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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemistry_of_dissolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry_of_dissolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Chemistry of dissolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry_of_dissolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interstratal_karst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interstratal_karst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Interstratal karst</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interstratal_karst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kegelkarst,_salt_karst,_and_karst_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kegelkarst,_salt_karst,_and_karst_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Kegelkarst, salt karst, and karst forests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kegelkarst,_salt_karst,_and_karst_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paleokarst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleokarst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Paleokarst</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleokarst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pseudokarst" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pseudokarst"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Pseudokarst</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pseudokarst-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Hydrology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hydrology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hydrology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hydrology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aquifers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquifers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Aquifers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquifers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_karst_hydrology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_karst_hydrology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Effects of karst hydrology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_karst_hydrology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karst_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karst_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Karst areas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karst_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_terms_for_karst-related_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_terms_for_karst-related_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>List of terms for karst-related features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_terms_for_karst-related_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karstology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karstology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Karstology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karstology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Karst</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="كارست – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كارست" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carst" title="Carst – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Carst" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kras" title="Kras – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kras" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carst" title="Carst – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Carst" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%83%CF%84" title="Καρστ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καρστ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsto" title="Karsto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Karsto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="کارست – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارست" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9igi%C3%BAn_carst" title="Réigiún carst – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Réigiún carst" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carso" title="Carso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Carso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8" title="카르스트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카르스트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%BF" title="Կարստ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կարստ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="कार्स्ट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कार्स्ट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C5%A1" title="Krš – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Krš" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curing" title="Curing – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Curing" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carsismo" title="Carsismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carsismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%98" title="קרסט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרסט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="კარსტი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კარსტი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirfurv_karst" title="Tirfurv karst – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Tirfurv karst" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carstus" title="Carstus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Carstus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karsta_process" title="Karsta process – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Karsta process" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karstas_(rei%C5%A1kinys)" title="Karstas (reiškinys) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Karstas (reiškinys)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karszt" title="Karszt – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Karszt" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst_(geografie)" title="Karst (geografie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Karst (geografie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E5%9C%B0%E5%BD%A2" title="カルスト地形 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カルスト地形" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carst" title="Carst – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Carst" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kras_(geologia)" title="Kras (geologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kras (geologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carste" title="Carste – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Carste" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carst" title="Carst – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Carst" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kras" title="Kras – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kras" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kras" title="Kras – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kras" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81_(%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Крас (геоморфологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Крас (геоморфологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kras" title="Kras – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kras" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karstimaa" title="Karstimaa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Karstimaa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="சுண்ணாம்புக் கரடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுண்ணாம்புக் கரடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="คาสต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คาสต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Карст – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Карст" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carsismo" title="Carsismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Carsismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karst" title="Karst – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Karst" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%80%E6%96%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%9C%B0%E5%BD%A2" title="喀斯特地形 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="喀斯特地形" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Karst_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Karst (disambiguation)">Karst (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zadar_(HR),_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Zadar_%28HR%29%2C_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg/220px-Zadar_%28HR%29%2C_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Zadar_%28HR%29%2C_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg/330px-Zadar_%28HR%29%2C_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Zadar_%28HR%29%2C_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg/440px-Zadar_%28HR%29%2C_Krupa-Canyon_--_2022_--_0003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Typical karst terrain of the <a href="/wiki/Dinaric_Alps" title="Dinaric Alps">Dinaric Alps</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:87340-Li-River_(29881879337).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/87340-Li-River_%2829881879337%29.jpg/220px-87340-Li-River_%2829881879337%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/87340-Li-River_%2829881879337%29.jpg/330px-87340-Li-River_%2829881879337%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/87340-Li-River_%2829881879337%29.jpg/440px-87340-Li-River_%2829881879337%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1645" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Li_River" title="Li River">Lijiang</a> fengcong (<a href="/wiki/Tower_karst" title="Tower karst">cone karst</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Guilin" title="Guilin">Guilin</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/South_China_Karst" title="South China Karst">South China Karst</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic,_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic%2C_2.jpg/220px-Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic%2C_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic%2C_2.jpg/330px-Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic%2C_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic%2C_2.jpg/440px-Paisatge_c%C3%A0rstic%2C_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption>Karst formation of the <a href="/wiki/Serra_de_Tramuntana" title="Serra de Tramuntana">Serra de Tramuntana</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Karst</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> formed from the dissolution of soluble <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rock" title="Carbonate rock">carbonate rocks</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">dolomite</a>. It is characterized by features like <a href="/wiki/Polje" title="Polje">poljes</a> above and drainage systems with <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">caves</a> underground.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some evidence that karst may occur in more <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>-resistant rocks such as <a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">quartzite</a> given the right conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where the dissolved <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of <i>paleokarst</i> (buried karst in the <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic_column" title="Stratigraphic column">stratigraphic column</a>) is important in <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geology" title="Petroleum geology">petroleum geology</a> because as much as 50% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Oil_and_gas_reserves_and_resource_quantification" title="Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification">hydrocarbon reserves</a> are hosted in <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rock" title="Carbonate rock">carbonate rock</a>, and much of this is found in porous karst systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Derek2007_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derek2007-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg/310px-Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg/465px-Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg/620px-Carbonate-outcrops_world.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>Global distribution of major outcrops of carbonate rocks (mainly <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, except <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">evaporites</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The English word <i>karst</i> was borrowed from <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Karst</i></span> in the late 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which entered German usage much earlier,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to describe a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the <a href="/wiki/Range_(geographic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Range (geographic)">range</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dinaric_Alps" title="Dinaric Alps">Dinaric Alps</a>, stretching from the northeastern corner of <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> above the city of <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>, across the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan peninsula">Balkan peninsula</a> along the coast of the eastern <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kosovo" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Massif" title="Massif">massif</a> of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%A0ar_Mountains" title="Šar Mountains">Šar Mountains</a> begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a <a href="/wiki/Karst_Plateau_(Italy-Slovenia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Karst Plateau (Italy-Slovenia)">plateau</a> between Italy and <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>. Languages preserving this form include <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">Carso</i>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Karst</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>: <i lang="sq">karsti</i>. </p><p>In the local <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic languages</a>, all variations of the word are derived from a Romanized <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a> base (yielding <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">carsus</i>, <a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_language" title="Dalmatian language">Dalmatian</a>: <i lang="dlm">carsus</i>), later <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesized</a> from the reconstructed form <span title="Slavic languages collective text">*<i lang="sla">korsъ</i></span> into forms such as <a href="/wiki/Slovene_language" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a>: <i lang="sl">kras</i><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Serbo-Croatian language">Serbo-Croatian</a>: <i lang="sh">krš</i>, <span title="Serbo-Croatian-language text"><i lang="sh">kras</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form <span title="Slovene-language text"><i lang="sl">kraški</i></span> in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Snoj_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snoj-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a proper noun, the Slovene form <span title="Slovene-language text"><i lang="sl">Grast</i></span> was first attested in 1177.<sup id="cite_ref-Bezlaj_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bezlaj-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ultimately, the word is of <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> origin. It has also been suggested that the word may derive from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> root <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">karra-</span></span></i> 'rock'.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name may also be connected to the <a href="/wiki/Oronym_(toponymy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oronym (toponymy)">oronym</a> <i>Kar(u)sádios oros</i> cited by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, and perhaps also to Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Carusardius</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Snoj_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snoj-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bezlaj_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bezlaj-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_studies">Early studies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg/220px-Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg/330px-Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg/440px-Causse_de_Sauveterre_doline.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="2739" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Doline" class="mw-redirect" title="Doline">Doline</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Causses" title="Causses">causse</a> de Sauveterre, <a href="/wiki/Loz%C3%A8re" title="Lozère">Lozère, France</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Johann_Weikhard_von_Valvasor" title="Johann Weikhard von Valvasor">Johann Weikhard von Valvasor</a>, a pioneer of the study of karst in <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> and a fellow of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, London, introduced the word <i>karst</i> to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Cerknica" title="Lake Cerknica">Lake Cerknica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jovan_Cviji%C4%87" title="Jovan Cvijić">Jovan Cvijić</a> greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions to the point where he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing the karst regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication <i>Das Karstphänomen</i> describes landforms such as karren, <a href="/wiki/Doline" class="mw-redirect" title="Doline">dolines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polje" title="Polje">poljes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Derek2007_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derek2007-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cyclical model</a> for karst landscape development.<sup id="cite_ref-Derek2007_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Derek2007-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Karst <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called <a href="/wiki/Speleologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Speleologist">speleologists</a>, had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science and so the underground <a href="/wiki/Solutional_cave" title="Solutional cave">karst caves</a> and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg/220px-Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg/330px-Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg/440px-Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>A limestone deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Dinaric_Alps" title="Dinaric Alps">Dinaric Alps</a> near <a href="/wiki/Sinj" title="Sinj">Sinj, Croatia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Karst is most strongly developed in dense <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rock" title="Carbonate rock">carbonate rock</a>, such as limestone, that is thinly <a href="/wiki/Bed_(geology)" title="Bed (geology)">bedded</a> and highly <a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">fractured</a>. Karst is not typically well developed in <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>, because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with <a href="/wiki/Entrenched_river" title="Entrenched river">entrenched valleys</a>, and where rainfall is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock.<sup id="cite_ref-thornbury-1969_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thornbury-1969-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemistry_of_dissolution">Chemistry of dissolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chemistry of dissolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> that causes karst features is formed as rain passes through <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> picking up <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>), which readily dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> that provides additional CO<sub>2</sub> produced by <a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">soil respiration</a>. Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following:<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kostivere_karst_area.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Kostivere_karst_area.jpg/220px-Kostivere_karst_area.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Kostivere_karst_area.jpg/330px-Kostivere_karst_area.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Kostivere_karst_area.jpg/440px-Kostivere_karst_area.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3498" data-file-height="4373" /></a><figcaption>Kostivere karst area in Estonia</figcaption></figure> <table style="padding-left: 2em" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td>H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td>+</td> <td>CO<sub>2</sub></td> <td>→</td> <td colspan="3">H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <td>CaCO<sub>3</sub></td> <td>+</td> <td>H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></td> <td>→</td> <td>Ca<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>+</td> <td>2 <span class="chemf nowrap">HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table><p>In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played a major role in the formation of ancient <a href="/wiki/Lechuguilla_Cave" title="Lechuguilla Cave">Lechuguilla Cave</a> in the US state of <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is presently active in the <a href="/wiki/Frasassi_Caves" title="Frasassi Caves">Frasassi Caves</a> of Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg/220px-Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg/330px-Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg/440px-Karst_Dent-de-Crolle-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1333" data-file-height="904" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">Limestone pavement</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dent_de_Crolles" title="Dent de Crolles">Dent de Crolles, France</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The oxidation of <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a> leading to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O<sub>2</sub>)-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in the system (<a href="/wiki/Pyrite" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>) to form sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain of reactions</a> is: </p> <table style="padding-left: 2em" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td>H<sub>2</sub>S</td> <td>+</td> <td>2 O<sub>2</sub></td> <td>→ </td> <td colspan="5">H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></td> <td>(sulfide oxidation) </td></tr> <tr> <td>H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></td> <td>+</td> <td>2 H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td>→ </td> <td><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span></td> <td>+</td> <td colspan="3">2 H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup></td> <td>(sulfuric acid dissociation) </td></tr> <tr> <td>CaCO<sub>3</sub></td> <td>+</td> <td>2 H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup></td> <td>→ </td> <td>Ca<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>+</td> <td>H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></td> <td>+</td> <td>2 H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td>(calcium carbonate dissolution) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ca<sup>2+</sup></td> <td>+</td> <td>SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup></td> <td>→ </td> <td>CaSO<sub>4</sub></td> <td></td> <td colspan="3"></td> <td>(formation of calcium sulfate) </td></tr> <tr> <td>CaSO<sub>4</sub></td> <td>+</td> <td>2 H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td>→ </td> <td colspan="5">CaSO<sub>4</sub> · 2 H<sub>2</sub>O</td> <td>(formation of gypsum) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This reaction chain forms <a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg/220px-Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg/330px-Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg/440px-Rubaksa_tufa_plug.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="3096" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rubaksa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubaksa">Rubaksa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tufa" title="Tufa">tufa</a> plug in Ethiopia</figcaption></figure> <p>The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solution_flute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solution flute (page does not exist)">solution flutes</a> (or rillenkarren), <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">runnels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">limestone pavement</a> (clints and grikes), <a href="/wiki/Kamenitza_(Geomorphology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamenitza (Geomorphology)">kamenitzas</a> collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">cenotes</a> (closed basins), vertical shafts, <a href="/wiki/Foibe" class="mw-redirect" title="Foibe">foibe</a> (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing <a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">springs</a>. </p><p>Large-scale features may include <a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">limestone pavements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polje" title="Polje">poljes</a>, and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in <a href="/wiki/Tower_karst" title="Tower karst">karst towers</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Mogote" title="Mogote">haystack/eggbox</a> landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst <a href="/wiki/Aquifer#Porous_versus_karst" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a>) and extensive <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">caves</a> and cavern systems may form.<sup id="cite_ref-thornbury-1969_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thornbury-1969-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a>, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioerosion</a> at or a little above <a href="/wiki/Mean_sea_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Mean sea level">mean sea level</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phangnga_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Phangnga Bay">Phangnga Bay</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Halong_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Halong Bay">Halong Bay</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. </p><p>Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce <a href="/wiki/Tufa" title="Tufa">tufa</a> terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called <a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">speleothems</a> are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interstratal_karst">Interstratal karst</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interstratal karst"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interstratal karst is a karst landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at <a href="/wiki/Cefn_yr_Ystrad" title="Cefn yr Ystrad">Cefn yr Ystrad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mynydd_Llangatwg" title="Mynydd Llangatwg">Mynydd Llangatwg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mynydd_Llangynidr" title="Mynydd Llangynidr">Mynydd Llangynidr</a> in South Wales across a cover of <a href="/wiki/Twrch_Sandstone" class="mw-redirect" title="Twrch Sandstone">Twrch Sandstone</a> which overlies concealed <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Limestone" title="Carboniferous Limestone">Carboniferous Limestone</a>, the last-named locality having been declared a <a href="/wiki/Site_of_special_scientific_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Site of special scientific interest">site of special scientific interest</a> in respect of it.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kegelkarst,_salt_karst,_and_karst_forests"><span id="Kegelkarst.2C_salt_karst.2C_and_karst_forests"></span>Kegelkarst, salt karst, and karst forests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Kegelkarst, salt karst, and karst forests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, <a href="/wiki/Mogote" title="Mogote">mogotes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polje" title="Polje">poljes</a> and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Salt karst (or 'halite karst') is developed in areas where <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">salt</a> is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleokarst">Paleokarst</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Paleokarst"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Paleokarst or palaeokarst is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarst surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Limestone" title="Carboniferous Limestone">Carboniferous Limestone</a> sequence of <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a> which developed as sub-aerial <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of the period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karst surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudokarst">Pseudokarst</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pseudokarst"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> caves and <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> <a href="/wiki/Tor_(geography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor (geography)">tors</a>—for example, Labertouche Cave in <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Victoria (Australia)">Victoria, Australia</a>—and <a href="/wiki/Paleocollapse" title="Paleocollapse">paleocollapse</a> features. <a href="/wiki/Mud_Caves" title="Mud Caves">Mud Caves</a> are an example of pseudokarst. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrology">Hydrology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hydrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KarstterrainUSGS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cross section of karst terrain showing topographic features and water flow paths." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/KarstterrainUSGS.jpg/440px-KarstterrainUSGS.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/KarstterrainUSGS.jpg/660px-KarstterrainUSGS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/KarstterrainUSGS.jpg/880px-KarstterrainUSGS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1313" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Features typical of well-developed karst terrain</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg/220px-Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg/330px-Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg/440px-Puerto_Princesa_Underground_River.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1880" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Puerto-Princesa_Subterranean_River_National_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park">Puerto Princesa Underground River</a>, Philippines</figcaption></figure> <p>Karst formations have unique hydrology, resulting in many unusual features. A <a href="/wiki/Karst_fenster" class="mw-redirect" title="Karst fenster">karst fenster</a> (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, <a href="/wiki/Waterfall#Types_of_waterfalls" title="Waterfall">cascades</a> some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. </p><p>Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, even under a different name, like <a href="/wiki/Ljubljanica" title="Ljubljanica">Ljubljanica</a>, the "river of seven names". </p><p>Another example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Popo_Agie_Wilderness" title="Popo Agie Wilderness">Popo Agie River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fremont_County,_Wyoming" title="Fremont County, Wyoming">Fremont County, Wyoming</a>, where, at a site named "The Sinks" in <a href="/wiki/Sinks_Canyon_State_Park" title="Sinks Canyon State Park">Sinks Canyon State Park</a>, the river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>800 m (<span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Turlough_(lake)" title="Turlough (lake)">turlough</a> is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquifers">Aquifers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aquifers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Main Article <a href="/wiki/Aquifer#Karst" title="Aquifer">Aquifer#Karst</a> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MammothCaveNPS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Several people in a jon boat on a river inside a cave." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/MammothCaveNPS.jpg/220px-MammothCaveNPS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/MammothCaveNPS.jpg/330px-MammothCaveNPS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/MammothCaveNPS.jpg/440px-MammothCaveNPS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="387" /></a><figcaption>Water in karst aquifers flows through open conduits where water flows as underground streams</figcaption></figure> <p><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Karst</a> aquifers typically develop in <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>. Surface water containing natural <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging the fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water. The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes, swallets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Losing_stream" title="Losing stream">sinking streams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">springs</a> in addition to studying <a href="/wiki/Geologic_map" title="Geologic map">geologic maps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DelineationGrdwtrBasinsTaylor_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DelineationGrdwtrBasinsTaylor-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4">: 4 </span></sup> Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize the complexity of karst aquifers, and need to be supplemented with <a href="/wiki/Dye_tracing" title="Dye tracing">dye traces</a>, measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG/220px-Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG/330px-Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG/440px-Source_de_la_Loue3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">karst spring</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Jura_mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Jura mountains">Jura mountains</a> near <a href="/wiki/Ouhans" title="Ouhans">Ouhans</a> in eastern France at the source of the river <a href="/wiki/Loue" title="Loue">Loue</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along <a href="/wiki/Fracture_(geology)" title="Fracture (geology)">fracture traces</a>. Locating a well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants.<sup id="cite_ref-FieldMethodsGeoHydrogeo_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FieldMethodsGeoHydrogeo-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3–4">: 3–4 </span></sup> </p><p>Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers. For example, in the Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured the karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers.<sup id="cite_ref-DelineationGrdwtrBasinsTaylor_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DelineationGrdwtrBasinsTaylor-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> in karst areas is also just as easily <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">polluted</a> as surface streams, because Karst formations are cavernous and highly permeable, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminant filtration. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">Well water</a> may also be unsafe as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a <a href="/wiki/Aquifer#Porous_versus_karst" title="Aquifer">porous aquifer</a>. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">trash dumps</a>. Overloaded or malfunctioning <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic tanks</a> in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. </p><p>Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, supplied about 25% of the global demand for drinkable water.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_karst_hydrology">Effects of karst hydrology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Effects of karst hydrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. </p><p>The karst topography also poses peculiar difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the <a href="/wiki/National_Corvette_Museum" title="National Corvette Museum">National Corvette Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bowling_Green,_Kentucky" title="Bowling Green, Kentucky">Bowling Green, Kentucky</a> in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Karst_areas">Karst areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Karst areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_karst_areas" title="List of karst areas">List of karst areas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yunnanshilin2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Yunnanshilin2.jpg/290px-Yunnanshilin2.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Yunnanshilin2.jpg/435px-Yunnanshilin2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Yunnanshilin2.jpg/580px-Yunnanshilin2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stone_Forest" title="Stone Forest">Lunan Stone Forest</a>, Yunnan, China</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/220px--Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="86" data-mwtitle="Kostivere_karstiala,_Kostivere_karst_area,_spring_2021.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Kostivere_karstiala,_Kostivere_karst_area,_spring_2021.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e5/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm/Kostivere_karstiala%2C_Kostivere_karst_area%2C_spring_2021.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Drone video of Kostivere karst area in Estonia (2021)</figcaption></figure> <p>The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's <a href="/wiki/Nullarbor_Plain" title="Nullarbor Plain">Nullarbor Plain</a>. Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while the western <a href="/wiki/Highland_Rim" title="Highland Rim">Highland Rim</a> in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Canada, <a href="/wiki/Wood_Buffalo_National_Park" title="Wood Buffalo National Park">Wood Buffalo National Park</a>, Northwest Territories contains areas of karst sinkholes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mexico hosts important karst regions in the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chiapas" title="Chiapas">Chiapas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/West_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="West of Ireland">West of Ireland</a> is home to <a href="/wiki/The_Burren" title="The Burren">The Burren</a>, a karst limestone area. The <a href="/wiki/South_China_Karst" title="South China Karst">South China Karst</a> in the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangxi" title="Guangxi">Guangxi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> provinces is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_terms_for_karst-related_features">List of terms for karst-related features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: List of terms for karst-related features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">Speleothem</a></div> <p>Many karst-related terms derive from <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic languages</a>, entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C3%AEme" title="Abîme">Abîme</a>, a vertical shaft in karst that may be very deep and usually opens into a network of subterranean passages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a>, a deep sinkhole, characteristic of Mexico, resulting from collapse of limestone bedrock that exposes groundwater underneath</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Doline</a>, also sink or sinkhole, is a closed depression draining underground in karst areas. The name "doline" comes from <i>dolina</i>, meaning "valley", and derives from South Slavic languages.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foibe" class="mw-redirect" title="Foibe">Foibe</a>, an inverted funnel-shaped sinkhole</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_window" title="Karst window">Karst window</a> (also known as a "karst fenster"), a feature where a spring emerges briefly, with the water discharge then abruptly disappearing into a nearby sinkhole</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a>, a spring emerging from karst, originating a flow of water on the surface</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">Limestone pavement</a>, a landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone that resembles an artificial pavement</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Losing_stream" title="Losing stream">Losing stream</a>, sinking river or <a href="/wiki/Ponornica" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponornica">ponornica</a> in South Slavic languages.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polje" title="Polje">Polje</a> (karst polje, karst field), a large flat specifically karst plain. The word <i>polje</i> derives from South Slavic languages.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a>, same as <a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">estavelle</a>, sink or sinkhole in South Slavic languages, where surface flow enters an underground system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scowle" title="Scowle">Scowle</a>, porous irregular karst landscape in a region of England.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turlough_(lake)" title="Turlough (lake)">Turlough</a> (turlach), a type of disappearing lake characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Irish</a> karst.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvala_(landform)" title="Uvala (landform)">Uvala</a>, a collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes that coalesce into a compound sinkhole. The term derives from South Slavic languages.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Karstology">Karstology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Karstology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The study of the various aspects of karst regions is called karstology. This includes biological, chemical, ecological, geomorphological, hydrogeological, hydrological, political, socio-economical, and other processes over a variety of spatial and temporal scales in karst regions, with the purpose of understanding karst aquifers and ecosystems, and the development of the surface and underground structure, so that the environment can be protected and human activities planned effectively.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvar" title="Alvar">Alvar</a> – Limestone-based biological environment</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gryke" class="mw-redirect" title="Gryke">Gryke</a> – Natural karst landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciokarst" title="Glaciokarst">Glaciokarst</a> – Karst landscape that was glaciated during the cold periods of the Pleistocene</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms" title="Glossary of landforms">Glossary of landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleology</a> – Science of cave and karst systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">Subterranean river</a> – River that runs wholly or partly beneath the ground surface</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermokarst" title="Thermokarst">Thermokarst</a> – Irregular land surface of marshy hollows and small hummocks formed when permafrost thaws</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esi.utexas.edu/files/Whatiskarst.pdf">"What is Karst?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Environmental Science Institute</i>. The University of Texas at Austin. 16 May 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+Institute&rft.atitle=What+is+Karst%3F&rft.date=2006-05-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esi.utexas.edu%2Ffiles%2FWhatiskarst.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1997" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Karst". <i>Glossary of geology</i> (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0922152349" title="Special:BookSources/0922152349"><bdi>0922152349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Karst&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+geology.&rft.place=Alexandria%2C+Virginia&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=American+Geological+Institute&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0922152349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoerr1999" class="citation journal cs1">Doerr, S. H. (18 March 1999). 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GeoScienceWorld: 320. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EEGeo..11..319R">2005EEGeo..11..319R</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.372.1559">10.1.1.372.1559</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2113%2F11.4.319">10.2113/11.4.319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+and+Engineering+Geoscience&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+Vulnerability+of+a+Municipal+Well+Field+to+Contamination+in+a+Karst+Aquifer&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=320&rft.date=2005-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.372.1559%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2113%2F11.4.319&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005EEGeo..11..319R&rft.aulast=Renken&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+K.&rft.au=Zygnerski%2C+M.&rft.au=Wacker%2C+M.&rft.au=Shapiro%2C+A.&rft.au=Harvey%2C+R.&rft.au=Metge%2C+D.&rft.au=Osborn%2C+C.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFetter1988" class="citation book cs1">Fetter, Charles (1988). <i>Applied Hydrology</i>. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. pp. 294–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-675-20887-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-675-20887-1"><bdi>978-0-675-20887-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+Hydrology&rft.place=Columbus%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=294-295&rft.pub=Merrill&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-675-20887-1&rft.aulast=Fetter&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FieldMethodsGeoHydrogeo-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FieldMethodsGeoHydrogeo_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssaadLaMoreauxHughes2004" class="citation book cs1">Assaad, Fakhry; LaMoreaux, Philip; Hughes, Travis (2004). <i>Field methods for geologists and hydrogeologists</i>. 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Elsevier Science: 142. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JHyd..276..137S">2003JHyd..276..137S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-1694%2803%2900064-7">10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00064-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16046040">16046040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hydrology&rft.atitle=Can+we+simulate+regional+groundwater+flow+in+a+karst+system+using+equivalent+porous+media+models%3F+Case+study%2C+Barton+Springs+Edwards+aquifer%2C+USA&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=142&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16046040%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0022-1694%2803%2900064-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JHyd..276..137S&rft.aulast=Scanlon&rft.aufirst=Bridget&rft.au=Mace%2C+Robert&rft.au=Barrett%2C+Michael&rft.au=Smith%2C+Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPariseGunn2007" class="citation journal cs1">Parise, M.; Gunn, J. (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/279/1/1">"Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst areas: an introduction"</a>. <i>Geological Society, London, Special Publications</i>. <b>279</b> (1): 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007GSLSP.279....1P">2007GSLSP.279....1P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2FSP279.1">10.1144/SP279.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130950517">130950517</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Austin+Peay+State+University+%3A+Harned+Bowl+work+not+to+blame+for+new+sinkhole%2C+say+experts&rft.date=2014-05-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apsu.edu%2Fnews%2Fharned-bowl-work-not-blame-new-sinkhole-say-experts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clarksvilleonline.com/2009/02/25/what-is-karst-topography-and-why-should-you-care/">"What is Karst topography and why should you care?"</a>. 25 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Karst+topography+and+why+should+you+care%3F&rft.date=2009-02-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clarksvilleonline.com%2F2009%2F02%2F25%2Fwhat-is-karst-topography-and-why-should-you-care%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1987" class="citation book cs1">Smith, D.G. (1987). <i>Landforms of Alberta interpreted from airphotos and satellite imagery</i>. Edmonton, Alberta: Alberta Remote Sensing Center. Alberta Environment. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-919975-10-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-919975-10-0"><bdi>0-919975-10-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landforms+of+Alberta+interpreted+from+airphotos+and+satellite+imagery.&rft.place=Edmonton%2C+Alberta&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Alberta+Remote+Sensing+Center.+Alberta+Environment&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-919975-10-0&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=D.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMora,_L.Bonifaz,_R.López-Martínez,_R.2016" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Mora, L.; Bonifaz, R.; López-Martínez, R. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18268%2FBSGM2016v68n3a1">"Unidades geomorfológicas de la cuenca del Río Grande de Comitán, Lagos de Montebello, Chiapas-México"</a>. <i>Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana</i> (in Spanish). <b>68</b> (3): 377–394. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18268%2FBSGM2016v68n3a1">10.18268/BSGM2016v68n3a1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bolet%C3%ADn+de+la+Sociedad+Geol%C3%B3gica+Mexicana&rft.atitle=Unidades+geomorfol%C3%B3gicas+de+la+cuenca+del+R%C3%ADo+Grande+de+Comit%C3%A1n%2C+Lagos+de+Montebello%2C+Chiapas-M%C3%A9xico&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=377-394&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18268%2FBSGM2016v68n3a1&rft.au=Mora%2C+L.&rft.au=Bonifaz%2C+R.&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez-Mart%C3%ADnez%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18268%252FBSGM2016v68n3a1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonacci2019" class="citation report cs1">Bonacci, Ognjen (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338149576_Karstology_-how_can_it_help_in_sustainable_development">Karstology -how can it help in sustainable development?</a> (Report).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Karstology+-how+can+it+help+in+sustainable+development%3F&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Bonacci&rft.aufirst=Ognjen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338149576_Karstology_-how_can_it_help_in_sustainable_development&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKarst" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ford, D.C., Williams, P., <i>Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology</i>, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84996-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-84996-5">978-0-470-84996-5</a></li> <li>Jennings, J.N., <i>Karst Geomorphology</i>, 2nd ed., Blackwell, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-14032-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-14032-8">0-631-14032-8</a></li> <li>Palmer, A.N., <i>Cave Geology</i>, 2nd Printing, Cave Books, 2009, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-939748-66-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-939748-66-2">978-0-939748-66-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Sweeting" title="Marjorie Sweeting">Sweeting, M.M.</a>, <i>Karst Landforms</i>, Macmillan, 1973, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-03623-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-03623-X">0-231-03623-X</a></li> <li>van Beynen, P. (Ed.), <i>Karst management</i>, Springer, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-1206-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-1206-5">978-94-007-1206-5</a></li> <li>Vermeulen, J.J., Whitten, T., "Biodiversity and Cultural Property in the Management of Limestone Resources in East Asia: Lessons from East Asia", The World Bank, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-821345-08-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-821345-08-5">978-0-821345-08-5</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karst&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to:<br /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Karst" class="extiw" title="commons:Karst"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Karst</span></a> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Karst" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Karst">category</a>)</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Karst" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Karst">Karst</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119214928/http://www.network.speleogenesis.info/index.php">Speleogenesis Network, a communication platform for physical speleology and karst science research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.speleogenesis.info/glossary/index.php">Speleogenesis and Karst Aquifers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100423192906/http://www.speleogenesis.info/glossary/index.php">Archived</a> 2010-04-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – a large glossary of Karst related terms</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://carsologica.zrc-sazu.si/">Acta Carsologica</a> – research papers and reviews in all the fields related to karst</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdk-pr.org/">CDK Citizens of the Karst</a> – Citizens of the Karst, a non profit NGO dedicated to the protection of the Puerto Rican Karst (English site available)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave/karst/karst.html">The Virtual Cave's page on karst landforms</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?K26">Karst Information Portal</a> - an open-access digital library linking scientists, managers, and explorers</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Caves" title="Template:Caves"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caves" title="Template talk:Caves"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caves" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caves"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cave_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_caving_and_speleology" title="Glossary of caving and speleology">Glossary of caving and speleology</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biospeleology" title="Biospeleology">Biospeleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_conservation" title="Cave conservation">Cave conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_survey" title="Cave survey">Cave survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving" title="Caving">Caving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving_equipment" title="Caving equipment">Equipment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fauna" title="Subterranean fauna">Fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stygofauna" title="Stygofauna">Stygofauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troglofauna" title="Troglofauna">Troglofauna</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Karst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleogenesis" title="Speleogenesis">Speleogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves_by_country" title="Category:Caves by country">Caves by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and formation<br /> processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchihaline cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_cave" title="Breathing cave">Breathing cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave-in" title="Cave-in">Cave-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">Estavelle/Inversac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foiba" title="Foiba">Foiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">Glacier cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Ice cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_cave" title="Lava cave">Lava cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ley_tunnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ley tunnel">Ley tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Exploration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_cave" title="Pit cave">Pit cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_cave" title="Salt cave">Salt cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutional_cave" title="Solutional cave">Solutional cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_cave" title="Show cave">Show cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffosion" title="Suffosion">Suffosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sump_(cave)" title="Sump (cave)">Sump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talus_cave" title="Talus cave">Talus cave</a></li> <li>Underground <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underground_lake" title="Underground lake">Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_waterfall" title="Subterranean waterfall">Waterfall</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">Speleothems</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Speleogen" title="Speleogen">Speleogens</a><br />(Cave formations)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthodite" title="Anthodite">Anthodite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxwork" title="Boxwork">Boxwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcite_rafts" title="Calcite rafts">Calcite rafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_pearl" title="Cave pearl">Cave pearl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_popcorn" title="Cave popcorn">Cave popcorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogtooth_spar" title="Dogtooth spar">Dogtooth spar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowstone" title="Flowstone">Flowstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostwork" title="Frostwork">Frostwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helictite" title="Helictite">Helictite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonmilk" title="Moonmilk">Moonmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimstone" title="Rimstone">Rimstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelfstone" title="Shelfstone">Shelfstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snottite" title="Snottite">Snottite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_straw" title="Soda straw">Soda straw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleoseismite" title="Speleoseismite">Speleoseismite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">Stalactite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">Stalagmite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalagnate" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalagnate">Stalagnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vug" title="Vug">Vug</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dwellings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave-dwelling_Jews" title="Cave-dwelling Jews">Cave-dwelling Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cave_monasteries" title="List of cave monasteries">Cave monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kome_Caves" title="Kome Caves">Kome Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok_and_Mamproug_Cave_Dwellings" title="Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings">Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaodong" title="Yaodong">Yaodong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diving_into_the_Unknown" title="Diving into the Unknown">Diving into the Unknown</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Forgotten_Dreams" title="Cave of Forgotten Dreams">Cave of Forgotten Dreams</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Underground_Eiger" title="The Underground Eiger">The Underground Eiger</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_UK_caving_fatalities" title="List of UK caving fatalities">List of UK caving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riesending_cave_rescue" title="Riesending cave rescue">Riesending cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Caves" title="Category:Caves">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Subterranea" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Subterranea" title="Template:Subterranea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Subterranea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Subterranea (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Subterranea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Subterranea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Subterranea" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" title="Subterranea (geography)">Subterranea</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcove_(landform)" title="Alcove (landform)">Alcove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant_colony" title="Ant colony">Ant colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">Burrow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burrow_fossil" title="Burrow fossil">Burrow fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_burrow" title="Communal burrow">Communal burrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoburrow" title="Paleoburrow">Paleoburrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">Cave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_cave" title="Glacier cave">Glacier cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_cave" title="Ice cave">Ice cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_cave" title="Lava cave">Lava cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_tube" title="Lava tube">Lava tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Pit Cave">Pit Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_cave" title="Show cave">Show cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutional_cave" title="Solutional cave">Solutional cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talus_cave" title="Talus cave">Talus cave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">Cenote</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Karst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_tree_mold" title="Lava tree mold">Lava tree mold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">Magma chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternity_den" title="Maternity den">Maternity den</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive" title="Beehive">Bee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_crater" title="Pit crater">Pit crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_shelter" title="Rock shelter">Rock shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fauna" title="Subterranean fauna">Subterranean fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">Subterranean river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_waterfall" title="Subterranean waterfall">Subterranean waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_lake" title="Underground lake">Underground lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_pipe" title="Volcanic pipe">Volcanic pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_(burrow)" title="Warren (burrow)">Warren</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Exemplars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balve_Cave" title="Balve Cave">Balve Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellana_Caves" title="Castellana Caves">Castellana Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_S%C6%A1n_%C4%90o%C3%B2ng" title="Hang Sơn Đoòng">Hang Sơn Đoòng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewel_Cave_National_Monument" title="Jewel Cave National Monument">Jewel Cave National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazumura_Cave" title="Kazumura Cave">Kazumura Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lechuguilla_Cave" title="Lechuguilla Cave">Lechuguilla Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammoth_Cave_National_Park" title="Mammoth Cave National Park">Mammoth Cave National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_Flute_Cave" title="Reed Flute Cave">Reed Flute Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_rivers_of_London" title="Subterranean rivers of London">Subterranean rivers of London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veryovkina_Cave" title="Veryovkina Cave">Veryovkina Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_Cave_National_Park" title="Wind Cave National Park">Wind Cave National Park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Man-made features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter" title="Air raid shelter">Air raid shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">Basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burial_vault_(tomb)" title="Burial vault (tomb)">Burial vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borehole" title="Borehole">Borehole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunker" title="Bunker">Bunker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_shelter" title="Blast shelter">Blast shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs" title="Catacombs">Catacombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casemate" title="Casemate">Casemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">Crypt Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungeon" title="Dungeon">Dungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(shelter)" title="Dugout (shelter)">Dugout (shelter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_well" title="Dry well">Dry well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_shelter" title="Earth shelter">Earth shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erdstall" title="Erdstall">Erdstall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallout_shelter" title="Fallout shelter">Fallout shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fogou" title="Fogou">Fogou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position#Terminology" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">Hypogeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhole" title="Manhole">Manhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_launch_facility" title="Missile launch facility">Missile launch facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passage_grave" title="Passage grave">Passage grave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_tomb" title="Rock-cut tomb">Rock-cut tomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root_cellar" title="Root cellar">Root cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_vault" title="Utility vault">Utility vault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_city" title="Underground city">Underground city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_base" title="Underground base">Underground base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_hangar" title="Underground hangar">Underground hangar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">Well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cave" title="Wine cave">Wine cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Subway system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_passage" title="Secret passage">Secret passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-basement" title="Semi-basement">Semi-basement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewerage" title="Sewerage">Sewerage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">Stepwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_cellar" title="Storm cellar">Storm cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smuggling_tunnel" title="Smuggling tunnel">Smuggling tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_hole" title="Spider hole">Spider hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shaft" title="Ventilation shaft">Ventilation shaft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Exemplars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/816_Nuclear_Military_Plant" title="816 Nuclear Military Plant">816 Nuclear Military Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caves_of_Maastricht" title="Caves of Maastricht">Caves of Maastricht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Caves_of_%C3%86giss%C3%AD%C3%B0a" title="The Caves of Ægissíða">The Caves of Ægissíða</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_of_Mercury._Almad%C3%A9n_and_Idrija" title="Heritage of Mercury. Almadén and Idrija"> Almadén Mercury Mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coober_Pedy" title="Coober Pedy">Coober Pedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_Mountain_Complex" title="Cheyenne Mountain Complex">Cheyenne Mountain Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tunnel_Company" title="Chicago Tunnel Company">Chicago Tunnel Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_tunnel_system" title="Houston tunnel system">Houston tunnel system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosvinsky_Kamen" title="Kosvinsky Kamen">Kosvinsky Kamen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%91b%C3%A1nya_cellar_system" title="Kőbánya cellar system">Kőbánya cellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kome_Caves" title="Kome Caves">Kome Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City_(Beijing)" title="Underground City (Beijing)">Underground City (Beijing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_City,_Montreal" title="Underground City, Montreal">Underground City, Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Great_Wall_of_China" title="Underground Great Wall of China">Underground Great Wall of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maginot_Line" title="Maginot Line">Maginot Line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mines_of_Paris" title="Mines of Paris">Mines of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustang_Caves" title="Mustang Caves">Mustang Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Yamantau" title="Mount Yamantau">Mount Yamantau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples_underground_geothermal_zone" title="Naples underground geothermal zone">Naples underground geothermal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">North American Aerospace Defense Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raven_Rock_Mountain_Complex" title="Raven Rock Mountain Complex">Raven Rock Mountain Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_tunnels" title="Shanghai tunnels">Shanghai tunnels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_London" title="Subterranean London">Subterranean London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_Toledo" title="Subterranean Toledo">Subterranean Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turda_Salt_Mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Turda Salt Mines">Turda Salt Mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaodong" title="Yaodong">Yaodong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fictional features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_fiction" title="Subterranean fiction">Subterranean fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight: normal;">Exemplars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">Allegory of the cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batcave" title="Batcave">Batcave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Greek Underworld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_Center_of_the_Earth" title="Journey to the Center of the Earth">Journey to the Center of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moria_(Middle-earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moria (Middle-earth)">Moria (Middle-earth)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nome_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nome Kingdom">Nome Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucidar" title="Pellucidar">Pellucidar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(comics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subterranea (comics)">Subterranea (comics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnels_in_popular_culture" title="Tunnels in popular culture">Tunnels in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdark" title="Underdark">Underdark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underland_(Narnia)" title="Underland (Narnia)">Underland (Narnia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonderland_(fictional_country)" title="Wonderland (fictional country)">Wonderland (fictional country)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Reclamation_Sciences" title="American Society of Reclamation Sciences">American Society of Reclamation Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bergamt" title="Bergamt">Bergamt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Research_Foundation" title="Cave Research Foundation">Cave Research Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_hard_rock_miners%27_organizations" title="History of hard rock miners' organizations">History of hard rock miners' organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mine_Map_Repository" title="National Mine Map Repository">National Mine Map Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mining_Association" title="National Mining Association">National Mining Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Speleological_Society" title="National Speleological Society">National Speleological Society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotto_(National_Speleological_Society)" title="Grotto (National Speleological Society)">Grotto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Materials,_Minerals_and_Mining" title="Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining">Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Mining_Engineers" title="Institution of Mining Engineers">Institution of Mining Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Speleology" title="International Union of Speleology">International Union of Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_Centre_for_Deep_Drilling" title="Research Centre for Deep Drilling">Research Centre for Deep Drilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Economic_Geologists" title="Society of Economic Geologists">Society of Economic Geologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Institute_of_Mining_and_Metallurgy" title="Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy">Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_conservation" title="Cave conservation">Cave conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_dweller" title="Cave dweller">Cave dweller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_gate" title="Cave gate">Cave gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_rescue" title="Cave rescue">Cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">Cave painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caving" title="Caving">Caving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_defense" title="Civil defense">Civil defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_network" title="Tunnel network">Tunnel network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_construction" title="Underground construction">Underground construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_construction" title="Tunnel construction">Tunnel construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_living" title="Underground living">Underground living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_rescue" title="Mine rescue">Mine rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mine_exploration" title="Mine exploration">Mine exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_engineering" title="Mining engineering">Mining engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mole_people" title="Mole people">Mole people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mole_people_(fiction)" title="Mole people (fiction)">in fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speleology" title="Speleology">Speleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean warfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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title="Karst"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85071670">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Karst"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119653244">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Karst"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119653244">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565068">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="kras"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph410037&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span 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