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id="toc-Economic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_and_Rationale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_Rationale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 History and Rationale </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_Rationale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Design </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_leakage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_leakage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Carbon leakage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_leakage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_tariff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_tariff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Carbon tariff </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_tariff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Impacts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impacts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Positive impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_impacts_and_trade-offs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_impacts_and_trade-offs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Negative impacts and trade-offs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_impacts_and_trade-offs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Support_and_opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Support_and_opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Support and opposition </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Support_and_opposition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Support and opposition subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Support_and_opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Public perception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Alternatives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Alternatives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon_emission_trading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_emission_trading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Carbon emission trading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_emission_trading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon_offsets_and_credits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_offsets_and_credits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Carbon offsets and credits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_offsets_and_credits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types_of_taxes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types_of_taxes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Other types of taxes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types_of_taxes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petroleum_(gasoline,_diesel,_jet_fuel)_taxes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petroleum_(gasoline,_diesel,_jet_fuel)_taxes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Petroleum (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel) taxes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petroleum_(gasoline,_diesel,_jet_fuel)_taxes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_of_alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_of_alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Comparison of alternatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_of_alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Implementation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Implementation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Costa_Rica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costa_Rica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Costa Rica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costa_Rica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Carbon tax</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" > 32 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B6%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86" title="ضريبة الكربون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ضريبة الكربون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0" title="কার্বন কর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কার্বন কর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uhl%C3%ADkov%C3%A1_da%C5%88" title="Uhlíková daň – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Uhlíková daň" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO2-afgift" title="CO2-afgift – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="CO2-afgift" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO2-Steuer" title="CO2-Steuer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="CO2-Steuer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCsinikdioksiidimaks" title="Süsinikdioksiidimaks – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Süsinikdioksiidimaks" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B8%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1" title="Φόρος άνθρακα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φόρος άνθρακα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impuesto_sobre_el_carbono" title="Impuesto sobre el carbono – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Impuesto sobre el carbono" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86" title="مالیات کربن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مالیات کربن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxe_carbone" title="Taxe carbone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taxe carbone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1in_charb%C3%B3in" title="Cáin charbóin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cáin charbóin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%84%EC%86%8C%EC%84%B8" title="탄소세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="탄소세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pajak_karbon" title="Pajak karbon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pajak karbon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carbon tax" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A9nad%C3%B3" title="Szénadó – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szénadó" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Данок на јаглерод – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Данок на јаглерод" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BA_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF" title="കാർബൺ നികുതി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കാർബൺ നികുതി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cukai_karbon" title="Cukai karbon – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cukai karbon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/CO2-belasting" title="CO2-belasting – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="CO2-belasting" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%AD%E7%B4%A0%E7%A8%8E" title="炭素税 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="炭素税" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podatek_w%C4%99glowy" title="Podatek węglowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podatek węglowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imposto_de_carbono" title="Imposto de carbono – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imposto de carbono" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3" title="Углеродный налог – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Углеродный налог" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davek_na_ogljik" title="Davek na ogljik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Davek na ogljik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiilivero" title="Hiilivero – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hiilivero" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koldioxidskatt" title="Koldioxidskatt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Koldioxidskatt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF" title="கரிம வரி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கரிம வரி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="ภาษีคาร์บอน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษีคาร์บอน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbon_vergisi" title="Karbon vergisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karbon vergisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Вуглецевий податок – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вуглецевий податок" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thu%E1%BA%BF_carbon" title="Thuế carbon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thuế carbon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Tax on carbon emissions</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prim_GRES.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prim_GRES.jpg/220px-Prim_GRES.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prim_GRES.jpg/330px-Prim_GRES.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Prim_GRES.jpg/440px-Prim_GRES.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A carbon tax would add a fee for the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">carbon dioxide emitted</a> from this <a href="/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station" title="Coal-fired power station">coal-fired power plant</a> in <a href="/wiki/Luchegorsk" title="Luchegorsk">Luchegorsk</a>, Russia.</figcaption></figure> A carbon tax is a <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">tax</a> levied on the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a> from producing goods and services. Carbon taxes are intended to make visible the hidden <a href="/wiki/Social_cost_of_carbon" title="Social cost of carbon">social costs of carbon emissions</a>. They are designed to reduce <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> by essentially increasing the price of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>. This both decreases demand for goods and services that produce high emissions and incentivizes making them less <a href="/wiki/Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">carbon-intensive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> When a fossil fuel such as <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> is burned, most or all of its carbon is converted to CO2. Greenhouse gas emissions cause <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Negative_externality" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative externality">negative externality</a> can be reduced by taxing carbon content at any point in the product cycle.<a href="#cite_note-CollectionPoint-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-bashmakov-5">[5]</a> In its simplest form, a carbon tax covers only CO2 emissions. It could also cover other <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>, by taxing such emissions based on their CO2-equivalent <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Research shows that carbon taxes do often reduce emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a> Many economists argue that carbon taxes are the most efficient (lowest cost) way to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">tackle climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gupta_taxes_and_charges-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-9">[9]</a> As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit">[update]</a>, carbon taxes have either been implemented or are scheduled for implementation in 25 countries.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> 46 countries have put some form of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">price on carbon</a>, either through carbon taxes or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">carbon emission trading</a> schemes.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Some experts point out that a carbon tax can negatively affect public welfare, tending to hit low- and middle-income households the hardest and making their necessities more expensive (for instance, the tax might drive up prices for, say, petrol and electricity<a href="#cite_note-:11-12">[12]</a>). Alternatively, the tax can be too conservative, making "comparatively small dents in overall emissions".<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> To make carbon taxes fairer, policymakers can try to redistribute the revenue generated from carbon taxes to low-income groups by various fiscal means.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-15">[15]</a> Such a policy initiative becomes a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dividend" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dividend">carbon fee and dividend</a>, rather than a plain tax.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> A carbon tax as well as carbon emission trading is used within the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">carbon price</a> concept. Two common economic alternatives to carbon taxes are tradable permits with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">carbon credits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidies</a>.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output 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buildings">High-performance buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest_design" title="Public interest design">Public interest design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_capitalism" title="Sustainable capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verified_Carbon_Standard" title="Verified Carbon Standard">Verified Carbon Standard</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list 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title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)">Related content</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscious_business" title="Conscious business">Conscious business</a></li> <li><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a 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.navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_mitigation" title="Template:Climate change mitigation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Climate_change_mitigation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Climate change mitigation (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change_mitigation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change mitigation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Carbon dioxide is one of several heat-trapping greenhouse gases (others include <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> vapor) emitted as a result of human activities. The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific opinion on climate change">scientific consensus</a> is that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are the primary <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">cause of climate change</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and that carbon dioxide is the most important of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Worldwide, 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are produced by human activity annually.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The physical effect of CO2 in the atmosphere can be measured as a change in the Earth-atmosphere system's energy balance – the <a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Different greenhouse gases have different physical properties: the <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a> is an internationally accepted scale of equivalence for other greenhouse gases in units of tonnes of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide equivalent">carbon dioxide equivalent</a>. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon taxes">Carbon taxes</a> are designed to reduce <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> by increasing prices of the fossil fuels that emit them when burned. This both decreases demand for goods and services that produce high emissions and incentivizes making them less <a href="/wiki/Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">carbon-intensive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_theory">Economic theory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Economic theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic analysis of climate change</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_and_Rationale">History and Rationale</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History and Rationale">edit</a>]</div> A carbon tax is a form of pollution tax.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Gordon_Wilson" title="David Gordon Wilson">David Gordon Wilson</a> first proposed this type of tax in 1973.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Unlike classic <a href="/wiki/Command_and_control_regulation" title="Command and control regulation">command and control regulations</a>, which explicitly limit or prohibit emissions by each individual polluter,<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> a carbon tax aims to allow market forces to determine the most efficient way to reduce pollution.<a href="#cite_note-regulate_pollution-24">[24]</a> A carbon tax is an <a href="/wiki/Indirect_tax" title="Indirect tax">indirect tax</a>—a tax on a transaction—as opposed to a <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct tax</a>, which taxes income. Carbon taxes are price instruments since they set a price rather than an emission limit.<a href="#cite_note-Hepburn-25">[25]</a> In addition to creating incentives for energy conservation, a carbon tax puts <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal</a> on a more competitive footing. In economic theory, pollution is considered a <a href="/wiki/Negative_externality" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative externality">negative externality</a>, a negative effect on a third party not directly involved in a transaction, and is a type of <a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failure</a>. To confront the issue, economist <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Pigou" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Pigou">Arthur Pigou</a> proposed taxing the goods (in this case hydrocarbon fuels), that were the source of the externality (CO 2) so as to accurately reflect the cost of the goods to society, thereby internalizing the production costs. A tax on a negative externality is called a <a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigovian tax</a>, which should equal the cost.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Within Pigou's framework, the changes involved are marginal, and the size of the externality is assumed to be small enough not to distort the economy.<a href="#cite_note-helmsocial-27">[27]</a> Climate change is claimed to result in catastrophe (non-marginal) changes.<a href="#cite_note-helmsurvey-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> "Non-marginal" means that the impact could significantly reduce the growth rate in income and welfare. The amount of resources that should be devoted to climate change mitigation is controversial.<a href="#cite_note-helmsurvey-28">[28]</a> Policies designed to reduce carbon emissions could have a non-marginal impact, but are asserted to not be catastrophic.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design">Design</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Design">edit</a>]</div> The design of a carbon tax involves two primary factors: the level of the tax, and the use of the revenue.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-31">[31]</a> The former is based on the <a href="/wiki/Social_cost_of_carbon" title="Social cost of carbon">social cost of carbon</a> (SCC), which attempts to calculate the numeric cost of the <a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">externalities</a> of carbon pollution. The precise number is the subject of debate in environmental and policy circles. A higher SCC corresponds with a higher evaluation of the costs of carbon pollution on society. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> scientists have estimated the social cost of carbon to be upwards of $200 per ton.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> More conservative estimates pin the cost at around $50.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The use of the revenue is another subject of debate in carbon tax proposals.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-31">[31]</a> A government may use revenue to increase its discretionary spending, or address deficits. However, such proposals often run the risk of being <a href="/wiki/Regressive_tax" title="Regressive tax">regressive</a>, and sparking backlash among the public due to an increased cost of energy associated with such taxes.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> To avoid this and increase the popularity of a carbon tax, a government may make the carbon tax revenue-neutral.<a href="#cite_note-auto-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> This can be done by reducing income tax proportionate to the level of the carbon tax, or by returning carbon tax revenues to citizens as a dividend.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_leakage">Carbon leakage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Carbon leakage">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a> happens when the regulation of emissions in one country/sector pushes those emissions to other places that with less regulation.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Leakage effects can be both negative (i.e., increasing the effectiveness of reducing overall emissions) and positive (reducing the effectiveness of reducing overall emissions).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Negative leakages, which are desirable, can be referred to as "spill-over".<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> According to one study, short-term leakage effects need to be judged against long-term effects.<a href="#cite_note-goldemberg-42">[42]</a>: 28  A policy that, for example, establishes carbon taxes only in developed countries might leak emissions to developing countries. However, a desirable negative leakage could occur due to reduced demand for coal, oil, and gas in developed countries, lowering prices. This could allow developing countries to substitute oil or gas for coal, lowering emissions. In the long-run, however, if less polluting technologies are delayed, this substitution might have no long-term benefit. Carbon leakage is central to <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">climate policy</a>, given the 2030 Energy and Climate Framework and the review of the European Union's third carbon leakage list.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_tariff">Carbon tariff</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Carbon tariff">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tariff" title="Carbon tariff">Carbon tariff</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tariff&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> A <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tariff" title="Carbon tariff">carbon tariff</a> or carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM) is an <a href="/wiki/Eco-tariff" title="Eco-tariff">eco-tariff</a> on <a href="/wiki/Embedded_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded carbon">embedded carbon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_tariff_:0-44">[44]</a> In 2024 the United States said it is not a carbon tax,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> but the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> is dysfunctional so is unable to agree or disagree.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> One aim to prevent <a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">carbon leakage</a> from nations without a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">carbon price</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_tariff_:0-44">[44]</a> Examples of imports which are high-carbon and so may be subject to a carbon tariff are electricity generated by <a href="/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station" title="Coal-fired power station">coal-fired power stations</a>, iron and steel from <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>, and fertilizer from the <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a>. Several countries levy carbon tariffs or are considering them.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts">Impacts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Impacts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_impacts">Positive impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Positive impacts">edit</a>]</div> Research shows that carbon taxes effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:3-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-49">[49]</a> Most economists assert that carbon taxes are the most efficient and effective way to curb climate change, with the least adverse economic effects.<a href="#cite_note-:6-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> One study found that Sweden's carbon tax successfully reduced carbon dioxide emissions from transport by 11%.<a href="#cite_note-:8-48">[48]</a> A 2015 British Columbia study found that the taxes reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 5–15% while having negligible overall economic effects.<a href="#cite_note-:9-49">[49]</a> A 2017 British Columbia study found that industries on the whole benefited from the tax and "small but <a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical significance">statistically significant</a> 0.74 percent annual increases in employment" but that carbon-intensive and trade-sensitive industries were adversely affected.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> A 2020 study of carbon taxes in wealthy democracies showed that carbon taxes had not limited economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Carbon taxes appear to not adversely affect employment or GDP growth in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-:2-57">[57]</a> Their economic impact ranges from zero to modest positive.<a href="#cite_note-:2-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_impacts_and_trade-offs">Negative impacts and trade-offs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Negative impacts and trade-offs">edit</a>]</div> A number of studies have found that in the absence of an increase in social benefits and tax credits, a carbon tax would hit poor households harder than rich households.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_E._Metcalf" title="Gilbert E. Metcalf">Gilbert E. Metcalf</a> disputed that carbon taxes would be <a href="/wiki/Regressive_tax" title="Regressive tax">regressive</a> in the US.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Carbon taxes can increase electricity prices.<a href="#cite_note-:11-12">[12]</a> There is a debate about the relation between <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pricing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pricing">carbon pricing</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">carbon emission trading</a> and carbon tax) and <a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">climate justice</a>. Carbon pricing can be adjusted to some principles of climate justice like <a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">polluters pay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Many proponents of climate justice object to carbon pricing. To close the gap between the two concepts, carbon pricing could put a cap on emissions, remove pollution from underserved communities, and justly divide revenues.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Support_and_opposition">Support and opposition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Support and opposition">edit</a>]</div> Since carbon taxation was first proposed, numerous economists have described its strengths as a means of reducing CO2 pollution. This tax has been praised as "a far better way to control pollution than the present method of specific regulation."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> It has also been lauded for its market based simplicity. This includes a description as "the most efficient way to guide the decisions of producers and consumers", since "carbon emissions have an 'unpriced' societal cost in terms of their deleterious effects on the earth's climate."<a href="#cite_note-TysonNYT1-66">[66]</a> However, carbon taxes have been opposed by a substantial proportion of the public. They have also been rejected in several elections, and in some cases reversed as opposition increased. One response has been to specifically allocate carbon tax revenues back to the public in order to garner support.<a href="#cite_note-Mildenberger_141–147-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Citizens%27_Climate_Lobby" title="Citizens' Climate Lobby">Citizens' Climate Lobby</a> is an international organization with over 500 chapters.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> It advocates for carbon tax legislation in the form of a progressive <a href="/wiki/Fee_and_dividend" class="mw-redirect" title="Fee and dividend">fee and dividend</a> structure. NASA climatologist <a href="/wiki/James_E._Hansen" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Hansen">James E. Hansen</a> has also spoken in favor of a revenue neutral carbon fee.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Since 2019 over 3,500 U.S. economists have signed <a href="/wiki/Economists%27_Statement_on_Carbon_Dividends" title="Economists' Statement on Carbon Dividends">The Economists' Statement on Carbon Dividends</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> This statement describes the benefits of a U.S. carbon tax along with suggestions for how it could be developed. One recommendation is to return revenues generated by a tax to the general public. The statement was originally signed by 45 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Nobel Prize</a> winning economists, former chairs of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a>, former chairs of the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Economic_Advisers" title="Council of Economic Advisers">CEA</a>, and former secretaries of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Treasury Department</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> It has been recognized as a historic example of consensus amongst economists.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Ben Ho, professor of economics at <a href="/wiki/Vassar_College" title="Vassar College">Vassar College</a>, has argued that "while carbon taxes are part of the optimal portfolio of policies to fight climate change, they are not the most important part."<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_perception">Public perception</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Public perception">edit</a>]</div> In some instances knowledge about how carbon tax revenues are used can affect public support. Dedicating revenues to climate projects and compensating low income housing have been found to be popular uses of revenue.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> However, providing information about specific revenue uses in countries that have implemented carbon taxes has been shown to have limited effectiveness in increasing public support.<a href="#cite_note-Mildenberger_141–147-67">[67]</a> A 2021 poll conducted by <a href="/wiki/GlobeScan" title="GlobeScan">GlobeScan</a> on 31 countries and territories found that 62 percent on average are supportive of a carbon tax, while only 33 percent are opposed to a carbon tax. In 28 of the 31 countries and territories listed in the poll, a majority of their populations are supportive of a carbon tax.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternatives">Alternatives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alternatives">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_emission_trading">Carbon emission trading</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Carbon emission trading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a> (also called cap and trade) is another approach. Emission levels are limited and emission permits traded among emitters. The permits can be issued via government auctions or by offered without charge based on existing emissions (grandfathering). Auctions raise revenues that can be used to reduce other taxes or to fund government programs.<a href="#cite_note-smith-77">[77]</a> Variations include setting price-floor and/or price-ceiling for permits.<a href="#cite_note-Hepburn-25">[25]</a> A carbon tax can be combined with trading.<a href="#cite_note-goldemberg-42">[42]</a> A cap with grandfathered permits can have an efficiency advantage since it applies to all industries. Cap and trade provides an equal incentive for all producers at the <a href="/wiki/Margin_(economics)" title="Margin (economics)">margin</a> to reduce their emissions. This is an advantage over a tax that exempts or has reduced rates for certain sectors.<a href="#cite_note-smith-77">[77]</a> Both carbon taxes and trading systems aim to reduce emissions by creating a price for emitting CO2.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a> In the absence of uncertainty both systems will result in the <a href="/wiki/Efficient_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Efficient market">efficient market</a> quantity and price of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-lse.ac.uk-79">[79]</a> When the environmental damage and therefore the appropriate tax of each unit of CO2 cannot be accurately calculated, a permit system may be more advantageous.<a href="#cite_note-lse.ac.uk-79">[79]</a> In the case of uncertainty regarding the costs of CO2 abatement for firms, a tax is preferable.<a href="#cite_note-lse.ac.uk-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-c2es.org-80">[80]</a> Permit systems regulate total emissions. In practice the limit has often been set so high that permit prices are not significant.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a> In the first phase of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Emissions_Trading_System" title="European Union Emissions Trading System">European Union Emissions Trading System</a>,<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-c2es.org-80">[80]</a> firms reduced their emissions to their allotted quantity without the purchase of any additional permits.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a> This drove permit prices to nearly zero two years later, crashing the system and requiring reforms that would eventually appear in EUETS Phase 3.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen,_Mark_2016-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The distinction between carbon taxes and permit systems can get blurred when hybrid systems are allowed. A hybrid sets limits on price movements, potentially softening the cap. When the price gets too high, the issuing authority issues additional permits at that price. A price floor may be breached when emissions are so low that no one needs to buy a permit.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Economist <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_E._Metcalf" title="Gilbert E. Metcalf">Gilbert Metcalf</a> has proposed such a system, the Emissions Assurance Mechanism,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> and the idea, in principle, has been adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Climate_Leadership_Council" title="Climate Leadership Council">Climate Leadership Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_E._Hansen" class="mw-redirect" title="James E. Hansen">James E. Hansen</a> argued in 2009 that emissions trading would only make money for banks and hedge funds and allow business-as-usual for the chief carbon-emitting industries.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Randerson-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbon_offsets_and_credits">Carbon offsets and credits</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Carbon offsets and credits">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_offsets_and_credits&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turbine_aalborg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Turbine_aalborg.jpg/220px-Turbine_aalborg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Turbine_aalborg.jpg/330px-Turbine_aalborg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Turbine_aalborg.jpg/440px-Turbine_aalborg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="982" data-file-height="1487" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a> projects, such as these <a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine" title="Wind turbine">wind turbines</a> near <a href="/wiki/Aalborg" title="Aalborg">Aalborg</a>, Denmark, constitute one common type of carbon offset project.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_offsets_and_credits_:2-88">[88]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsetting</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon trading">carbon trading</a> mechanism that enables entities to compensate for offset <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> by investing in projects that reduce, avoid, or remove emissions elsewhere. When an entity invests in a carbon offsetting program, it receives carbon credit or offset credit, which account for the net climate benefits that one entity brings to another. After certification by a government or independent certification body, credits can be traded between entities. One carbon credit represents a reduction, avoidance or removal of one metric tonne of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> or its <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">carbon dioxide-equivalent</a> (CO2e). A variety of greenhouse gas reduction projects can qualify for offsets and credits depending on the scheme. Some include forestry projects that avoid logging and plant saplings,<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_offsets_and_credits_:2-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> projects such as <a href="/wiki/Wind_farm" title="Wind farm">wind farms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomass_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomass energy">biomass energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogas_digesters" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogas digesters">biogas digesters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_Dams" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric Dams">hydroelectric dams</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> projects. Further projects include <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> projects, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> projects, and the elimination of <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a> in various settings such as <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfills</a>. Many projects that give credits for <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> have received criticism as <a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">greenwashing</a> because they overstated their ability to sequester carbon, with some projects being shown to actually increase overall emissions.<a href="#cite_note-Carbon_offsets_and_credits_:7-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_offsets_and_credits_:8-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_offsets_and_credits_:9-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carbon_offsets_and_credits_:10-93">[93]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types_of_taxes">Other types of taxes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other types of taxes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Energy_tax" title="Energy tax">Energy tax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fee_and_dividend" title="Carbon fee and dividend">Carbon fee and dividend</a></div> Two related taxes are emissions taxes and <a href="/wiki/Energy_tax" title="Energy tax">energy taxes</a>. An emissions tax on greenhouse gas emissions requires individual emitters to pay a fee, charge, or tax for every tonne of greenhouse gas,<a href="#cite_note-gupta_taxes_and_charges-8">[8]</a> while an energy tax is applied to the fuels themselves. In terms of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>, a carbon tax is not a perfect substitute for an emissions tax.<a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[94]</a> For example, a carbon tax encourages reduced fuel use, but it does not encourage emissions reduction such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a>. Energy taxes increase the price of energy regardless of emissions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[94]</a>: 416  An <a href="/wiki/Ad_valorem_tax" title="Ad valorem tax">ad valorem</a> energy tax is levied according to the energy content of a fuel or the value of an energy product, which may or may not be consistent with the emitted greenhouse gas amounts and their respective <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potentials</a>. Studies indicate that to reduce emissions by a certain amount, ad valorem energy taxes would be more costly than carbon taxes.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov-5">[5]</a> However, although greenhouse gas emissions are an externality, using energy services may result in other negative externalities, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> not covered by the carbon tax (such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">fine particles</a>). A combined carbon-energy tax may therefore be better at reducing air pollution than a carbon tax alone.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Any of these taxes can be combined with a <a href="/wiki/Fee_and_dividend" class="mw-redirect" title="Fee and dividend">rebate</a>, where the money collected by the tax is returned to qualifying parties, taxing heavy emitters and subsidizing those that emit less carbon. Because carbon taxes only target carbon dioxide, they do not target other greenhouse gasses, such as methane, which have a greater warming potential.<a href="#cite_note-:10-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petroleum_(gasoline,_diesel,_jet_fuel)_taxes">Petroleum (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel) taxes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Petroleum (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel) taxes">edit</a>]</div> Many countries tax fuel directly; for example, the UK imposes a <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_oil_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbon oil duty">hydrocarbon oil duty</a> directly on vehicle hydrocarbon oils, including petrol and <a href="/wiki/Diesel_fuel" title="Diesel fuel">diesel fuel</a>. While a direct tax sends a clear signal to the consumer, its efficiency at influencing consumers' fuel use has been challenged for reasons including:<a href="#cite_note-oecditf08-95">[95]</a> <ul><li>Possible delays of a decade or more as inefficient vehicles are replaced by newer models and the older models filter through the fleet.</li> <li>Political pressures that deter policymakers from increasing taxes.</li> <li>Limited relationship between consumer decisions on fuel economy and fuel prices. Other efforts, such as fuel efficiency standards, or changing income tax rules on taxable benefits, may be more effective.</li> <li>The historical use of <a href="/wiki/Fuel_tax" title="Fuel tax">fuel taxes</a> as a source of general revenue, given fuel's low <a href="/wiki/Price_elasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Price elasticity">price elasticity</a>, which allows higher rates without reducing fuel volumes. In these circumstances, the policy rational may be unclear.</li></ul> Vehicle fuel taxes may reduce the "<a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect_(conservation)" title="Rebound effect (conservation)">rebound effect</a>" that occurs when vehicle efficiency improves. Consumers may make additional journeys or purchase heavier and more powerful vehicles, offsetting the efficiency gains.<a href="#cite_note-oecditf07-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_of_alternatives">Comparison of alternatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Comparison of alternatives">edit</a>]</div> A 2018 survey of leading economists found that 58% of the surveyed economists agreed with the assertion, "Carbon taxes are a better way to implement climate policy than cap-and-trade," 31% stated that they had no opinion or that it was uncertain, but none of the respondents disagreed.<a href="#cite_note-:4-52">[52]</a> In a review study in 1996 the authors concluded that the choice between an international quota (cap) system, or an international carbon tax, remained ambiguous.<a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[94]</a>: 430  Another study in 2012 compared a carbon tax, emissions trading, and command-and-control regulation at the industry level, concluding that market-based mechanisms would perform better than emission standards in achieving emission targets without affecting industrial production.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Implementation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_(2021).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Carbon taxes and emission trading worldwide" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_%282021%29.png/300px-Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_%282021%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_%282021%29.png/450px-Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_%282021%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_%282021%29.png/600px-Map_of_carbon_taxes_and_emissions_trading_systems_worldwide_%282021%29.png 2x" data-file-width="4016" data-file-height="2246" /></a><figcaption>Emissions trading and carbon taxes around the world (as of 2021)<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Carbon tax implemented or scheduled</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Carbon <a href="/wiki/Emission_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission trading">emission trading</a> implemented or scheduled</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Carbon <a href="/wiki/Emission_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission trading">emission trading</a> or carbon tax under consideration</div></figcaption></figure> Both energy and carbon taxes have been implemented in response to commitments under the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov-5">[5]</a> In most cases the tax is implemented in combination with exemptions. Indirect carbon prices, such as fuel taxes, are much more common than carbon taxes. In 2021, OECD reported that 67 of the 71 countries it assessed had some form of fuel tax. Only 39 had carbon taxes or ETSs. However, the use of carbon taxes is growing more quickly. In addition, several countries plan to further strengthen existing carbon taxes in the coming years, including Singapore, Canada and South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-worldbank-99">[99]</a> Current carbon price policies, including carbon taxes, are still considered insufficient to create the kinds of changes in emissions that would be consistent with Paris Agreement goals. The International Monetary Fund, OECD, and others have stated that current fossil fuel prices generally fail to reflect environmental impacts.<a href="#cite_note-worldbank-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">factual accuracy</a> may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Climate change in Europe</a></div> In Europe, many countries have imposed energy taxes or energy taxes based partly on carbon content.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov-5">[5]</a> These include Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. None of these countries have been able to introduce a uniform carbon tax for fuels in all sectors.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Denmark is the first country to include <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture#Livestock" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">livestock emissions</a> in their carbon tax system.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> During the 1990s, a carbon/energy tax was proposed at the EU level but failed due to industrial lobbying.<a href="#cite_note-pearce-102">[102]</a> In 2010, the European Commission considered implementing a pan-European minimum tax on pollution permits purchased under the <a href="/wiki/European_Union_Greenhouse_Gas_Emissions_Trading_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme">European Union Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme</a> (EU ETS) in which the proposed new tax would be calculated in terms of carbon content.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The suggested rate of €4 to €30 per tonne of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Americas">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Costa_Rica">Costa Rica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Costa Rica">edit</a>]</div> In 1997, <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> imposed a 3.5 percent carbon tax on hydrocarbon fuels.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> A portion of the proceeds go to the "Payment for Environmental Services" (PSA) program which gives incentives to property owners to practice sustainable development and forest conservation.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Approximately 11% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by the plan.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> The program now pays out roughly $15 million a year to around 8,000 property owners.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Carbon_pricing_in_Canada" title="Carbon pricing in Canada">Carbon pricing in Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec_carbon_tax" title="Quebec carbon tax">Quebec carbon tax</a>, and <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Carbon_Tax" class="mw-redirect" title="British Columbia Carbon Tax">British Columbia Carbon Tax</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_federal_election,_2008" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian federal election, 2008">2008 Canadian federal election</a>, a carbon tax proposed by <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberal Party</a> leader <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Dion" title="Stéphane Dion">Stéphane Dion</a>, known as the Green Shift, became a central issue. It would have been revenue-neutral, balancing increased taxation on carbon with rebates. However, it proved to be unpopular and contributed to the Liberal Party's defeat, earning the lowest vote share since <a href="/wiki/1867_Canadian_federal_election" title="1867 Canadian federal election">Confederation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The Conservative party won the election by promising to "develop and implement a North American-wide <a href="/wiki/Cap-and-trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Cap-and-trade">cap-and-trade</a> system for greenhouse gases and air pollution, with implementation to occur between 2012 and 2015".<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In 2018, Canada enacted a revenue-neutral carbon levy starting in 2019,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nuccitelli-115">[115]</a> fulfilling Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Justin_Trudeau" title="Justin Trudeau">Justin Trudeau</a>'s campaign pledge.<a href="#cite_note-Nuccitelli-115">[115]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_Gas_Pollution_Pricing_Act" title="Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act">Greenhouse Gas Pollution Pricing Act</a> applies only to <a href="/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="Provinces and territories of Canada">provinces</a> without provincial adequate carbon pricing.<a href="#cite_note-Nuccitelli-115">[115]</a> As of September 2020, seven of thirteen Canadian provinces and territories use the federal carbon tax while three have developed their own carbon tax programs.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In December 2020, the Federal Government released an updated plan with a CA$15 per tonne per year increase in the carbon pricing, reaching CA$95 per tonne in 2025 and CA$170 per tonne in 2030.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> became the first province to introduce a carbon tax.<a href="#cite_note-Quebec_to_collect_nation's_1st_carbon_tax-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Quebec_government_to_implement_carbon_tax-119">[119]</a> The tax was to be imposed on energy producers starting 1 October 2007, with revenue collected used for energy-efficiency programs. The tax rate for gasoline is $CDN0.008 per liter, or about CA$3.50 per tonne of CO 2 equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-Where_Carbon_is_Taxed-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Climate change policy of the United States">Climate change policy of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png/330px-Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png/495px-Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png/660px-Estimated_Effect_of_Carbon_Tax_in_US.png 2x" data-file-width="1322" data-file-height="888" /></a><figcaption>Estimated effect of a carbon tax on sources of United States electrical generation (as of 2012)</figcaption></figure> A national carbon tax in the U.S. has been repeatedly proposed, but never enacted. For instance, on 23 July 2018, Representative <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Curbelo" title="Carlos Curbelo">Carlos Curbelo</a> (R-FL) introduced H.R. 6463,<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> the "MARKET CHOICE Act", a proposal for a carbon tax in which revenue is used to bolster American infrastructure and environmental solutions.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The bill was introduced in the House of Representatives, but did not become law.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> A number of organizations are currently advancing national carbon tax proposals. To address concerns from conservatives that a carbon tax would grow government and increase cost of living, recent proposals have centered around revenue-neutrality.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-36">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Citizens%27_Climate_Lobby" title="Citizens' Climate Lobby">Citizens' Climate Lobby</a> (CCL), republicEn<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> (formerly E&EI), the <a href="/wiki/Climate_Leadership_Council" title="Climate Leadership Council">Climate Leadership Council</a> (CLC), and Americans for Carbon Dividends (AFCD) support a revenue-neutral carbon tax with a border adjustment. The latter two organizations advocate for a specific framework called the Baker-Shultz <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fee_and_dividend" title="Carbon fee and dividend">Carbon Dividends Plan</a>, which has gained national bipartisan traction since its announcement in 2017.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The central principle is a gradually rising carbon tax in which all revenues are rebated as equal dividends to the American people.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> This plan is co-authored by (and named after) Republican elder-statesmen <a href="/wiki/James_Baker" title="James Baker">James Baker</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Shultz" title="George Shultz">George Shultz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> It is also supported by companies including <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, <a href="/wiki/PepsiCo" title="PepsiCo">Pepsico</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Wind_Energy_Association" title="American Wind Energy Association">American Wind Energy Association</a>, <a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">Exxon Mobil</a>, <a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a>, and <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congestion_pricing" title="Congestion pricing">Congestion pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_subsidies" title="Fossil fuel subsidies">Fossil fuel subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_tax" title="Meat tax">Meat tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbon_tax&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAkkayaBakkal2020" 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A Review Based on Carbon Tax"</a>. Folia Oeconomica Stetinensia. 20 (1): 25–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Ffoli-2020-0002">10.2478/foli-2020-0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1898-0198">1898-0198</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221372046">221372046</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200829171908/https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/foli/20/1/article-p25.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Oeconomica+Stetinensia&rft.atitle=Carbon+Leakage+Along+with+the+Green+Paradox+Against+Carbon+Abatement%3F+A+Review+Based+on+Carbon+Tax&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-44&rft.date=2020-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221372046%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1898-0198&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2478%2Ffoli-2020-0002&rft.aulast=Akkaya&rft.aufirst=Sahin&rft.au=Bakkal%2C+Ufuk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.sciendo.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Ffoli%2F20%2F1%2Farticle-p25.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CollectionPoint-2"><a href="#cite_ref-CollectionPoint_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashmakov,_I.2001" class="citation book cs1">Bashmakov, I.; et al. (2001). 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Retrieved 2 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2500+Pollution+Tax&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Law+and+Economics&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+and+the+University+of+Ghent&rft.aulast=Groosman&rft.aufirst=Britt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclo.findlaw.com%2F2500book.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassachusetts_Institute_of_Technology2013" class="citation web cs1">Massachusetts Institute of Technology (5 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2013-11-emeritus-david-wilson-early-proponent.html">"Emeritus: David Wilson was an early proponent of the concept of energy-use fees"</a>. Phys.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210214003540/https://phys.org/news/2013-11-emeritus-david-wilson-early-proponent.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=Emeritus%3A+David+Wilson+was+an+early+proponent+of+the+concept+of+energy-use+fees&rft.date=2013-11-05&rft.au=Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2013-11-emeritus-david-wilson-early-proponent.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenbaum2010" class="citation book cs1">Greenbaum, Allan (2010). Environmental Law and Policy in the Canadian Context. 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Retrieved 15 September 2022. <q>A carbon tax would regulate pollution far more efficiently than the mounds of regulations and restrictions on the books.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=There%27s+a+blatantly+obvious+way+for+the+US+to+fight+climate+change+and+pay+for+new+infrastructure%3A+a+carbon+tax&rft.aulast=MacGuineas&rft.aufirst=Maya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fcarbon-tax-climate-change-pollution-economy-us-biden-infrastructure-2021-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hepburn-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hepburn_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hepburn_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHepburn,_C.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hepburn, C. 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(2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:0c96550f-0cc2-4e5a-959f-1b225ece7fd6/download_file?file_format=application%2Fpdf&safe_filename=Economic%2Binstruments%2Band%2Benvironmental%2Bpolicy.pdf">"Economic Instruments and Environmental Policy"</a> (PDF). The Economic and Social Review. 36 (3): 205–228. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231031142628/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:0c96550f-0cc2-4e5a-959f-1b225ece7fd6/download_file?file_format=application%2Fpdf&safe_filename=Economic%2Binstruments%2Band%2Benvironmental%2Bpolicy.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+and+Social+Review&rft.atitle=Economic+Instruments+and+Environmental+Policy&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=205-228&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Helm%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A0c96550f-0cc2-4e5a-959f-1b225ece7fd6%2Fdownload_file%3Ffile_format%3Dapplication%252Fpdf%26safe_filename%3DEconomic%252Binstruments%252Band%252Benvironmental%252Bpolicy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-helmsocial-27"><a href="#cite_ref-helmsocial_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelm,_Dieter2005" class="citation journal cs1">Helm, Dieter (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tara.tcd.ie/bitstream/handle/2262/60159/02_Helm_article.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Economic Instruments and Environmental Policy"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 25 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+and+Social+Review&rft.atitle=Economic+Instruments+and+Environmental+Policy&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=0012-9984&rft.au=Helm%2C+Dieter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tara.tcd.ie%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F2262%2F60159%2F02_Helm_article.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-helmsurvey-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-helmsurvey_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-helmsurvey_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelm,_D.2005" class="citation book cs1">Helm, D., ed. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501072349/http://www.dieterhelm.co.uk/publications/ClimateChangePolicy_ASurvey.pdf">Climate change Policy: A Survey. 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Retrieved 17 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Climate+Leadership+Council&rft.atitle=The+Conservative+Case+for+Carbon+Dividends&rft.date=2017-02-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclcouncil.org%2Freport%2Fthe-conservative-case-carbon-dividends%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2018" class="citation web cs1">Roberts, David (22 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/6/22/17487488/carbon-tax-dividend-trent-lott-john-breaux">"Energy lobbyists have a new PAC to push for a carbon tax. Wait, what?"</a>. Vox. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111223306/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/6/22/17487488/carbon-tax-dividend-trent-lott-john-breaux">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 24 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Energy+lobbyists+have+a+new+PAC+to+push+for+a+carbon+tax.+Wait%2C+what%3F&rft.date=2018-06-22&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fenergy-and-environment%2F2018%2F6%2F22%2F17487488%2Fcarbon-tax-dividend-trent-lott-john-breaux&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clcouncil.org/founding-members/">"Founding Members"</a>. Climate Leadership Council. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211010193629/https://clcouncil.org/founding-members/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Climate+Leadership+Council&rft.atitle=Founding+Members&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclcouncil.org%2Ffounding-members%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarbon+tax" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" 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