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Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espeleotema" title="Espeleotema – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espeleotema" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%A1pn%C3%ADk" title="Krápník – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Krápník" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spel%C3%A4othem" title="Speläothem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Speläothem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speleoteem" title="Speleoteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Speleoteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8C%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Σπηλαιόθεμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σπηλαιόθεμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espeleotema" title="Espeleotema – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espeleotema" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espeleotema" title="Espeleotema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espeleotema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF" title="غارسنگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="غارسنگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9oth%C3%A8me" title="Spéléothème – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Spéléothème" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espeleotema" title="Espeleotema – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Espeleotema" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EA%B5%B4%EC%83%9D%EC%84%B1%EB%AC%BC" title="동굴생성물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동굴생성물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speleotem" title="Speleotem – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Speleotem" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speleotema" title="Speleotema – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Speleotema" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%9D" title="ספלאותם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספלאותם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%B6ppelsjt%C3%A8%C3%A8" title="Dröppelsjtèè – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Dröppelsjtèè" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druipsteen" title="Druipsteen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Druipsteen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E7%94%9F%E6%88%90%E7%89%A9" title="二次生成物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="二次生成物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speleothemer" title="Speleothemer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Speleothemer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Speleothem" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naciek_jaskiniowy" title="Naciek jaskiniowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Naciek jaskiniowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espeleotema" title="Espeleotema – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Espeleotema" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%91%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Натёчные образования – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Натёчные образования" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapnik" title="Kapnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kapnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tippukivi" title="Tippukivi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tippukivi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droppsten" title="Droppsten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Droppsten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%C4%9Fara_%C3%A7%C3%B6kelleri" title="Mağara çökelleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mağara çökelleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Печерні відклади – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Печерні відклади" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B4%9E%E7%A9%B4%E6%B2%89%E7%A9%8D%E7%89%A9" title="洞穴沉積物 – Chinese" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Structure formed in a cave by the deposition of minerals from water</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For secondary deposits, derived from concrete, lime, or mortar, outside the cave environment, see <a href="/wiki/Calthemite" title="Calthemite">Calthemite</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Labeled_speleothems.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Labeled_speleothems.jpg/310px-Labeled_speleothems.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Labeled_speleothems.jpg/465px-Labeled_speleothems.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Labeled_speleothems.jpg/620px-Labeled_speleothems.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1209" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>Cave labeled with the six most common types of speleothems: <a href="/wiki/Flowstone" title="Flowstone">flowstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stalagnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalagnate">columns</a>, drapery, <a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">stalactites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soda_straw" title="Soda straw">straws</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/speleothem" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:speleothem"> speleothem</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p>A <b>speleothem</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span></span>/</a></span></span>; from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%80%CE%AE%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:σπήλαιον">σπήλαιον</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>spḗlaion</i></span>)</i> 'cave' and <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B8%CE%AD%CE%BC%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:θέμα">θέμα</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>théma</i></span>)</i> 'deposit') is a <a href="/wiki/Geological_formation" title="Geological formation">geological formation</a> made by <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposits</a> that accumulate over time in natural <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">caves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speleothems most commonly form in <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> caves due to carbonate dissolution reactions. They can take a variety of forms, depending on their depositional history and environment. Their chemical composition, gradual growth, and preservation in caves make them useful <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatic</a> proxies. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_and_physical_characteristics">Chemical and physical characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Chemical and physical characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>More than 300 variations of cave mineral deposits have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of speleothems are calcareous, composed of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) minerals (<a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a>). Less commonly, speleothems are made of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mirabilite" title="Mirabilite">mirabilite</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Opal" title="Opal">opal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speleothems of pure calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate are translucent and colorless. The presence of <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> provides a reddish brown color. The presence of <a href="/wiki/Manganese_oxide" title="Manganese oxide">manganese oxide</a> can create darker colors such as black or dark brown. Speleothems can also be brown due to the presence of mud and <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many factors impact the shape and color of speleothems, including the chemical composition of the rock and water, water seepage rate, water flow direction, cave temperature, cave humidity, air currents, aboveground climate, and aboveground plant cover. Weaker flows and short travel distances form narrower stalagmites, while heavier flow and a greater fall distance tend to form broader ones. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation_processes">Formation processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most cave chemistry involves <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) containing rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">dolomite</a>, composed of <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> minerals. Carbonate minerals are more <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble</a> in the presence of higher <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) and lower temperatures. Calcareous speleothems form via carbonate dissolution reactions whereby rainwater reacts with soil CO<sub>2</sub> to create weakly acidic water via the reaction:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>H<sub>2</sub>O + CO<sub>2</sub> → <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></a></dd></dl> <p>As the acidic water travels through the calcium carbonate bedrock from the surface to the cave ceiling, it dissolves the bedrock via the reaction: </p> <dl><dd>CaCO<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> → Ca<sup>2+</sup> + 2 HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup></dd></dl> <p>When the solution reaches a cave, the lower <a href="/wiki/PCO2" title="PCO2">pCO<sub>2</sub></a> in the cave drives the <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitation</a> of CaCO<sub>3</sub> via the reaction: </p> <dl><dd>Ca<sup>2+</sup> + 2 HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> → CaCO<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O + CO<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <p>Over time, the accumulation of these precipitates form dripstones (<a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">stalactites</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Flowstone" title="Flowstone">flowstones</a>, two of the major types of speleothems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate_proxies">Climate proxies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Climate proxies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Speleothem transects can provide paleoclimate records similar to those from <a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">ice cores</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">tree rings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slow geometrical growth and incorporation of radioactive elements enables speleothems to be accurately and precisely dated over much of the late <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> by <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium-thorium_dating" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium-thorium dating">uranium-thorium dating</a>, as long as the cave is a closed system and the speleothem has not undergone <a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(geology)" title="Recrystallization (geology)">recrystallization.</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxygen (<a href="/wiki/%CE%9418O" title="Δ18O">δ<sup>18</sup>O</a>) and carbon (<a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C">δ<sup>13</sup>C</a>) stable isotopes are used to track variation in rainfall temperature, precipitation, and vegetation changes over the past ~500,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mg/Ca proxy has likewise been used as a moisture indicator, although its reliability as a palaeohygrometer can be affected by cave ventilation during dry seasons.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Variations in precipitation alter the width of speleothem rings: closed rings indicates little rainfall, wider spacing indicates heavier rainfall, and denser rings indicate higher moisture. Drip rate counting and trace element analysis of the water drops record short-term climate variations, such as <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) climate events.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exceptionally, climate proxy data from the early <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> period have been retrieved from speleothems dated to 289 million years ago sourced from infilled caves exposed by quarrying at the <a href="/wiki/Richards_Spur" title="Richards Spur">Richards Spur</a> locality in Oklahoma.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_and_categories">Types and categories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types and categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropfsteine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Tropfsteine.svg/310px-Tropfsteine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Tropfsteine.svg/465px-Tropfsteine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Tropfsteine.svg/620px-Tropfsteine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Types of speleothem:<br /> (A) Stalactite (B) Soda straws (C) Stalagmites (D) Coned stalagmite (E) Stalagnate or column (F) Drapery (G) Drapery (H) Helictites (I) Moonmilk (J) Sinter pool, rimstone (K) Calcite crystals (L) Sinter terrace (M) Karst (N) Body of water (O) Shield (P) Cave clouds (Q) Cave pearls (R) Tower cones (S) Shelfstones (T) Baldacchino canopy (U) Bottlebrush stalactite (V) Conulite (W) Flowstone (X) Trays (Y) Calcite rafts (Z) Cave popcorn or coralloids (AA) Frostworks (AB) Flowstone (AC) Splattermite (AD) Speleoseismites (AE) Boxworks (AF) Oriented stalactite (AG) collapsed rubble</figcaption></figure> <p>Speleothems take various forms, depending on whether the water drips, seeps, condenses, flows, or ponds. Many speleothems are named for their resemblance to man-made or natural objects. Types of speleothems include:<sup id="cite_ref-Hill&Forti1997_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill&Forti1997-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Dripstone</b> is calcium carbonate in the form of stalactites or stalagmites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">Stalactites</a> are pointed pendants hanging from the cave ceiling, from which they grow <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soda_straw" title="Soda straw">Soda straws</a> are very thin but long stalactites with an elongated cylindrical shape rather than the usual more conical shape of stalactites</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helictite" title="Helictite">Helictites</a> are stalactites that have a central canal with twig-like or spiral projections that appear to defy gravity <ul><li>Include forms known as ribbon helictites, saws, rods, butterflies, hands, curly-fries, and "clumps of worms"</li></ul></li> <li>Chandeliers are complex clusters of ceiling decorations</li> <li>Ribbon stalactites, or simply "ribbons", are shaped accordingly</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">Stalagmites</a> are the "ground-up" counterparts of stalactites, often blunt mounds <ul><li>Broomstick stalagmites are very tall and spindly</li> <li>Totem pole stalagmites are also tall and shaped like their namesakes</li> <li>Fried egg stalagmites are small, typically wider than they are tall</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalagnate">Stalagnate</a> results when stalactites and stalagmites meet or when stalactites reach the floor of the cave</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Flowstone" title="Flowstone">Flowstone</a></b> is sheet like and found on cave floors and walls <ul><li>Draperies or curtains are thin, wavy sheets of calcite hanging downward <ul><li>Bacon is a drapery with variously colored bands within the sheet</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimstone" title="Rimstone">Rimstone dams</a>, or gours, occur at stream ripples and form barriers that may contain water</li> <li>Stone waterfall formations simulate frozen cascades</li></ul></li> <li><b>Cave crystals</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dogtooth_spar" title="Dogtooth spar">Dogtooth spar</a> are large calcite crystals often found near seasonal pools</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostwork" title="Frostwork">Frostwork</a> is needle-like growths of calcite or aragonite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonmilk" title="Moonmilk">Moonmilk</a> is white and cheese-like</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthodite" title="Anthodite">Anthodites</a> are flower-like clusters of aragonite crystals</li> <li><i>Cryogenic</i> calcite crystals are loose grains of calcite found on the floors of caves formed by segregation of solutes during freezing of water.</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Speleogen" title="Speleogen">Speleogens</a></b> (technically distinct from speleothems) are formations within caves that are created by the removal of <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a>, rather than as secondary deposits. These include: <ul><li>Pillars</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalloping_(cave_feature)" title="Scalloping (cave feature)">Scallops</a></li> <li>Boneyard</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxwork" title="Boxwork">Boxwork</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>Others</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_popcorn" title="Cave popcorn">Cave popcorn</a>, also known as "coralloids" or "cave coral", are small, knobby clusters of calcite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_pearl" title="Cave pearl">Cave pearls</a> are the result of water dripping from high above, causing small "seed" crystals to turn over so often that they form into near-perfect spheres of calcium carbonate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snottite" title="Snottite">Snottites</a> are colonies of predominantly sulfur <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidizing</a> bacteria and have the consistency of "snot", or mucus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcite_rafts" title="Calcite rafts">Calcite rafts</a> are thin accumulations of calcite that appear on the surface of cave pools</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hells_Bells_(cave_formations)" title="Hells Bells (cave formations)">Hells Bells</a>, a particular speleothem found in the El Zapote <a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">cenote</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Yucatan">Yucatan</a> in the form of submerged, bell-like shapes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_tubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava tubes">Lava tubes</a> contain speleothems composed of sulfates, mirabilite or opal. When the lava cools, precipitation occurs.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Calthemites">Calthemites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Calthemites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The usual definition of speleothem excludes <a href="/wiki/Secondary_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary mineral">secondary mineral</a> deposits derived from <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>, or other calcareous material (e.g. limestone and dolomite) outside the cave environment or in artificial caves (e.g. mines, tunnels), which can have similar shapes and forms as speleothems. Such secondary deposits in man-made structures are termed <a href="/wiki/Calthemite" title="Calthemite">calthemites</a>. Calthemites are often associated with <a href="/wiki/Concrete_degradation" title="Concrete degradation">concrete degradation</a>, or due to <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(chemistry)" title="Leaching (chemistry)">leaching</a> of lime, mortar, or other calcareous material. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Various formations in the Hall of the Mountain Kings, Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, South Wales, Great Britain"><img alt="Various formations in the Hall of the Mountain Kings, Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, South Wales, Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg/93px-HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg/139px-HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg/185px-HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="776" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Various formations in the <a href="/wiki/Ogof_Craig_a_Ffynnon" title="Ogof Craig a Ffynnon">Hall of the Mountain Kings, Ogof Craig a Ffynnon</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stalactites and columns in Natural Bridge Caverns, Texas"><img alt="Stalactites and columns in Natural Bridge Caverns, Texas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg/90px-NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg/135px-NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg/180px-NaturalBridgeCaverns6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stalactites and columns in <a href="/wiki/Natural_Bridge_Caverns" title="Natural Bridge Caverns">Natural Bridge Caverns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="More formations in Natural Bridge Caverns, Texas"><img alt="More formations in Natural Bridge Caverns, Texas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg/120px-NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg/180px-NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg/240px-NaturalBridgeCaverns7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">More formations in <a href="/wiki/Natural_Bridge_Caverns" title="Natural Bridge Caverns">Natural Bridge Caverns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kl_0005356.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cave curtain formation in the Marble Arch Caves, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland"><img alt="Cave curtain formation in the Marble Arch Caves, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Kl_0005356.jpg/120px-Kl_0005356.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Kl_0005356.jpg/180px-Kl_0005356.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Kl_0005356.jpg/240px-Kl_0005356.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cave curtain formation in the <a href="/wiki/Marble_Arch_Caves" title="Marble Arch Caves">Marble Arch Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Fermanagh" title="County Fermanagh">County Fermanagh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="California Caverns, Calaveras County, California; one of many caverns located in the Sierra Foothills of California"><img alt="California Caverns, Calaveras County, California; one of many caverns located in the Sierra Foothills of California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg/120px-CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg/180px-CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg/240px-CaliforniaCaveFormation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/California_Caverns" title="California Caverns">California Caverns</a>, Calaveras County, California; one of many caverns located in the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Foothills" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Foothills">Sierra Foothills</a> of California</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave,_Dobrinj,_Island_of_Krk.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stalagnates (columns) in the cave Biserujka, Dobrinj, Island Krk, Croatia"><img alt="Stalagnates (columns) in the cave Biserujka, Dobrinj, Island Krk, Croatia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave%2C_Dobrinj%2C_Island_of_Krk.jpg/79px-Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave%2C_Dobrinj%2C_Island_of_Krk.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave%2C_Dobrinj%2C_Island_of_Krk.jpg/119px-Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave%2C_Dobrinj%2C_Island_of_Krk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave%2C_Dobrinj%2C_Island_of_Krk.jpg/159px-Dripstone_column_in_Biserujka_Cave%2C_Dobrinj%2C_Island_of_Krk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="2256" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stalagnates (columns) in the cave <a href="/wiki/Biserujka" title="Biserujka">Biserujka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dobrinj" title="Dobrinj">Dobrinj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a> <a href="/wiki/Krk" title="Krk">Krk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Druipsteen3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Various formations in the cave of Remouchamps, Aywaille, Belgium"><img alt="Various formations in the cave of Remouchamps, Aywaille, Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Druipsteen3.jpg/120px-Druipsteen3.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Druipsteen3.jpg/180px-Druipsteen3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Druipsteen3.jpg/240px-Druipsteen3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Various formations in the cave of Remouchamps, <a href="/wiki/Aywaille" title="Aywaille">Aywaille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zuil.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stalagnate (column) in the cave of Remouchamps, Aywaille, Belgium"><img alt="Stalagnate (column) in the cave of Remouchamps, Aywaille, Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Zuil.jpg/92px-Zuil.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Zuil.jpg/138px-Zuil.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Zuil.jpg/184px-Zuil.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1047" data-file-height="1366" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stalagnate (column) in the cave of Remouchamps, <a href="/wiki/Aywaille" title="Aywaille">Aywaille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_pearls.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image of Cave Pearl formation"><img alt="Image of Cave Pearl formation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Cave_pearls.jpg/90px-Cave_pearls.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Cave_pearls.jpg/135px-Cave_pearls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Cave_pearls.jpg/180px-Cave_pearls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Image of Cave Pearl formation</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave,_KY.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image of flowstone in Mammoth Cave, KY"><img alt="Image of flowstone in Mammoth Cave, KY" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave%2C_KY.jpg/120px-Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave%2C_KY.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave%2C_KY.jpg/180px-Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave%2C_KY.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave%2C_KY.jpg/240px-Flowstone_in_Mammoth_Cave%2C_KY.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="933" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Image of flowstone in Mammoth Cave, KY</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petrifying_well" title="Petrifying well">Petrifying well</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWhite2019" class="citation journal cs1">White, W. B. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128141243001175">"Speleothems"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Caves</i>: 1006–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-814124-3.00117-5">10.1016/B978-0-12-814124-3.00117-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128141243" title="Special:BookSources/9780128141243"><bdi>9780128141243</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Caves&rft.atitle=Speleothems&rft.pages=1006-17&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-814124-3.00117-5&rft.isbn=9780128141243&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=W.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780128141243001175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpeleothem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2016" class="citation journal cs1">White, William (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3986%2Fac.v44i3.1896">"Chemistry and karst"</a>. <i>Acta Carsologica</i>. <b>44</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3986%2Fac.v44i3.1896">10.3986/ac.v44i3.1896</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0583-6050">0583-6050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Carsologica&rft.atitle=Chemistry+and+karst&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3986%2Fac.v44i3.1896&rft.issn=0583-6050&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3986%252Fac.v44i3.1896&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpeleothem" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.2012" class="citation book cs1">J., Fairchild, Ian (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/813621194"><i>Speleothem science: from process to past environments</i></a>. 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[Huntsville, Alabama: National Speleological Society Inc.] pp. 217, 225</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speleothem&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Speleothems" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Speleothems">Speleothems</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave/">The Virtual Cave: an online guide to speleothems</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mindraw.web.ru/cristall17.htm">Mineral aggregates from carst caves, formed in capillary film solutions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130123003018/http://www.nature.nps.gov:80/geology/caves/photo_speleothems.htm">Gallery of speleothems</a> from <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">NPS</a> Cave and Karst Program (archived on 23 January 2013)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caves" title="Template:Caves"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caves" title="Template talk:Caves"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caves" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caves"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cave_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_caving_and_speleology" title="Glossary of caving and speleology">Glossary of caving and speleology</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biospeleology" title="Biospeleology">Biospeleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_conservation" title="Cave conservation">Cave conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_survey" title="Cave survey">Cave survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving" title="Caving">Caving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving_equipment" title="Caving equipment">Equipment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fauna" title="Subterranean fauna">Fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stygofauna" title="Stygofauna">Stygofauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troglofauna" title="Troglofauna">Troglofauna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">Karst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleogenesis" title="Speleogenesis">Speleogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_by_country" title="Category:Caves by country">Caves by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and formation<br /> processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchihaline cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_cave" title="Breathing cave">Breathing cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave-in" title="Cave-in">Cave-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">Estavelle/Inversac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foiba" title="Foiba">Foiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">Glacier cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Ice cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_cave" title="Lava cave">Lava cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ley_tunnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ley tunnel">Ley tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Exploration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_cave" title="Pit cave">Pit cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_cave" title="Salt cave">Salt cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutional_cave" title="Solutional cave">Solutional cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_cave" title="Show cave">Show cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffosion" title="Suffosion">Suffosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sump_(cave)" title="Sump (cave)">Sump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talus_cave" title="Talus cave">Talus cave</a></li> <li>Underground <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underground_lake" title="Underground lake">Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_waterfall" title="Subterranean waterfall">Waterfall</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Speleothems</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Speleogen" title="Speleogen">Speleogens</a><br />(Cave formations)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthodite" title="Anthodite">Anthodite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxwork" title="Boxwork">Boxwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcite_rafts" title="Calcite rafts">Calcite rafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_pearl" title="Cave pearl">Cave pearl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_popcorn" title="Cave popcorn">Cave popcorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogtooth_spar" title="Dogtooth spar">Dogtooth spar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowstone" title="Flowstone">Flowstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostwork" title="Frostwork">Frostwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helictite" title="Helictite">Helictite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonmilk" title="Moonmilk">Moonmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimstone" title="Rimstone">Rimstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelfstone" title="Shelfstone">Shelfstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snottite" title="Snottite">Snottite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_straw" title="Soda straw">Soda straw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleoseismite" title="Speleoseismite">Speleoseismite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">Stalactite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">Stalagmite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalagnate">Stalagnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vug" title="Vug">Vug</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave-dwelling_Jews" title="Cave-dwelling Jews">Cave-dwelling Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cave_monasteries" title="List of cave monasteries">Cave monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kome_Caves" title="Kome Caves">Kome Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_and_Mamproug_Cave_Dwellings" title="Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings">Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaodong" title="Yaodong">Yaodong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diving_into_the_Unknown" title="Diving into the Unknown">Diving into the Unknown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Forgotten_Dreams" title="Cave of Forgotten Dreams">Cave of Forgotten Dreams</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Eiger" title="The Underground Eiger">The Underground Eiger</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UK_caving_fatalities" title="List of UK caving fatalities">List of UK caving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riesending_cave_rescue" title="Riesending cave rescue">Riesending cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves" title="Category:Caves">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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