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href="#Identification,_classification_and_description_of_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Identification, classification and description of plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification,_classification_and_description_of_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classification systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online_databases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_databases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Online databases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_databases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="علم تصنيف النبات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم تصنيف النبات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitki_sitologiyas%C4%B1" title="Bitki sitologiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bitki sitologiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Сістэматыка раслін – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сістэматыка раслін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Класификация на растенията – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Класификация на растенията" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A0nica_sistem%C3%A0tica" title="Botànica sistemàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Botànica sistemàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%C4%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Ӳсентăрансен систематики – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Ӳсентăрансен систематики" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanisk_taksonomi" title="Botanisk taksonomi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Botanisk taksonomi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%86%CF%85%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Ταξινόμηση φυτών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ταξινόμηση φυτών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot%C3%A1nica_sistem%C3%A1tica" title="Botánica sistemática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Botánica sistemática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="آرایه‌شناسی گیاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آرایه‌شناسی گیاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AC%BC%EB%B6%84%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99" title="식물분류학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식물분류학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="पादप वर्गीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पादप वर्गीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomi_tumbuhan" title="Taksonomi tumbuhan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Taksonomi tumbuhan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="მცენარეთა სისტემატიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მცენარეთა სისტემატიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Өсімдіктер систематикасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Өсімдіктер систематикасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B6v%C3%A9nyrendszertan" title="Növényrendszertan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Növényrendszertan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taksonomia_ro%C5%9Blin" title="Taksonomia roślin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Taksonomia roślin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomie_vegetal%C4%83" title="Taxonomie vegetală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Taxonomie vegetală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Систематика растений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Систематика растений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%99%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Систематика биљака – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Систематика биљака" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="தாவர வகைப்பாட்டியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவர வகைப்பாட்டியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Үсемлекләр систематикасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Үсемлекләр систематикасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Систематика рослин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Систематика рослин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A2n_lo%E1%BA%A1i_th%E1%BB%B1c_v%E1%BA%ADt" title="Phân loại thực vật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phân loại thực vật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E7%B1%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="植物分类学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="植物分类学" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific study of identifying, classifying, describing, and naming plants</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Systematic botany" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Systematic_Botany" title="Systematic Botany">Systematic Botany</a>.</div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> taxonomy</b> is the science that finds, identifies, describes, classifies, and names <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>. It is one of the main branches of <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> (the science that finds, describes, classifies, and names living things). </p><p>Plant taxonomy is closely allied to <a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">plant systematics</a>, and there is no sharp boundary between the two. In practice, "plant systematics" involves relationships between plants and their <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, especially at the higher levels, whereas "plant taxonomy" deals with the actual handling of plant <a href="/wiki/Biological_specimen" title="Biological specimen">specimens</a>. The precise relationship between taxonomy and systematics, however, has changed along with the goals and methods employed. </p><p>Plant taxonomy is well known for being turbulent, and traditionally not having any close agreement on <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circumscription" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:circumscription">circumscription</a> and placement of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a>. See the <a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">list of systems of plant taxonomy</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classification systems serve the purpose of grouping organisms by characteristics common to each group. Plants are distinguished from animals by various traits: they have <a href="/wiki/Cell_walls" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell walls">cell walls</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">polyploidy</a>, and they exhibit sedentary growth. Where animals have to eat organic molecules, plants are able to change energy from light into organic energy by the process of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. The basic unit of classification is <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, a group able to breed amongst themselves and bearing mutual resemblance, a broader classification is the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a>. Several genera make up a family, and several families an order.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_classification">History of classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The botanical term <b>angiosperm</b>, or flowering plant, comes from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">angeíon</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%B5%E1%BF%96%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀγγεῖον">ἀγγεῖον</a></span>; 'bottle, vessel') and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">spérma</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:σπέρμα">σπέρμα</a></span>; 'seed'); in 1690, the term <b>Angiospermae</b> was coined by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_(botanist)" title="Paul Hermann (botanist)">Paul Hermann</a>, albeit in reference to only a small subset of the species that are known as angiosperms, today. Hermann's Angiospermae included only flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnospermae</a>, which were flowering plants with <a href="/wiki/Achene" title="Achene">achenial</a> or schizo-carpic fruits (the whole fruit, or each of its pieces, being here regarded as a seed and naked). The terms Angiospermae and Gymnospermae were used by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> in the same sense, albeit with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm19119_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm19119-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The terms angiosperms and gymnosperm fundamentally changed meaning in 1827, when <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(Scottish_botanist_from_Montrose)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)">Robert Brown</a> determined the existence of truly-naked ovules in the <a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadeae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Coniferae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>gymnosperm</i> was, from then-on, applied to seed plants with naked ovules, and the term <i>angiosperm</i> to seed plants with enclosed ovules. However, for many years after Brown's discovery, the primary division of the seed plants was seen as between monocots and dicots, with gymnosperms as a small subset of the dicots.<sup id="cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buggs_22–36-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1851, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Friedrich_Benedikt_Hofmeister" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Friedrich Benedikt Hofmeister">Hofmeister</a> discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Cryptogamia</a>. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then, gradually, came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants (other than Gymnosperms), including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.<sup id="cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buggs_22–36-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the sense in which the term is used, today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm191110_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm191110-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group; the most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae, with <a href="/wiki/Anthophyta" title="Anthophyta">Anthophyta</a> (lit. 'flower-plants') a second choice (both unranked). The <a href="/wiki/Wettstein_system" title="Wettstein system">Wettstein system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Engler_system" title="Engler system">Engler system</a> treated them as a subdivision (Angiospermae). The <a href="/wiki/Reveal_system" title="Reveal system">Reveal system</a> also treated them as a subdivision (Magnoliophytina),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The <a href="/wiki/Takhtajan_system" title="Takhtajan system">Takhtajan system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cronquist_system" title="Cronquist system">Cronquist system</a> treat them as a division (Magnoliophyta).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Dahlgren_system" title="Dahlgren system">Dahlgren system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorne_system_(1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorne system (1992)">Thorne system (1992)</a> treat them as a class (Magnoliopsida). The <a href="/wiki/APG_system" title="APG system">APG system</a> of 1998, and the later 2003<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2003_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 2009<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> revisions, treat the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as a subclass (Magnoliidae).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The <a href="/wiki/Cronquist_system" title="Cronquist system">Cronquist system</a>, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cronquist" title="Arthur Cronquist">Arthur Cronquist</a> in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as the <a href="/wiki/APG_II_system" title="APG II system">APG II system</a> in 2003,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2003_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2003-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/APG_III_system" title="APG III system">APG III system</a> in 2009,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/APG_IV_system" title="APG IV system">APG IV system</a> in 2016. </p><p>Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dicotyledoneae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicotyledoneae">Dicotyledoneae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Magnoliopsida" title="Magnoliopsida">Magnoliopsida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocotyledoneae" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocotyledoneae">Monocotyledoneae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liliopsida" title="Liliopsida">Liliopsida</a></li></ul> <p>to which the Cronquist system ascribes the classes Magnoliopsida (from "<a href="/wiki/Magnoliaceae" title="Magnoliaceae">Magnoliaceae</a>") and Liliopsida (from "<a href="/wiki/Liliaceae" title="Liliaceae">Liliaceae</a>"). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the <a href="/wiki/ICBN" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBN">ICBN</a> include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In plain English, their members may be called "dicotyledons" ("dicots") and "monocotyledons" ("monocots"). The Latin behind these names refers the observation that the dicots most often have two <a href="/wiki/Cotyledon" title="Cotyledon">cotyledons</a>, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a broad diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy, nor a reliable character.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Recent studies, as per the APG, show that the monocots form a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group (a <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>), but that the dicots are <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a>; nevertheless, the majority of dicot species fall into a clade with the <a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">eudicots</a> (or tricolpates), with most of the remaining going into another major clade with the <a href="/wiki/Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">magnoliids</a> (containing about 9,000 species). The remainder includes a paraphyletic grouping of early-branching taxa known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">basal angiosperms</a>, plus the families <a href="/wiki/Ceratophyllaceae" title="Ceratophyllaceae">Ceratophyllaceae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloranthaceae" title="Chloranthaceae">Chloranthaceae</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Plantae,_the_Plant_Kingdom"><span id="Plantae.2C_the_Plant_Kingdom"></span><i>Plantae</i>, the Plant Kingdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Plantae, the Plant Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The plant kingdom is divided according to the following: </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style=""> <tbody><tr> <th>Latin </th> <th>Common </th> <th>No. of species </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyta</a> </td> <td>Mosses </td> <td>approx. 25,000 </td> <td>No vascular system, distinctive vegetative structures, <a href="/wiki/Spores" class="mw-redirect" title="Spores">spores</a> produced for reproduction require damp conditions for survival, many of them are important to the early stages of <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a> </td> <td>Ferns </td> <td>approx. 13,000 </td> <td>Identifiable root, leaf and stem systems but still produce spores instead of seed. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Gymnosperms">Gymnosperms</a> </td> <td>Non-flowering seed plant </td> <td>approx. 1,000 </td> <td>They are a group of seed producing plants, which include <a href="/wiki/Coniferophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferophyta">Coniferophyta</a>,<a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a>,<a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Magnoliophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnoliophyta">Angiosperms</a> </td> <td>Flowering plants </td> <td>approx. 300,000 </td> <td>They are divided into two main classes the <a href="/wiki/Monocotyledons" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocotyledons">monocotyledons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dicotyledons" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicotyledons">dicotyledons</a>, produce seeds that are protected by fruits. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identification,_classification_and_description_of_plants"><span id="Identification.2C_classification_and_description_of_plants"></span>Identification, classification and description of plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Identification, classification and description of plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_taxonomy" title="Special:EditPage/Plant taxonomy">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Plant+taxonomy%22">"Plant taxonomy"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Plant+taxonomy%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Plant+taxonomy%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Plant+taxonomy%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Plant+taxonomy%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Plant+taxonomy%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Three goals of plant taxonomy are the identification, classification and description of plants. The distinction between these three goals is important and often overlooked. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plant_identification" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant identification">Plant identification</a> is a determination of the identity of an unknown plant by comparison with previously collected specimens or with the aid of books or identification manuals. The process of identification connects the specimen with a published name. Once a plant specimen has been identified, its name and properties are known. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plant_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant classification">Plant classification</a> is the placing of known plants into groups or categories to show some relationship. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a> follows a system of rules that standardizes the results, and groups successive categories into a <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a>. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a> to which the <a href="/wiki/Lilium" title="Lilium">lilies</a> belong is classified as follows: </p> <ul><li>Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a></li> <li>Division: <a href="/wiki/Magnoliophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnoliophyta">Magnoliophyta</a></li> <li>Class: <a href="/wiki/Liliopsida" title="Liliopsida">Liliopsida</a></li> <li>Order: <a href="/wiki/Liliales" title="Liliales">Liliales</a></li> <li>Family: <a href="/wiki/Liliaceae" title="Liliaceae">Liliaceae</a></li></ul> <p>The classification of plants results in an organized system for the naming and cataloging of future specimens, and ideally reflects scientific ideas about inter-relationships between plants. The set of rules and recommendations for formal botanical nomenclature, including plants, is governed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants</a> abbreviated as ICN. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Species_description" title="Species description">Plant description</a> is a formal description of a newly discovered <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, usually in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">scientific paper</a> using ICN guidelines. The names of these plants are then registered on the <a href="/wiki/International_Plant_Names_Index" title="International Plant Names Index">International Plant Names Index</a> along with all other validly published names. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_systems">Classification systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">List of systems of plant taxonomy</a></div> <p>These include; </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APG_system" title="APG system">APG system</a> (<i>angiosperm phylogeny group</i>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APG_II_system" title="APG II system">APG II system</a> (<i>angiosperm phylogeny group II</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/APG_III_system" title="APG III system">APG III system</a> (<i>angiosperm phylogeny group III</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/APG_IV_system" title="APG IV system">APG IV system</a> (<i>angiosperm phylogeny group IV</i>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bessey_system" title="Bessey system">Bessey system</a> (<i>a system of plant taxonomy</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronquist_system" title="Cronquist system">Cronquist system</a> (<i>taxonomic classification of flowering plants</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melchior_system" title="Melchior system">Melchior system</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Online_databases">Online databases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Online databases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecocrop" title="Ecocrop">Ecocrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germplasm_Resources_Information_Network" title="Germplasm Resources Information Network">GRIN</a></li></ul> <p>See <a href="/wiki/Category:Online_botany_databases" title="Category:Online botany databases">Category: Online botany databases</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Plant_Taxonomists" title="American Society of Plant Taxonomists">American Society of Plant Taxonomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">Biophysical environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_cultivated_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy of cultivated plants">Taxonomy of cultivated plants</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Principles of Horticulture, 4th Ed</i>. Elsevier. p. 28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Horticulture%2C+4th+Ed.&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Elsevier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm19119-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm19119_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1827" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Robert (1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RjdCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA534">"Character and description of <i>Kingia</i>, a new genus of plants found on the southwest coast of New Holland: with observations on the structure of its unimpregnated ovulum; and on the female flower of Cycadeae and Coniferae"</a>. In King, Philip Parker (ed.). <i>Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia: Performed Between the Years 1818 and 1822</i>. J. Murray. pp. 534–565. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185517977">185517977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Character+and+description+of+Kingia%2C+a+new+genus+of+plants+found+on+the+southwest+coast+of+New+Holland%3A+with+observations+on+the+structure+of+its+unimpregnated+ovulum%3B+and+on+the+female+flower+of+Cycadeae+and+Coniferae&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+a+Survey+of+the+Intertropical+and+Western+Coasts+of+Australia%3A+Performed+Between+the+Years+1818+and+1822&rft.pages=534-565&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1827&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185517977&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRjdCAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buggs_22–36-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuggs2021" class="citation journal cs1">Buggs, Richard J.A. (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajb2.1592">"The origin of Darwin's 'abominable mystery'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>108</b> (1): 22–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajb2.1592">10.1002/ajb2.1592</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33482683">33482683</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:231689158">231689158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+Darwin%27s+%27abominable+mystery%27&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-36&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A231689158%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33482683&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajb2.1592&rft.aulast=Buggs&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fajb2.1592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm191110-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm191110_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frohne & Jensen ex <a href="/wiki/James_L._Reveal" title="James L. 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"Magnoliophytina". <i><a href="/wiki/Phytologia" title="Phytologia">Phytologia</a></i>. <b>79</b> (2): 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2003-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2003_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2003_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAPG2003">APG 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAPG2009">APG 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChaseReveal2009">Chase & Reveal 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101126092206/https://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=448">"As easy as APG III – Scientists revise the system of classifying flowering plants"</a> (Press release). The Linnean Society of London. 8 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=448">the original</a> on 26 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=As+easy+as+APG+III+%E2%80%93+Scientists+revise+the+system+of+classifying+flowering+plants&rft.pub=The+Linnean+Society+of+London&rft.date=2009-10-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linnean.org%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Angiosperms" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Angiosperms">Angiosperms</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Angiosperms&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAPG2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">APG</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x">"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society" title="Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society">Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</a></i>. <b>141</b> (4): 399–436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x">10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=An+update+of+the+Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Group+classification+for+the+orders+and+families+of+flowering+plants%3A+APG+II&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=399-436&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x&rft.au=APG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAPG2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">APG</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x">"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society" title="Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society">Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</a></i>. <b>161</b> (2): 105–121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x">10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10654%2F18083">10654/18083</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=An+update+of+the+Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Group+classification+for+the+orders+and+families+of+flowering+plants%3A+APG+III&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105-121&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10654%2F18083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x&rft.au=APG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaseReveal2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chase, Mark W.; Reveal, James L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.01002.x">"A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III"</a>. <i>Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>161</b> (2): 122–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.01002.x">10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=A+phylogenetic+classification+of+the+land+plants+to+accompany+APG+III&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=122-127&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.01002.x&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=Mark+W.&rft.au=Reveal%2C+James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1095-8339.2009.01002.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+taxonomy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plantsystematics.org/">Plant 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<li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxonomy_of_..." style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy_of_..." title="Template:Taxonomy of ..."><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taxonomy_of_..." title="Template talk:Taxonomy of ..."><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taxonomy_of_..." title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taxonomy of ..."><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taxonomy_of_..." style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a> of ...</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">Monophyletic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_taxonomy" title="Bacterial taxonomy">Bacteria</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plantae</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Allium" title="Taxonomy of Allium"><i>Allium</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Liliaceae" title="Taxonomy of Liliaceae">Liliaceae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Tulipa" title="Taxonomy of Tulipa"><i>Tulipa</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Narcissus" title="Taxonomy of Narcissus"><i>Narcissus</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Orchidaceae" title="Taxonomy of the Orchidaceae">Orchidaceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_wheat" title="Taxonomy of wheat"><i>Triticum</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Adenanthos" title="Taxonomy of Adenanthos"><i>Adenanthos</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Banksia" title="Taxonomy of Banksia"><i>Banksia</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Banksia_integrifolia" title="Taxonomy of Banksia integrifolia"><i>B. integrifolia</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Cactaceae" title="Taxonomy of the Cactaceae">Cactaceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy"><i>Citrus</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Drosera" title="Taxonomy of Drosera"><i>Drosera</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Pachypodium" title="Taxonomy of Pachypodium"><i>Pachypodium</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_animals_(Hutchins_et_al.,_2003)" title="Taxonomy of the animals (Hutchins et al., 2003)">Animalia</a></b></li> <li>Gastropoda <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Gastropoda_(Bouchet_et_al.,_2017)" title="Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet et al., 2017)">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Gastropoda_(Bouchet_%26_Rocroi,_2005)" title="Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005)">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Gastropoda_(Ponder_%26_Lindberg,_1997)" title="Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Ponder & Lindberg, 1997)">1997</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Conoidea_(Tucker_%26_Tenorio,_2009)" title="Taxonomy of the Conoidea (Tucker & Tenorio, 2009)">Conoidea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Bivalvia_taxonomy" title="2010 Bivalvia taxonomy">Bivalvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy of the Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_taxonomy" title="Spider taxonomy">Araneae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_scorpions" title="Taxonomy of scorpions">Scorpiones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Dermaptera" title="Taxonomy of the Dermaptera">Dermaptera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Anopheles" title="Taxonomy of Anopheles"><i>Anopheles</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_Lepidoptera" title="Taxonomy of the Lepidoptera">Lepidoptera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Lucanidae" title="Taxonomy of Lucanidae">Lucanidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_the_vertebrates_(Young,_1962)" title="Taxonomy of the vertebrates (Young, 1962)">Vertebrates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_lemurs" title="Taxonomy of lemurs">Lemuridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy"><i>Homo sapiens</i></a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polyphyly" title="Polyphyly">Polyphyletic</a></th><td 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fossilised invertebrates">Commonly fossilised invertebrates</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_classification" title="Virus classification">Viruses</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&oldid=1256237148">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_taxonomy&oldid=1256237148</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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