – come our downfalls. We can make mistakes. In the mid-1960s, Nikolai Fedyakin, a Soviet physicist working at a laboratory in Kostroma, Russia, observed that water that had condensed in narrow <mark class="term" data-term="quartz" data-term-def="A common mineral compound made of silica." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/quartz/8524">quartz</mark> tubes appeared to exhibit peculiar properties, including a very high <mark class="term" data-term="viscosity" data-term-def="The measurement of a fluid's resistance to shear or flow. Highly viscous fluids resist motion due to their molecular composition that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/viscosity/7995">viscosity</mark> similar to that of syrup. Other Soviet scientists heard of the work and reproduced the strange <mark class="term" data-term="fluid" data-term-def="Able to flow because the intermolecular forces allow the molecules to move around in relation to one another. Both liquids and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/fluid/8724">fluid</mark>, publishing their findings in science journals (Lippincott, Stromberg, Grant, & Cessac, 1969). The strange form of water was thought to be a rare, polymerized form in which individual <mark class="term" data-term="molecule" data-term-def="A particle formed by the chemical bonding of two or more atoms. The molecule is the smallest particle of a&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/molecule/1518">molecules</mark> bonded together to form long chains that impeded flow, and the new substance was thus nicknamed polywater. By the late 1960s, polywater had ignited a scientific uproar – while some scientists were able to reproduce the results, others could not.</p><p>In the early 1970s, Denis Rousseau, a <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> scientist who was working at the Bell Laboratories at the time, used infrared <mark class="term" data-term="spectroscopy" data-term-def="The study of the interaction of radiation (electromagnetic or particle radiation) and matter. An analytical technology used for the identification of&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/spectroscopy/4758">spectroscopy</mark> to show that polywater was not a new form of water. It was just plain water that was contaminated because of dirty glassware and was similar in composition to human sweat (Rousseau & Porto, 1970). Fedyakin made an honest, and very human, mistake – his <mark class="term" data-term="observation" data-term-def="1. The act of noticing something. 2. A record of that which has been noticed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/observation/8255">observations</mark> were real, and he was able to reproduce the results; however, he came to the wrong conclusions about his findings. While individuals make mistakes, however, the collective community of scientists corrects those mistakes by repeating <mark class="term" data-term="experiment" data-term-def="A test or trial carried out under controlled conditions so that specific actions can be performed and the results can be observed." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/experiment/8292">experiments</mark> and looking further into reported phenomena, as Rousseau did (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=161#mistakes">Scientific Ethics</a> module for more on this topic). This review and <mark class="term" data-term="replication" data-term-def="In science, quality research studies are designed such that the exact procedures and methods followed by the scientists are clear and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/replication/3730">replication</mark> is an essential component of the <mark class="term" data-term="process" data-term-def="Method, procedure; series of actions or steps." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/process/8256">process</mark> of science that ensures that scientific knowledge is reliable.</p><p>In addition to making mistakes, scientists are also capable of outright deception. For example, Woo Suk Hwang, a researcher at Seoul National University, and a group of South Korean and American collaborators published a paper in 2004 stating that they had created the first-ever human embryonic stem <mark class="term" data-term="cell" data-term-def="The basic structural unit of all living things." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/cell/8286">cell</mark> lines that matched the <mark class="term" data-term="DNA" data-term-def="Deoxyribonucleic acid. A double-stranded nucleic acid containing the sugar 2-deoxy-D-ribose. A constituent of cellular nuclear material responsible for encoding&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/DNA/1604">DNA</mark> of patients (Hwang et al., 2004). The work was hailed a landmark triumph, and the journal that published the paper, <em>Science</em>, considered naming the <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> one of their "Breakthroughs of the Year" for 2005. However, after anonymous allegations of <mark class="term" data-term="data" data-term-def="(plural form of <b>datum</b>) A collection of pieces of information, generally taking the form of numbers, text, bits, or facts, that&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/data/3729">data</mark> irregularities appeared on a South Korean website, the paper underwent intense scrutiny and was later discredited and withdrawn from the journal. Follow-up investigation has suggested that the researchers participated in fraud by fabricating much of the data that was reported in the <mark class="term" data-term="manuscript" data-term-def="An article or other document submitted or considered for publication." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/manuscript/8245">manuscript</mark>.</p><p>Very few scientists perpetrate fraud, just as few people engage in fraudulent behavior in their lives and careers (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=161">Scientific Ethics</a> module for more on the topic). But as with mistakes, the scientific community helps discover and correct fraud through the processes of <mark class="term" data-term="replication" data-term-def="In science, quality research studies are designed such that the exact procedures and methods followed by the scientists are clear and&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/replication/3730">replication</mark>, open publication, collaboration, and <mark class="term" data-term="peer review" data-term-def="The process of subjecting scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field&hellip;" data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/peer+review/4761">peer review</mark> (see our <a href="/library/module_viewer.php?mid=159">Peer Review</a> module).</p> <div class="comprehension-checkpoint margin-y-4"> <h6 class="comprehension-checkpoint__header"> <span> <span class="icon icon-question"></span> </span> Comprehension Checkpoint </h6> <form class="" name="cc6019"> <div class="form-entry"> <div class="form-entry__field"> <span class="form-entry__field__label">There can be mistakes and even fraud in science. Faulty research is most often detected by</span> <div class="form-entry__option"> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="correct"> <label> <input id="q1-6019-0-option-a" name="quiz-option-6019" type="radio" value="replicating research studies." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">a.</span> replicating research studies. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6019-0"> <strong>Correct!</strong> </span> </div> <div class="form-entry__option__radio" data-answer="incorrect"> <label> <input id="q1-6019-1-option-b" name="quiz-option-6019" type="radio" value="reading scientific journals." > <span class="option__label"> <span class="screen-reader-only">b.</span> reading scientific journals. </span> </label> <span class="quiz__response" id="response-6019-1"> <strong>Incorrect.</strong> </span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </form> </div> </section> <section id="toc_6"> <h2>Creativity and the scientist</h2><p>Christopher Edwards, in an article entitled "The right stuff: What distinguishes great scientists," argues that it is not genius that distinguishes great scientists, but open-mindedness and creativity (Edwards, 2000). Many of the examples above highlight that sentiment – none of these scientists are necessarily smarter than others. Instead, they are pursuing their interests creatively and diligently. And progress in science itself depends on the experiences and creativity that individuals bring to their work in seeking answers to <mark class="term" data-term="research" data-term-def="A study or an investigation." data-term-url="/en/glossary/view/research/8257">research</mark> questions. If you would like to read more about the day-to-day operations of a scientist, visit our series titled <a href="http://web.visionlearning.com/custom/diary/index.htm">The Penguin Diaries</a>, which chronicles the daily tasks of a researcher studying the diet of Gentoo and Chinstrap penguins in the Antarctic.</p> </div> </section> <hr class="border-color-dark" /> <footer class="module__footer"> <p class="citation"> <em> Anthony Carpi, Ph.D., Anne E. Egger, Ph.D. “Scientists and the Scientific Community” Visionlearning Vol. POS-2 (6), 2009. </em> </p>  <div class="title-list" id="refs" name="refs"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> References </p> <ul class="title-list__list"> <li><p>Allen, G. (2003). Mendel and modern genetics: The legacy for today. <em>Endeavor, 27</em>(2), 63-68.</li> <li>Cho, M. K., McGee, G., & Magnus, D. (2006). Research conduct: Lessons of the stem cell scandal. <em>Science, 311</em>(5761), 614-615.</li> <li>Edwards, C. G. (2000). The right stuff: What distinguishes great scientists. <em>HMS Beagle: The BioMedNet Magazine.</em></li> <li>Eisenhaber, F., & Schleiffer, A. (2007). Gregor Mendel: The beginning of biomathematics. Retrieved from the IMP Bioinformatics Group, http://web.archive.org/web/20060222010412/http://mendel.imp.ac.at/mendeljsp/biography/biography.jsp</li> <li>Hwang, W. S., Ryu, Y. J., Park, J. H., Park, E. S., Lee, E. G., Koo, J. M., . . . Moon, S. Y. (2004). Evidence of a pluripotent human embryonic stem cell line derived from a cloned blastocyst. <em>Science, 303</em>(5664), 1669-1674.</li> <li>Kemp, M. (2002). Peas without pictures: Gregor Mendel and the mathematical birth of modern genetics. <em>Nature, 417</em>(6888), 490.</li> <li>Lancaster, J. B. (1973). In praise of the achieving female monkey. <em>Psychology Today, 7</em>(4), 30-32.</li> <li>Lippincott, E. R., Stromberg, R. R., Grant, W. H., & Cessac, G. L. (1969). Polywater. <em>Science, 164</em>(3887), 1482-1487.</li> <li>MacMahon, B., Yen, S., Trichopoulos, D., Warren, K., & Nardi, G. (1981). Coffee and cancer of the pancreas. <em>The New England Journal of Medicine,</em> 304, 630-633.</li> <li>Mendel, G. (1866). Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden. <em>Verh. Naturforsch. Ver. Brünn, 4,</em> 3-47 (in English in Mendel, G. [1901]. Experiments in Plant Hybridization. <em>Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, 26,</em> 1-32).</li> <li>Michaud, D. S., Giovannucci, E., Willett, W. C., Colditz, G. A., & Fuchs, C. S. (2001). Coffee and alcohol consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer in two prospective United States cohorts 1. <em>Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 10,</em>(5), 429-437.</li> <li>Nagda, B. A., Gregerman, S. R., Jonides, J., von Hippel, W., Lerner, J. S. (1998). Undergraduate student-faculty research partnerships affect student retention. <em>Review of Higher Education, 22</em>(1), 55-72.</li> <li>Orel, V. (1996). Heredity before Mendel. In Orel, V., <em>Gregor Mendel: The First Geneticist.</em> Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Orel, V., Wood, R. J. (2000). Essence and origin of Mendel's discovery. <em>Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris, Sciences de la Vie, 323,</em> 1037-1041.</li> <li>Peasleea, M. H., Orel, V. (2007). The evolutionary ideas of F. M. (Ladimir) Klacel, teacher of Gregor Mendel. <em>Biomedical Papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palacký, Olomouc, Czech Republic, 151</em>(1), 151–156.</li> <li>Rousseau, D. L., & Porto, S. P. S. (1970). Polywater: Polymer or Artifact? <em>Science, 167</em>(3926), 1715-1719.</li> <li>Rowell, T. (1972). <em>Social behaviour of monkeys.</em> Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books.</li> <li>Schiebinger, L. (2000). Has feminism changed science? <em>Signs, 25</em>(4), 1171-1175.</li> <li>Schmeck, H. M. (1981, March 12). Study links coffee use to pancreas cancer. <em>New York Times.</em></li> <li>Strandberg, M. W. P. (2007). The setting of the drama: What Mendel set out to do; Determining the rules of the game of hybridization. Retrieved on September 22, 2007, from Malcolm Strandberg's website, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, http://web.mit.edu/mwpstr/www/mend/node3.html</li> <li>Strum, S. C. (1974). 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Gregor Mendel and "myth-conceptions." <em>Science Education, 88</em>(5), 754-758.</p></li> </ul> </div>  <div class="title-list" name="further"> <p class="h6 title-list__title"> Further Reading </p> <ul class="grid grid--column-2--md grid--column-3--md gap-1"> <li> <a class="no-hover-focus height-100" href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientific-Institutions-and-Societies/162"> <article class="flex-row align-items-center flex-column--md align-items-start--md height-100 theme-light padding-2 gap-2"> <div class="width-30 width-auto--md"> <img class="border-radius box-shadow-1" src="/img/library/moduleImages/featured_image_162-23061210061220.jpeg" alt="Scientific Institutions and Societies"> </div> <div class="flex-grow-shrink"> <h2 class="h6 font-weight-normal"> Scientific Institutions and Societies: <em>Types of institutions and their influence</em> </h2> </div> </article> </a> </li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div>   </div>  <div class="order-1 order-2--lg module__tools"> <div class="narrow margin-x-auto position-sticky-top font-size-md"> <div class="padding-2 border-radius box-shadow-1--lg"> <div class="tabs" role="tablist"> <nav> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-in-this-module" aria-label="Table of Contents" aria-controls="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-selected="true" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-list" aria-hidden="true"></span> <span class="button__text">Contents</span> </button> <button class="button button--icon-label" id="tab-button-toggle-terms" aria-controls="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-selected="false" role="tab"> <span class="icon icon-glossary-highlight"></span> <span class="button__text">Glossary Terms</span> </button> </nav> <hr class="divider" /> <div class="tabs__panel shown" id="tab-panel-module__tools" aria-labelledby="tab-button-module__tools" role="tabpanel"> <p class="font-weight-bold margin-bottom-1"> Table of Contents </p> <div class="table-of-contents" id="module-toc"> <ul> <li><a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172#toc_1">The influence of personal experience</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172#toc_2">The influence of mentoring and collaboration</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172#toc_3">The influence of chance and luck</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172#toc_4">The influence of diversity</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172#toc_5">The influence of mistakes and misjudgment</a> </li> <li><a href="/en/library/Process-of-Science/49/Scientists-and-the-Scientific-Community/172#toc_6">Creativity and the scientist</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div>   <div class="tabs__panel" id="tab-panel-toggle-terms" aria-labelledby="tab-button-toggle-terms" role="tabpanel"> <div class="reading-toggle"> <div class="reading-toggle__switch"> <div class="form-entry__option__switch"> <label> <input type="checkbox" name="termsToggleSwitch" id="terms-toggle-switch" /> <span class="switch__slider"></span> <span class="option__label text-decoration-none font-size-md"> Highlight Glossary Terms </span> </label> </div> </div> <div class="reading-toggle__help"> <p> <em> Activate glossary term highlighting to easily identify key terms within the module. 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