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id="toc-1930s_political_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1930s_political_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 1930s political transition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1930s_political_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internment_and_diplomatic_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internment_and_diplomatic_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Internment and diplomatic service </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internment_and_diplomatic_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Early exile </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Final years and death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Work </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Work subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_general_nature_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_general_nature_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 The general nature of religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_general_nature_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sacred_and_profane" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sacred_and_profane"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Sacred and profane </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sacred_and_profane-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_myths_and_sacred_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_myths_and_sacred_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Origin myths and sacred time </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_myths_and_sacred_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eternal_return_and_"Terror_of_history"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eternal_return_and_"Terror_of_history""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Eternal return and "Terror of history" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eternal_return_and_"Terror_of_history"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coincidentia_oppositorum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coincidentia_oppositorum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Coincidentia oppositorum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coincidentia_oppositorum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exceptions_to_the_general_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exceptions_to_the_general_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Exceptions to the general nature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exceptions_to_the_general_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolism_of_the_Center" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolism_of_the_Center"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Symbolism of the Center </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolism_of_the_Center-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_High_God" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_High_God"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 The High God </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_High_God-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shamanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shamanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Shamanism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shamanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Death,_resurrection_and_secondary_functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death,_resurrection_and_secondary_functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Death, resurrection and secondary functions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death,_resurrection_and_secondary_functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Early contributions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosopher_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosopher_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Philosopher of religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosopher_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-reductionism_and_the_"transconscious"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-reductionism_and_the_"transconscious""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Anti-reductionism and the "transconscious" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-reductionism_and_the_"transconscious"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platonism_and_"primitive_ontology"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platonism_and_"primitive_ontology""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Platonism and "primitive ontology" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platonism_and_"primitive_ontology"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Existentialism_and_secularism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Existentialism_and_secularism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Existentialism and secularism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existentialism_and_secularism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_survivals_in_the_secular_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_survivals_in_the_secular_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Religious survivals in the secular world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_survivals_in_the_secular_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_man_and_the_"terror_of_history"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_man_and_the_"terror_of_history""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.5 Modern man and the "terror of history" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_man_and_the_"terror_of_history"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inter-cultural_dialogue_and_a_"new_humanism"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inter-cultural_dialogue_and_a_"new_humanism""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.6 Inter-cultural dialogue and a "new humanism" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inter-cultural_dialogue_and_a_"new_humanism"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity_and_the_"salvation"_of_History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity_and_the_"salvation"_of_History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.7 Christianity and the "salvation" of History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity_and_the_"salvation"_of_History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Modern_gnosticism",_Romanticism_and_Eliade's_nostalgia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Modern_gnosticism",_Romanticism_and_Eliade's_nostalgia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.8 "Modern gnosticism", Romanticism and Eliade's nostalgia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Modern_gnosticism",_Romanticism_and_Eliade's_nostalgia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_Eliade's_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_Eliade's_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Criticism of Eliade's scholarship </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_of_Eliade's_scholarship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism of Eliade's scholarship subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_Eliade's_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overgeneralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overgeneralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Overgeneralization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overgeneralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lack_of_empirical_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lack_of_empirical_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Lack of empirical support </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lack_of_empirical_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Far-right_and_nationalist_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Far-right_and_nationalist_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Far-right and nationalist influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Far-right_and_nationalist_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Literary works </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literary_works-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Literary works subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Literary_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Generic_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generic_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Generic traits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generic_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oriental-themed_novels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oriental-themed_novels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Oriental-themed novels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oriental-themed_novels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Isabel_și_apele_diavolului" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Isabel_și_apele_diavolului"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Isabel și apele diavolului </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Isabel_și_apele_diavolului-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maitreyi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maitreyi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Maitreyi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maitreyi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Șantier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Șantier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Șantier </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Șantier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portraits_of_a_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portraits_of_a_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Portraits of a generation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portraits_of_a_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Novel_of_the_Nearsighted_Adolescent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novel_of_the_Nearsighted_Adolescent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novel_of_the_Nearsighted_Adolescent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Întoarcerea_din_rai" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Întoarcerea_din_rai"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Întoarcerea din rai </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Întoarcerea_din_rai-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huliganii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huliganii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Huliganii </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huliganii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage_in_Heaven" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_in_Heaven"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Marriage in Heaven </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage_in_Heaven-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fantastic_and_fantasy_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fantastic_and_fantasy_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Fantastic and fantasy literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fantastic_and_fantasy_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Șarpele" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Șarpele"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Șarpele </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Șarpele-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Un_om_mare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Un_om_mare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Un om mare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Un_om_mare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Other writings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy:_antisemitism_and_links_with_the_Iron_Guard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy:_antisemitism_and_links_with_the_Iron_Guard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Controversy: antisemitism and links with the Iron Guard </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Controversy:_antisemitism_and_links_with_the_Iron_Guard-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Controversy: antisemitism and links with the Iron Guard subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Controversy:_antisemitism_and_links_with_the_Iron_Guard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_statements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_statements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Early statements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_statements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polemics_and_exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polemics_and_exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Polemics and exile </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polemics_and_exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Posterity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Posterity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Posterity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Posterity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_symbolism_in_Eliade's_fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_symbolism_in_Eliade's_fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Political symbolism in Eliade's fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_symbolism_in_Eliade's_fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Cultural legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cultural legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tributes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tributes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Tributes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tributes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portrayals,_filmography_and_dramatizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portrayals,_filmography_and_dramatizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Portrayals, filmography and dramatizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portrayals,_filmography_and_dramatizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Film_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Film_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Film adaptations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Film_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Live_adaptations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Live_adaptations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Live adaptations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Live_adaptations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Selected bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 English </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mircea Eliade</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" > 52 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87" title="ميرتشا إلياده – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ميرتشا إلياده" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir%C3%A7a_Eliadi" title="Mirça Eliadi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mirça Eliadi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%86%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87" title="میرچا الیاده – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="میرچا الیاده" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%AD%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8D" title="Мірча Эліядэ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мірча Эліядэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%AD%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%B4%D1%8D" title="Мірча Эліядэ – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мірча Эліядэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Мирча Елиаде – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мирча Елиаде" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AF%CF%81%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B1_%CE%95%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5" title="Μίρτσεα Ελιάντε – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μίρτσεα Ελιάντε" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%86%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87" title="میرچا الیاده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میرچا الیاده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EB%A5%B4%EC%B2%B4%EC%95%84_%EC%97%98%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84%EB%8D%B0" title="미르체아 엘리아데 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미르체아 엘리아데" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B9%D5%A1_%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A5" title="Միրչա Էլիադե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միրչա Էլիադե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87" title="मिर्सिया एलियाडे – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिर्सिया एलियाडे" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%A6%27%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%93%D7%94" title="מירצ'ה אליאדה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מירצ'ה אליאדה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%94" title="მირჩა ელიადე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მირჩა ელიადე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir%C4%8Da_Eliade" title="Mirča Eliade – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Mirča Eliade" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Мирча Елијаде – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мирча Елијаде" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87" title="ميرتشا الياده – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ميرتشا الياده" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%83%AB%E3%83%81%E3%83%A3%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%87" title="ミルチャ・エリアーデ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミルチャ・エリアーデ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Элиаде, Мирча – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Элиаде, Мирча" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Мирча Елијаде – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мирча Елијаде" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mircea Eliade" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Мірча Еліаде – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мірча Еліаде" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B1%B3%E5%B0%94%E6%81%B0%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="米尔恰·伊利亚德 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="米尔恰·伊利亚德" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q41590#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Romanian historian of religion, writer and philosopher (1907–1986)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Eliade" redirects here. For other persons of the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Eliade_(surname)" title="Eliade (surname)">Eliade (surname)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div style="display:inline;" class="fn">Mircea Eliade</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mircea_Eliade_young.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eliade in 1933"><img alt="Eliade in 1933" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mircea_Eliade_young.jpg/220px-Mircea_Eliade_young.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mircea_Eliade_young.jpg/330px-Mircea_Eliade_young.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Mircea_Eliade_young.jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="600" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:1.4em;">Eliade in 1933</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Born</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">(1907-03-13)March 13, 1907 <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Died</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">April 22, 1986(1986-04-22) (aged 79) Chicago, Illinois, United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Oak_Woods_Cemetery" title="Oak Woods Cemetery">Oak Woods Cemetery</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Occupation</th><td class="infobox-data role" style="line-height:1.4em;">Historian, philosopher, short-story writer, journalist, essayist, novelist</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Language</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a></li> <li>French</li> <li>German</li> <li>English</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;">Romanian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Romania United States</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Education</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Calcutta" title="University of Calcutta">University of Calcutta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Bucharest" title="University of Bucharest">University of Bucharest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Period</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">1921–1986</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data category" style="line-height:1.4em;">Fantasy, autobiography, <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">travel literature</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political history</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Literary movement</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <a href="/wiki/Criterion_(literary_society)" title="Criterion (literary society)">Criterion</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tr%C4%83irism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trăirism (page does not exist)">Trăirism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em; padding-right:0.65em;">Parents</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.4em;">Gheorghe Eliade Jeana née Vasilescu</td></tr></tbody></table> Mircea Eliade (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Romanian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Romanian" title="Help:IPA/Romanian">[ˈmirtʃe̯a eliˈade]</a>; March 13 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> February 28] 1907 – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">historian of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiction_writer" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction writer">fiction writer</a>, philosopher, and professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. One of the most influential scholars of religion of the 20th century<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> and interpreter of religious experience, he established <a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a> that persist to this day. His theory that <a href="/wiki/Hierophany" title="Hierophany">hierophanies</a> form the basis of religion, splitting the human experience of reality into <a href="/wiki/Sacred-profane_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred-profane dichotomy">sacred and profane</a> space and time, has proved influential.<a href="#cite_note-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii-2">[2]</a> One of his most instrumental contributions to religious studies was his theory of <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">eternal return</a>, which holds that myths and rituals do not simply commemorate hierophanies, but (at least in the minds of the religious) actually participate in them.<a href="#cite_note-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii-2">[2]</a> Eliade's literary works belong to the <a href="/wiki/Fantastique" title="Fantastique">fantastic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_novel" title="Autobiographical novel">autobiographical</a> genres. The best known are the novels <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Nights_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal Nights (novel)">Maitreyi</a> ('La Nuit Bengali' or 'Bengal Nights', 1933), <a href="/wiki/Noaptea_de_S%C3%A2nziene" class="mw-redirect" title="Noaptea de Sânziene">Noaptea de Sânziene</a> ('The Forbidden Forest', 1955), Isabel și apele diavolului ('Isabel and the Devil's Waters'), and <a href="/wiki/Romanul_Adolescentului_Miop" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanul Adolescentului Miop">Romanul Adolescentului Miop</a> ('Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent', 1989); the novellas <a href="/wiki/Domni%C8%99oara_Christina" class="mw-redirect" title="Domnișoara Christina">Domnișoara Christina</a> ('Miss Christina', 1936) and <a href="/wiki/Youth_Without_Youth_(novella)" title="Youth Without Youth (novella)">Tinerețe fără tinerețe</a> ('Youth Without Youth', 1976); and the short stories <a href="/wiki/Secretul_doctorului_Honigberger" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretul doctorului Honigberger">Secretul doctorului Honigberger</a> ('The Secret of Dr. Honigberger', 1940) and <a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_%C8%9Big%C4%83nci" class="extiw" title="ro:La țigănci">La Țigănci</a> ('With the Gypsy Girls', 1963). Early in his life, Eliade was a journalist and essayist, a disciple of Romanian philosopher and journalist <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a>, and a member of the literary society <a href="/wiki/Criterion_(literary_society)" title="Criterion (literary society)">Criterion</a>. In the 1940s, he served as <a href="/wiki/Cultural_attach%C3%A9" title="Cultural attaché">cultural attaché</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a> to the United Kingdom and Portugal. Several times during the late 1930s, Eliade publicly expressed his support for the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Guard" title="Iron Guard">Iron Guard</a>, a Romanian <a href="/wiki/Christian_fascism" title="Christian fascism">Christian fascist</a> organization. His involvement with fascism at the time, as well as his other far-right connections, came under frequent criticism after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Noted for his vast erudition, Eliade had fluent command of five languages (<a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, French, German, Italian, and English) and a reading knowledge of three others (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>). In 1990 he was elected a posthumous <a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Romanian_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Romanian Academy">member</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood">Childhood</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Childhood">edit</a>]</div> Born in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, he was the son of <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Land_Forces" title="Romanian Land Forces">Romanian Land Forces</a> officer Gheorghe Eliade (whose original surname was Ieremia)<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> and Jeana née Vasilescu.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.956-5">[5]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> believer, Gheorghe Eliade registered his son's birth four days before the actual date, to coincide with the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_liturgical_calendar" title="Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar">liturgical calendar</a> feast of the <a href="/wiki/Forty_Martyrs_of_Sebaste" title="Forty Martyrs of Sebaste">Forty Martyrs of Sebaste</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> Mircea Eliade had a sister, Corina, the mother of <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Sorin_Alexandrescu" title="Sorin Alexandrescu">Sorin Alexandrescu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-scnostal-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> His family moved between <a href="/wiki/Tecuci" title="Tecuci">Tecuci</a> and Bucharest, ultimately settling in the capital in 1914,<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> and purchasing a house on Melodiei Street, near <a href="/wiki/Pia%C8%9Ba_Rosetti" title="Piața Rosetti">Piața Rosetti</a>, where Mircea Eliade resided until late in his teens.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Eliade kept a particularly fond memory of his childhood and, later in life, wrote about the impact various unusual episodes and encounters had on his mind. In one instance during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Campaign_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Campaign (World War I)">Romanian Campaign</a>, when Eliade was about ten years of age, he witnessed the bombing of Bucharest by <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">zeppelins</a> and the patriotic fervor in the occupied capital at news that Romania was able to stop the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a>' advance into <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> He described this stage in his life as marked by an unrepeatable <a href="/wiki/Epiphany_(feeling)" title="Epiphany (feeling)">epiphany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ellwood98-99-10">[10]</a> Recalling his entrance into a drawing room that an "eerie iridescent light" had turned into "a fairy-tale palace", he wrote, <blockquote>I practiced for many years [the] exercise of recapturing that epiphanic moment, and I would always find again the same plenitude. I would slip into it as into a fragment of time devoid of duration—without beginning, middle, or end. During my last years of lycée, when I struggled with profound attacks of <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">melancholy</a>, I still succeeded at times in returning to the golden green light of that afternoon. [...] But even though the beatitude was the same, it was now impossible to bear because it aggravated my sadness too much. By this time I knew the world to which the drawing room belonged [...] was a world forever lost.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Ellwood" title="Robert S. Ellwood">Robert Ellwood</a>, a professor of religion who did his graduate studies under Mircea Eliade,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> saw this type of <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">nostalgia</a> as one of the most characteristic themes in Eliade's life and academic writings.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood98-99-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adolescence_and_literary_debut">Adolescence and literary debut</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Adolescence and literary debut">edit</a>]</div> After completing his primary education at the school on Mântuleasa Street,<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> Eliade attended the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spiru_Haret_National_College&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spiru Haret National College (page does not exist)">Spiru Haret National College</a> in the same class as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ar%C8%99avir_Acterian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arșavir Acterian (page does not exist)">Arșavir Acterian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haig_Acterian" title="Haig Acterian">Haig Acterian</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Petre_Viforeanu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petre Viforeanu (page does not exist)">Petre Viforeanu</a> (and several years the senior of <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Steinhardt" title="Nicolae Steinhardt">Nicolae Steinhardt</a>, who eventually became a close friend of Eliade's).<a href="#cite_note-Steinhardt,_in_Handoca-13">[13]</a> Among his other colleagues was future philosopher <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Noica" title="Constantin Noica">Constantin Noica</a><a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> and Noica's friend, future art historian <a href="/wiki/Barbu_Brezianu" title="Barbu Brezianu">Barbu Brezianu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> As a child, Eliade was fascinated with the natural world, which formed the setting of his very first literary attempts,<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> as well as with <a href="/wiki/Romanian_folklore" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian folklore">Romanian folklore</a> and the Christian faith as expressed by peasants.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Growing up, he aimed to find and record what he believed was the common source of all religious traditions.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> The young Eliade's interest in physical exercise and adventure led him to pursue <a href="/wiki/Mountaineering" title="Mountaineering">mountaineering</a> and sailing,<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> and he also joined the <a href="/wiki/Cerceta%C8%99ii_Rom%C3%A2niei" title="Cercetașii României">Romanian Boy Scouts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> With a group of friends, he designed and sailed a boat on the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Tulcea" title="Tulcea">Tulcea</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In parallel, Eliade grew estranged from the educational environment, becoming disenchanted with the discipline required and obsessed with the idea that he was uglier and less virile than his colleagues.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> To cultivate his willpower, he would force himself to swallow insects<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> and only slept four to five hours a night.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> At one point, Eliade was failing four subjects, among which was the study of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> Instead, he became interested in <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Occult" title="Occult">occult</a>,<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> and wrote short pieces on <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomological</a> subjects.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Despite his father's concern that he was in danger of losing his already weak eyesight, Eliade read passionately.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> One of his favorite authors was <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Honoré de Balzac</a>, whose work he studied carefully.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Eliade also became acquainted with the <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a> short stories of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Papini" title="Giovanni Papini">Giovanni Papini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a> studies by <a href="/wiki/James_George_Frazer" title="James George Frazer">James George Frazer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> His interest in the two writers led him to learn Italian and English in private, and he also began studying <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> At the time, Eliade became acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Saadi_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadi (poet)">Saadi</a>'s poems and the ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> He was also interested in philosophy—studying, among others, <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Conta" title="Vasile Conta">Vasile Conta</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a>, and read works of history—the two Romanian historians who influenced him from early on were <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Nicolae Iorga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> His first published work was the 1921 Inamicul viermelui de mătase ("The Silkworm's Enemy"),<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> followed by Cum am găsit piatra filosofală ("How I Found the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">Philosophers' Stone</a>").<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Four years later, Eliade completed work on his debut volume, the autobiographical <a href="/wiki/Romanul_Adolescentului_Miop" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanul Adolescentului Miop">Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_studies_and_Indian_sojourn">University studies and Indian sojourn</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: University studies and Indian sojourn">edit</a>]</div> Between 1925 and 1928, he attended the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bucharest" title="University of Bucharest">University of Bucharest</a>'s Faculty of Philosophy and Letters in 1928, earning his diploma with a study on Early Modern Italian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> In 1927, Eliade traveled to Italy, where he met Papini<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> and collaborated with the scholar <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Tucci" title="Giuseppe Tucci">Giuseppe Tucci</a>. It was during his student years that Eliade met <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a>, who lectured in <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a>, becoming one of his disciples and friends.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> He was especially attracted to Ionescu's radical ideas and his interest in religion, which signified a break with the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> tradition represented by senior academics such as <a href="/wiki/Constantin_R%C4%83dulescu-Motru" title="Constantin Rădulescu-Motru">Constantin Rădulescu-Motru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Gusti" title="Dimitrie Gusti">Dimitrie Gusti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a> (all of whom owed inspiration to the defunct literary society <a href="/wiki/Junimea" title="Junimea">Junimea</a>, albeit in varying degrees).<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> Eliade's scholarly works began after a long period of study in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Calcutta" title="University of Calcutta">University of Calcutta</a>. Finding that the <a href="/wiki/Maharaja" title="Maharaja">Maharaja</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kassimbazar" class="mw-redirect" title="Kassimbazar">Kassimbazar</a> sponsored European scholars to study in India, Eliade applied and was granted an allowance for four years, which was later doubled by a Romanian scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-Nastasă,_p.237-18">[18]</a> In autumn 1928, he sailed for <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a> to study <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and philosophy under <a href="/wiki/Surendranath_Dasgupta" title="Surendranath Dasgupta">Surendranath Dasgupta</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengali</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge alumnus</a> and professor at Calcutta University, the author of a five volume History of Indian Philosophy. Before reaching the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, Eliade also made a brief visit to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> Once in India, he visited large areas of the region, and spent a short period at a <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashram" title="Ashram">ashram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> He studied the basics of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, and, in parallel, learned Sanskrit, <a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a> under Dasgupta's direction.<a href="#cite_note-Nastasă,_p.237-18">[18]</a> At the time, he also became interested in the actions of <a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a> as a phenomenon; later, Eliade adapted Gandhian ideas in his discourse on spirituality and Romania. In 1930, while living with Dasgupta, Eliade fell in love with his host's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Maitreyi_Devi" title="Maitreyi Devi">Maitreyi Devi</a>, later writing a barely disguised autobiographical novel <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Nights_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal Nights (novel)">Maitreyi</a> (also known as "La Nuit Bengali" or "Bengal Nights"), in which he claimed that he carried on a physical relationship with her.<a href="#cite_note-kamani-20">[20]</a> Eliade received his PhD in 1933, with a thesis on <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> practices.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-ribas-22">[22]</a> The book, which was translated into French three years later,<a href="#cite_note-Nastasă,_p.237-18">[18]</a> had significant impact in academia, both in Romania and abroad.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> He later recalled that the book was an early step for understanding not just Indian religious practices, but also Romanian spirituality.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> During the same period, Eliade began a correspondence with the <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Ceylonese</a>-born philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Ananda Coomaraswamy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McGuire,_p.150-24">[24]</a> In 1936–1937, he functioned as honorary assistant for Ionescu's course, lecturing in <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In 1933, Mircea Eliade had a physical relationship with the actress Sorana Țopa, while falling in love with Nina Mareș, whom he ultimately married.<a href="#cite_note-scnostal-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> The latter, introduced to him by his new friend <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sebastian" title="Mihail Sebastian">Mihail Sebastian</a>, already had a daughter, Giza, from a man who had divorced her.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Eliade subsequently adopted Giza,<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> and the three of them moved to an apartment at 141 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dacia_Boulevard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dacia Boulevard (page does not exist)">Dacia Boulevard</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> He left his residence in 1936, during a trip he made to the United Kingdom and Germany, when he first visited London, <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criterion_and_Cuvântul">Criterion and Cuvântul</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criterion and Cuvântul">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg/250px-Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg/375px-Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg/500px-Casa_lui_Eliade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Eliade's home in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a> (1934–1940)</figcaption></figure> After contributing various and generally polemical pieces in university magazines, Eliade came to the attention of journalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pamfil_%C8%98eicaru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pamfil Șeicaru (page does not exist)">Pamfil Șeicaru</a>, who invited him to collaborate on the <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> paper <a href="/wiki/Cuv%C3%A2ntul" title="Cuvântul">Cuvântul</a>, which was noted for its harsh tones.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> By then, Cuvântul was also hosting articles by Nae Ionescu.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> As one of the figures in the <a href="/wiki/Criterion_(literary_society)" title="Criterion (literary society)">Criterion</a> <a href="/wiki/Literary_society" title="Literary society">literary society</a> (1933–1934), Eliade's initial encounter with the traditional far right was polemical: the group's conferences were stormed by members of <a href="/wiki/A._C._Cuza" title="A. C. Cuza">A. C. Cuza</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National-Christian_Defense_League" title="National-Christian Defense League">National-Christian Defense League</a>, who objected to what they viewed as <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a> and addressed <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> insults to several speakers, including Sebastian;<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> in 1933, he was among the signers of a manifesto opposing <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s state-enforced racism.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In 1934, at a time when Sebastian was publicly insulted by Nae Ionescu, who prefaced his book (De două mii de ani...) with thoughts on the "eternal damnation" of Jews, Mircea Eliade spoke out against this perspective, and commented that Ionescu's references to the verdict "<a href="/wiki/Extra_Ecclesiam_nulla_salus" title="Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus">Outside the Church there is no salvation</a>" contradicted the notion of God's <a href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">omnipotence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> However, he contended that Ionescu's text was not evidence of antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In 1936, reflecting on the early history of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Romanian Kingdom</a> and its <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Jewish community</a>, he deplored the expulsion of Jewish scholars from Romania, making specific references to <a href="/wiki/Moses_Gaster" title="Moses Gaster">Moses Gaster</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heimann_Hariton_Tiktin" title="Heimann Hariton Tiktin">Heimann Hariton Tiktin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laz%C4%83r_%C8%98%C4%83ineanu" title="Lazăr Șăineanu">Lazăr Șăineanu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Eliade's views at the time focused on innovation—in the summer of 1933, he replied to an anti-<a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a> critique written by <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a>: <blockquote>All I wish for is a deep change, a complete transformation. But, for God's sake, in any direction other than <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></blockquote> He and friends <a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Noica" title="Constantin Noica">Constantin Noica</a> were by then under the influence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tr%C4%83irism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trăirism (page does not exist)">Trăirism</a>, a school of thought that was formed around the ideals expressed by Ionescu. A form of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>, Trăirism was also the synthesis of traditional and newer right-wing beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Early on, a public polemic was sparked between Eliade and <a href="/wiki/Camil_Petrescu" title="Camil Petrescu">Camil Petrescu</a>: the two eventually reconciled and later became good friends.<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> Like Mihail Sebastian, who was himself becoming influenced by Ionescu, he maintained contacts with intellectuals from all sides of the political spectrum: their entourage included the right-wing <a href="/wiki/Dan_Botta" title="Dan Botta">Dan Botta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Vulc%C4%83nescu" title="Mircea Vulcănescu">Mircea Vulcănescu</a>, the non-political Petrescu and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ionel_Jianu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ionel Jianu (page does not exist)">Ionel Jianu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belu_Zilber" title="Belu Zilber">Belu Zilber</a>, who was a member of the illegal <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party" title="Romanian Communist Party">Romanian Communist Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tanasezilber2-37">[37]</a> The group also included <a href="/wiki/Haig_Acterian" title="Haig Acterian">Haig Acterian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Polihroniade" title="Mihail Polihroniade">Mihail Polihroniade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petru_Comarnescu" title="Petru Comarnescu">Petru Comarnescu</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marietta_Sadova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marietta Sadova (page does not exist)">Marietta Sadova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Floria_Capsali" title="Floria Capsali">Floria Capsali</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> He was also close to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mihail_(Marcel)_Avramescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihail (Marcel) Avramescu (page does not exist)">Marcel Avramescu</a>, a former <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealist</a> writer whom he introduced to the works of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pccheie-38">[38]</a> A doctor in the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> and future <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Romanian Orthodox</a> cleric, Avramescu joined Eliade in editing the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">esoteric</a> magazine Memra (the only one of its kind in Romania).<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Among the intellectuals who attended his lectures were <a href="/wiki/Mihai_%C5%9Eora" class="mw-redirect" title="Mihai Şora">Mihai Şora</a> (whom he deemed his favorite student), <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Schileru" title="Eugen Schileru">Eugen Schileru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miron_Constantinescu" title="Miron Constantinescu">Miron Constantinescu</a>—known later as, respectively, a philosopher, an art critic, and a sociologist and political figure of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Romania">communist regime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mariana_%C5%9Eora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mariana Şora (page does not exist)">Mariana Klein</a>, who became Șora's wife, was one of Eliade's female students, and later authored works on his scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> Eliade later recounted that he had himself enlisted Zilber as a Cuvântul contributor, for him to provide a <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> perspective on the issues discussed by the journal.<a href="#cite_note-tanasezilber2-37">[37]</a> Their relation soured in 1935, when the latter publicly accused Eliade of serving as an agent for the secret police, <a href="/wiki/Siguran%C8%9Ba_Statului" class="mw-redirect" title="Siguranța Statului">Siguranța Statului</a> (Sebastian answered to the statement by alleging that Zilber was himself a secret agent, and the latter eventually retracted his claim).<a href="#cite_note-tanasezilber2-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1930s_political_transition">1930s political transition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 1930s political transition">edit</a>]</div> Eliade's articles before and after his adherence to the principles of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Guard" title="Iron Guard">Iron Guard</a> (or, as it was usually known at the time, the Legionary Movement), beginning with his Itinerar spiritual ("Spiritual Itinerary", serialized in Cuvântul in 1927), center on several political ideals advocated by the far right. They displayed his rejection of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberalism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Modernization" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernization">modernizing</a> goals of the <a href="/wiki/1848_Wallachian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Wallachian revolution">1848 Wallachian revolution</a> (perceived as "an abstract apology of Mankind"<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> and "ape-like imitation of [Western] Europe"),<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> as well as for democracy itself (accusing it of "managing to crush all attempts at national renaissance",<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_1937,_in_Ornea,_p.53-42">[42]</a> and later praising <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Italian_fascism" title="Italian fascism">Fascist Italy</a> on the grounds that, according to Eliade, "[in Italy,] he who thinks for himself is promoted to the highest office in the shortest of times").<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_1937,_in_Ornea,_p.53-42">[42]</a> He approved of an <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalist</a> state centered on the Orthodox Church (in 1927, despite his still-vivid interest in <a href="/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophy (Blavatskian)">Theosophy</a>, he recommended young intellectuals "the return to the Church"),<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> which he opposed to, among others, the <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> nationalism of <a href="/wiki/Constantin_R%C4%83dulescu-Motru" title="Constantin Rădulescu-Motru">Constantin Rădulescu-Motru</a>;<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> referring to this particular ideal as "Romanianism", Eliade was, in 1934, still viewing it as "neither fascism, nor <a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">chauvinism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Eliade was especially dissatisfied with the incidence of unemployment among intellectuals, whose careers in state-financed institutions had been rendered uncertain by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In 1936, Eliade was the focus of a campaign in the far right press, being targeted for having authored "pornography" in his <a href="/wiki/Miss_Christina" title="Miss Christina">Domnișoara Christina</a> and Isabel și apele diavolului; similar accusations were aimed at other cultural figures, including <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Arghezi" title="Tudor Arghezi">Tudor Arghezi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geo_Bogza" title="Geo Bogza">Geo Bogza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Assessments of Eliade's work were in sharp contrast to one another: also in 1936, Eliade accepted an award from the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Writers%27_Society" title="Romanian Writers' Society">Romanian Writers' Society</a>, of which he had been a member since 1934.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In summer 1937, through an official decision which came as a result of the accusations, and despite student protests, he was stripped of his position at the university.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Eliade decided to sue the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Education,_Research_and_Youth_(Romania)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Education, Research and Youth (Romania)">Ministry of Education</a>, asking for a symbolic compensation of 1 <a href="/wiki/Romanian_leu" title="Romanian leu">leu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.453-50">[50]</a> He won the trial, and regained his position as Nae Ionescu's assistant.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.453-50">[50]</a> Nevertheless, by 1937, he gave his intellectual support to the Iron Guard, in which he saw "a Christian revolution aimed at creating a new Romania",<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_1937,_in_Ornea,_p.203-51">[51]</a> and a group able "to reconcile Romania with God".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_1937,_in_Ornea,_p.203-51">[51]</a> His articles of the time, published in Iron Guard-affiliated papers such as <a href="/wiki/Sfarm%C4%83-Piatr%C4%83" title="Sfarmă-Piatră">Sfarmă-Piatră</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buna_Vestire" title="Buna Vestire">Buna Vestire</a>, contain ample praises of the movement's leaders (<a href="/wiki/Corneliu_Zelea_Codreanu" title="Corneliu Zelea Codreanu">Corneliu Zelea Codreanu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_Mo%C8%9Ba" title="Ion Moța">Ion Moța</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasile_Marin" title="Vasile Marin">Vasile Marin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Cantacuzino-Gr%C4%83nicerul" title="Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul">Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul</a>).<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> The transition he went through was similar to that of his fellow generation members and close collaborators—among the notable exceptions to this rule were <a href="/wiki/Petru_Comarnescu" title="Petru Comarnescu">Petru Comarnescu</a>, sociologist <a href="/wiki/Henri_H._Stahl" title="Henri H. Stahl">Henri H. Stahl</a> and future dramatist <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>, as well as Sebastian.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> He eventually enrolled in the Totul pentru Țară ("Everything for the Fatherland" Party), the political expression of the Iron Guard,<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.207-55">[55]</a> and contributed to its <a href="/wiki/1937_Romanian_general_election" title="1937 Romanian general election">1937 electoral campaign</a> in <a href="/wiki/Prahova_County" title="Prahova County">Prahova County</a>—as indicated by his inclusion on a list of party members with <a href="/wiki/Counties_of_Romania" title="Counties of Romania">county</a>-level responsibilities (published in Buna Vestire).<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.207-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internment_and_diplomatic_service">Internment and diplomatic service</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Internment and diplomatic service">edit</a>]</div> The stance taken by Eliade resulted in his arrest on July 14, 1938, after a crackdown on the Iron Guard authorized by <a href="/wiki/King_of_Romania" title="King of Romania">King</a> <a href="/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania" title="Carol II of Romania">Carol II</a>. At the time of his arrest, he had just interrupted a column on Provincia și legionarismul ("The Province and Legionary Ideology") in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vremea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vremea (page does not exist)">Vremea</a>, having been singled out by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Armand_C%C4%83linescu" title="Armand Călinescu">Armand Călinescu</a> as an author of Iron Guard propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Eliade was kept for three weeks in a cell at the <a href="/wiki/Siguran%C8%9Ba" title="Siguranța">Siguranța Statului</a> Headquarters, in an attempt to have him sign a "declaration of dissociation" with the Iron Guard, but he refused to do so.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.209-57">[57]</a> In the first week of August he was transferred to a makeshift camp at <a href="/wiki/Miercurea-Ciuc" class="mw-redirect" title="Miercurea-Ciuc">Miercurea-Ciuc</a>. When Eliade began coughing blood in October 1938, he was taken to a clinic in <a href="/wiki/Moroeni" title="Moroeni">Moroeni</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.209-57">[57]</a> Eliade was simply released on November 12, and subsequently spent his time writing his play Iphigenia (also known as Ifigenia).<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> In April 1940, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Rosetti" title="Alexandru Rosetti">Alexandru Rosetti</a>, he became Cultural Attaché to the United Kingdom, a posting cut short when Romanian-British foreign relations were broken.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.209-57">[57]</a> After leaving London he was assigned the office of Counsel and <a href="/wiki/Press_secretary" title="Press secretary">Press Officer</a> (later Cultural Attaché) to the Romanian Embassy in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-cavrcitim-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-mlimpost-60">[60]</a> where he was kept on as diplomat by the <a href="/wiki/National_Legionary_State" title="National Legionary State">National Legionary State</a> (the Iron Guard government) and, ultimately, by <a href="/wiki/Ion_Antonescu" title="Ion Antonescu">Ion Antonescu</a>'s regime. His office involved disseminating propaganda in favor of the Romanian state.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> In 1941, during his time in Portugal, Eliade stayed in <a href="/wiki/Estoril" title="Estoril">Estoril</a>, at the Hotel Palácio. He would later find a house in <a href="/wiki/Cascais" title="Cascais">Cascais</a>, at Rua da Saudade.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In February 1941, weeks after the bloody <a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Legionary Rebellion</a> was crushed by Antonescu, Iphigenia was staged by the <a href="/wiki/National_Theater_Bucharest" class="mw-redirect" title="National Theater Bucharest">National Theater Bucharest</a>—the play soon raised concerns that it owed inspiration to the Iron Guard's ideology, and even that its inclusion in the program was a Legionary attempt at subversion.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> In 1942, Eliade authored a volume in praise of the <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a>, established in Portugal by <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">António de Oliveira Salazar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-mlimpost-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-mesalaz-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> claiming that "The Salazarian state, a Christian and <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> one, is first and foremost based on love".<a href="#cite_note-mesalaz-63">[63]</a> On July 7 of the same year, he was received by Salazar himself, who assigned Eliade the task of warning Antonescu to withdraw the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Army">Romanian Army</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> ("[In his place], I would not be grinding it in Russia").<a href="#cite_note-in_Handoca-65">[65]</a> Eliade also claimed that such contacts with the leader of a neutral country had made him the target for <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a> surveillance, but that he had managed to communicate Salazar's advice to <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Antonescu" title="Mihai Antonescu">Mihai Antonescu</a>, Romania's <a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_Foreign_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Romanian Foreign Ministers">Foreign Minister</a>.<a href="#cite_note-in_Handoca-65">[65]</a> In autumn 1943, he traveled to <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">occupied France</a>, where he rejoined <a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a>, also meeting with scholar <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">collaborationist</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Paul_Morand" title="Paul Morand">Paul Morand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> At the same time, he applied for a position of lecturer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bucharest" title="University of Bucharest">University of Bucharest</a>, but withdrew from the race, leaving <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Noica" title="Constantin Noica">Constantin Noica</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ion_Zamfirescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ion Zamfirescu (page does not exist)">Ion Zamfirescu</a> to dispute the position, in front of a panel of academics comprising <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Blaga" title="Lucian Blaga">Lucian Blaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dimitrie_Gusti" title="Dimitrie Gusti">Dimitrie Gusti</a> (Zamfirescu's eventual selection, going against Blaga's recommendation, was to be the topic of a controversy).<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In his private notes, Eliade wrote that he took no further interest in the office, because his visits abroad had convinced him that he had "something great to say", and that he could not function within the confines of "a minor culture".<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> Also during the war, Eliade traveled to <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, where he met and conversed with controversial political theorist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> and frequently visited <a href="/wiki/Spain_under_Franco" class="mw-redirect" title="Spain under Franco">Francoist Spain</a>, where he notably attended the 1944 Lusitano-Spanish scientific congress in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> It was during his trips to Spain that Eliade met philosophers <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">José Ortega y Gasset</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_d%27Ors" title="Eugenio d'Ors">Eugenio d'Ors</a>. He maintained a friendship with d'Ors, and met him again on several occasions after the war.<a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a> Nina Eliade fell ill with <a href="/wiki/Uterine_cancer" title="Uterine cancer">uterine cancer</a> and died during their stay in <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, in late 1944. As the widower later wrote, the disease was probably caused by an abortion procedure she had undergone at an early stage of their relationship.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> He came to suffer from clinical depression, which increased as Romania and her <a href="/wiki/Axis_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis Powers">Axis</a> allies suffered major defeats on the Eastern Front.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> Contemplating a return to Romania as a soldier or a <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monk</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> he was on a continuous search for effective <a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">antidepressants</a>, medicating himself with <a href="/wiki/Passion_flower" class="mw-redirect" title="Passion flower">passion flower</a> extract, and, eventually, with <a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">methamphetamine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> This was probably not his first experience with drugs: vague mentions in his notebooks have been read as indication that Mircea Eliade was taking <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> during his travels to <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> Later, discussing the works of <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a>, Eliade wrote that the British author's use of <a href="/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a> as a source of inspiration had something in common with his own experience, indicating 1945 as a date of reference and adding that it was "needless to explain why that is".<a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_exile">Early exile</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early exile">edit</a>]</div> At signs that the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Romania">Romanian communist regime</a> was about to take hold, Eliade opted not to return to the country. On September 16, 1945, he moved to France with his adopted daughter Giza.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> Once there, he resumed contacts with Dumézil, who helped him recover his position in academia.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> On Dumézil's recommendation, he taught at the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_Pratique_des_Hautes_%C3%89tudes" class="mw-redirect" title="École Pratique des Hautes Études">École Pratique des Hautes Études</a> in Paris.<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> It was estimated that, at the time, it was not uncommon for him to work 15 hours a day.<a href="#cite_note-ribas-22">[22]</a> Eliade married a second time, to the Romanian exile Christinel Cotescu.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-msrsotia-69">[69]</a> His second wife, the descendant of <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a>, was the sister-in-law of the conductor <a href="/wiki/Ionel_Perlea" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionel Perlea">Ionel Perlea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-msrsotia-69">[69]</a> Together with <a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a> and other Romanian expatriates, Eliade rallied with the former diplomat <a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Busuioceanu" title="Alexandru Busuioceanu">Alexandru Busuioceanu</a>, helping him publicize <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communist</a> opinion to the Western European public.<a href="#cite_note-guleaobsc-70">[70]</a> He was also briefly involved in publishing a Romanian-language magazine, titled Luceafărul ("The Morning Star"),<a href="#cite_note-guleaobsc-70">[70]</a> and was again in contact with <a href="/wiki/Mihai_%C8%98ora" title="Mihai Șora">Mihai Șora</a>, who had been granted a scholarship to study in France, and with Șora's wife <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mariana_%C5%9Eora&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mariana Şora (page does not exist)">Mariana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> In 1947, he was facing material constraints, and <a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Ananda Coomaraswamy</a> found him a job as a <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French-language</a> teacher in the United States, at a school in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>; the arrangement ended upon Coomaraswamy's death in September.<a href="#cite_note-McGuire,_p.150-24">[24]</a> Beginning in 1948, he wrote for the journal Critique, edited by French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Georges Bataille</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> The following year, he went on a visit to Italy, where he wrote the first 300 pages of his novel <a href="/wiki/Noaptea_de_S%C3%A2nziene" class="mw-redirect" title="Noaptea de Sânziene">Noaptea de Sânziene</a> (he visited the country a third time in 1952).<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> He collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eranos" title="Eranos">Eranos</a> circle after <a href="/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Henry Corbin</a> recommended him in 1949,<a href="#cite_note-McGuire,_p.150-24">[24]</a> and wrote for the <a href="/wiki/Antaios_(magazine)" title="Antaios (magazine)">Antaios</a> magazine (edited by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Ernst Jünger</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ribas-22">[22]</a> In 1950, Eliade began attending Eranos conferences, meeting Jung, <a href="/wiki/Olga_Fr%C3%B6be-Kapteyn" title="Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn">Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Radin" title="Paul Radin">Paul Radin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> He described Eranos as "one of the most creative cultural experiences of the modern Western world."<a href="#cite_note-McGuire,_p.151-72">[72]</a> In October 1956, he moved to the United States, settling in Chicago the following year.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> He had been invited by <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wach" title="Joachim Wach">Joachim Wach</a> to give a series of lectures at Wach's home institution, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>.<a href="#cite_note-McGuire,_p.151-72">[72]</a> Eliade and Wach are generally admitted to be the founders of the "Chicago school" that basically defined the study of religions for the second half of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Hermeneutics_in_History-73">[73]</a> Upon Wach's death before the lectures were delivered, Eliade was appointed as his successor, becoming, in 1964, the <a href="/wiki/Sewell_Avery" title="Sewell Avery">Sewell Avery</a> Distinguished Service Professor of the History of Religions.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> Beginning in 1954, with the first edition of his volume on <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">Eternal Return</a>, Eliade also enjoyed commercial success: the book went through several editions under different titles, and sold over 100,000 copies.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In 1966, Mircea Eliade became a member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> He also worked as editor-in-chief of <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>' Encyclopedia of Religion, and, in 1968, lectured in religious history at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-75">[75]</a> It was also during that period that Mircea Eliade completed his voluminous and influential History of Religious Ideas, which grouped together the overviews of his main original interpretations of religious history.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> He occasionally traveled out of the United States, attending the Congress for the History of Religions in <a href="/wiki/Marburg" title="Marburg">Marburg</a> (1960), and visiting Sweden and <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years_and_death">Final years and death</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Final years and death">edit</a>]</div> Initially, Eliade was attacked with virulence by the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Communist_Party" title="Romanian Communist Party">Romanian Communist Party</a> press, chiefly by <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A2nia_Liber%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="România Liberă">România Liberă</a>—which described him as "the Iron Guard's ideologue, <a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemy of the working class</a>, apologist of Salazar's dictatorship".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> However, the regime also made secretive attempts to enlist his and Cioran's support: <a href="/wiki/Haig_Acterian" title="Haig Acterian">Haig Acterian</a>'s widow, theater director <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marietta_Sadova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marietta Sadova (page does not exist)">Marietta Sadova</a>, was sent to Paris to re-establish contacts with the two.<a href="#cite_note-tismetern-77">[77]</a> Although the move was planned by Romanian officials, her encounters were to be used as evidence incriminating her at a February 1960 trial for treason (where <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Noica" title="Constantin Noica">Constantin Noica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dinu_Pillat" title="Dinu Pillat">Dinu Pillat</a> were the main defendants).<a href="#cite_note-tismetern-77">[77]</a> Romania's secret police, the <a href="/wiki/Securitate" title="Securitate">Securitate</a>, also portrayed Eliade as a spy for the British <a href="/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret Intelligence Service">Secret Intelligence Service</a> and a former agent of the Gestapo.<a href="#cite_note-zfscriit-78">[78]</a> He was slowly <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">rehabilitated</a> at home beginning in the early 1960s, under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Gheorghiu-Dej" title="Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej">Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In the 1970s, Eliade was approached by the <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> regime in several ways, to have him return.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> The move was prompted by the officially sanctioned nationalism and Romania's claim to independence from the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>, as both phenomena came to see Eliade's prestige as an asset. An unprecedented event occurred with the interview that was granted by Mircea Eliade to poet <a href="/wiki/Adrian_P%C4%83unescu" title="Adrian Păunescu">Adrian Păunescu</a>, during the latter's 1970 visit to Chicago; Eliade complimented both Păunescu's activism and his support for official tenets, expressing a belief that <blockquote>the youth of Eastern Europe is clearly superior to that of Western Europe. [...] I am convinced that, within ten years, the young revolutionary generation shan't be behaving as does today the noisy minority of <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">Western contesters</a>. [...] Eastern youth have seen the abolition of traditional institutions, have accepted it [...] and are not yet content with the structures enforced, but rather seek to improve them.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></blockquote> Păunescu's visit to Chicago was followed by those of the nationalist official writer <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Barbu" title="Eugen Barbu">Eugen Barbu</a> and by Eliade's friend Constantin Noica (who had since been released from jail).<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> At the time, Eliade contemplated returning to Romania, but was eventually persuaded by fellow Romanian intellectuals in exile (including <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Free Europe">Radio Free Europe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Virgil_Ierunca" title="Virgil Ierunca">Virgil Ierunca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monica_Lovinescu" title="Monica Lovinescu">Monica Lovinescu</a>) to reject Communist proposals.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> In 1977, he joined other exiled Romanian intellectuals in signing a telegram protesting the repressive measures newly enforced by the Ceaușescu regime.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> Writing in 2007, Romanian anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Oi%C8%99teanu" title="Andrei Oișteanu">Andrei Oișteanu</a> recounted how, around 1984, the Securitate unsuccessfully attempted to become an <a href="/wiki/Agent_of_influence" title="Agent of influence">agent of influence</a> in Eliade's Chicago circle.<a href="#cite_note-teodoist-81">[81]</a> During his later years, Eliade's past was progressively exposed publicly, the stress of which probably contributed to the decline of his health.<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a> By then, his writing career was hampered by severe <a href="/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> The last academic honors bestowed upon him were the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">French Academy</a>'s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bordin_Prize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bordin Prize (page does not exist)">Bordin Prize</a> (1977) and the title of <a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">Doctor Honoris Causa</a>, granted by <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a> (1985).<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_(1907%E2%80%931986)_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery,_Chicago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_%281907%E2%80%931986%29_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery%2C_Chicago.jpg/150px-Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_%281907%E2%80%931986%29_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery%2C_Chicago.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_%281907%E2%80%931986%29_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery%2C_Chicago.jpg/225px-Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_%281907%E2%80%931986%29_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery%2C_Chicago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_%281907%E2%80%931986%29_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery%2C_Chicago.jpg/300px-Grave_of_Mircea_Eliade_%281907%E2%80%931986%29_at_Oak_Woods_Cemetery%2C_Chicago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="659" /></a><figcaption>Eliade's grave at Oak Woods Cemetery</figcaption></figure> Mircea Eliade died at the <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mitchell_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Mitchell Hospital">Bernard Mitchell Hospital</a> in April 1986. Eight days previously, he suffered a stroke while reading <a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a>'s Exercises of Admiration, and had subsequently lost his speech function.<a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a> Four months before, a fire had destroyed part of his office at the <a href="/wiki/Meadville_Lombard_Theological_School" title="Meadville Lombard Theological School">Meadville Lombard Theological School</a> (an event which he had interpreted as an <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omen</a>).<a href="#cite_note-smihai-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a> Eliade's Romanian disciple <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Petru_Culianu" title="Ioan Petru Culianu">Ioan Petru Culianu</a>, who recalled the scientific community's reaction to the news, described Eliade's death as "a <a href="/wiki/Paranirvana" class="mw-redirect" title="Paranirvana">mahaparanirvana</a>", thus comparing it to the passing of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a> His body was <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremated</a> in Chicago, and the funeral ceremony was held on University grounds, at the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Chapel" title="Rockefeller Chapel">Rockefeller Chapel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a> It was attended by 1,200 people, and included a public reading of Eliade's text in which he recalled the <a href="/wiki/Epiphany_(feeling)" title="Epiphany (feeling)">epiphany</a> of his childhood—the lecture was given by novelist <a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Saul Bellow</a>, Eliade's colleague at the university.<a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a> His student and the bearer of his legacy, <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Long" title="Charles H. Long">Charles H. Long</a>, co-founder of the History of Religions at the University of Chicago Divinity School, gave the eulogy.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> His grave is located in <a href="/wiki/Oak_Woods_Cemetery" title="Oak Woods Cemetery">Oak Woods Cemetery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Work">Work</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Work">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_general_nature_of_religion">The general nature of religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The general nature of religion">edit</a>]</div> In his work on the history of religion, Eliade is most highly regarded for his writings on <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> and what he called the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">eternal return</a>—the implicit belief, supposedly present in religious thought in general, that <a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">religious behavior</a> is not only an imitation of, but also a participation in, sacred events, and thus restores the mythical time of origins. Eliade's thinking was in part influenced by <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerardus_van_der_Leeuw" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerardus van der Leeuw">Gerardus van der Leeuw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a> and the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist School">Traditionalist School</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pccheie-38">[38]</a> For instance, Eliade's The Sacred and the Profane partially builds on Otto's <a href="/wiki/The_Idea_of_the_Holy" title="The Idea of the Holy">The Idea of the Holy</a> to show how religion emerges from the experience of the sacred, and myths of time and nature. Eliade is known for his attempt to find broad, cross-cultural parallels and unities in religion, particularly in myths. <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Wendy Doniger</a>, Eliade's colleague from 1978 until his death, has observed that "Eliade argued boldly for universals where he might more safely have argued for widely prevalent patterns."<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> His Treatise on the History of Religions was praised by French philologist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a> for its coherence and ability to synthesize diverse and distinct mythologies.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Ellwood" title="Robert S. Ellwood">Robert Ellwood</a> describes Eliade's approach to religion as follows. Eliade approaches religion by imagining an ideally "religious" person, whom he calls homo religiosus in his writings. Eliade's theories basically describe how this homo religiosus would view the world.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.99-88">[88]</a> This does not mean that all religious practitioners actually think and act like homo religiosus. Instead, it means that religious behavior "says through its own language" that the world is as homo religiosus would see it, whether or not the real-life participants in religious behavior are aware of it.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.104-89">[89]</a> However, Ellwood writes that Eliade "tends to slide over that last qualification", implying that traditional societies actually thought like homo religiosus.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.104-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sacred_and_profane">Sacred and profane</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sacred and profane">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosesshoesspeculum.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Mosesshoesspeculum.jpeg/250px-Mosesshoesspeculum.jpeg" decoding="async" width="250" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Mosesshoesspeculum.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> taking off his shoes in front of the <a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">burning bush</a> (illustration from a 16th-century edition of the <a href="/wiki/Speculum_Humanae_Salvationis" title="Speculum Humanae Salvationis">Speculum Humanae Salvationis</a>).</figcaption></figure> Eliade argues that "Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at once."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.450-90">[90]</a> He also thought that the Indian and Chinese mystic tried to attain "a state of perfect indifference and neutrality" that resulted in a coincidence of opposites in which "pleasure and pain, desire and repulsion, cold and heat [...] are expunged from his awareness."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.450-90">[90]</a> Eliade's understanding of religion centers on his concept of <a href="/wiki/Hierophany" title="Hierophany">hierophany</a> (manifestation of the Sacred)—a concept that includes, but is not limited to, the older and more restrictive concept of <a href="/wiki/Theophany" title="Theophany">theophany</a> (manifestation of a god).<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> From the perspective of religious thought, Eliade argues, hierophanies give structure and orientation to the world, establishing a sacred order. The "profane" space of nonreligious experience can only be divided up geometrically: it has no "qualitative differentiation and, hence, no orientation [is] given by virtue of its inherent structure."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.22-92">[92]</a> Thus, profane space gives man no pattern for his behavior. In contrast to profane space, the site of a hierophany has a sacred structure to which religious man conforms himself. A hierophany amounts to a "revelation of an absolute reality, opposed to the non-reality of the vast surrounding expanse."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.21-93">[93]</a> As an example of "<a href="/wiki/Hierotopy" title="Hierotopy">sacred space</a>" demanding a certain response from man, Eliade gives the story of <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a> halting before <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>'s manifestation as a <a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">burning bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Exodus</a> 3:5) and taking off his shoes.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Origin_myths_and_sacred_time">Origin myths and sacred time</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Origin myths and sacred time">edit</a>]</div> Eliade notes that, in traditional societies, myth represents the absolute truth about primordial time.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.23-95">[95]</a> According to the myths, this was the time when the Sacred first appeared, establishing the world's structure—myths claim to describe the primordial events that made society and the natural world be that which they are. Eliade argues that all myths are, in that sense, origin myths: "myth, then, is always an account of a creation."<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Many traditional societies believe that the power of a thing lies in its origin.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> If origin is equivalent to power, then "it is the first manifestation of a thing that is significant and valid"<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> (a thing's reality and value therefore lies only in its first appearance). According to Eliade's theory, only the Sacred has value, only a thing's first appearance has value and, therefore, only the Sacred's first appearance has value. Myth describes the Sacred's first appearance; therefore, the mythical age is sacred time,<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.23-95">[95]</a> the only time of value: "primitive man was interested only in the beginnings [...] to him it mattered little what had happened to himself, or to others like him, in more or less distant times."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.44-99">[99]</a> Eliade postulated this as the reason for the "<a href="/wiki/Nostalgia" title="Nostalgia">nostalgia</a> for origins" that appears in many religions, the desire to return to a primordial <a href="/wiki/Paradise" title="Paradise">Paradise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.44-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eternal_return_and_"Terror_of_history"">Eternal return and "Terror of history"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Eternal return and "Terror of history"">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">Eternal return (Eliade)</a></div> Eliade argues that traditional man attributes no value to the linear march of historical events: only the events of the mythical age have value. To give his own life value, traditional man performs myths and rituals. Because the Sacred's essence lies only in the mythical age, only in the Sacred's first appearance, any later appearance is actually the first appearance; by recounting or re-enacting mythical events, myths and rituals "re-actualize" those events.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Eliade often uses the term "<a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">archetypes</a>" to refer to the mythical models established by the Sacred, although Eliade's use of the term should be distinguished from the use of the term in <a href="/wiki/Jungian_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Jungian psychology">Jungian psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Thus, argues Eliade, religious behavior does not only commemorate, but also participates in, sacred events: <blockquote>In imitating the exemplary acts of a god or of a mythical hero, or simply by recounting their adventures, the man of an archaic society detaches himself from profane time and magically re-enters the Great Time, the sacred time.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.23-95">[95]</a></blockquote> Eliade called this concept the "<a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">eternal return</a>" (distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">philosophical concept of "eternal return"</a>). Wendy Doniger noted that Eliade's theory of the eternal return "has become a truism in the study of religions."<a href="#cite_note-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii-2">[2]</a> Eliade attributes the well-known "cyclic" vision of time in ancient thought to belief in the eternal return. For instance, the New Year ceremonies among the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Near Eastern</a> peoples re-enacted their <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogonic</a> myths. Therefore, by the logic of the eternal return, each New Year ceremony was the beginning of the world for these peoples. According to Eliade, these peoples felt a need to return to the Beginning at regular intervals, turning time into a circle.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Eliade argues that yearning to remain in the mythical age causes a "terror of history": traditional man desires to escape the linear succession of events (which, Eliade indicated, he viewed as empty of any inherent value or sacrality). Eliade suggests that the abandonment of mythical thought and the full acceptance of linear, historical time, with its "terror", is one of the reasons for modern man's anxieties.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Traditional societies escape this anxiety to an extent, as they refuse to completely acknowledge historical time. But the return to the sources involved an apocalyptic experience. <a href="/wiki/Doina_Ru%C8%99ti" title="Doina Ruști">Doina Ruști</a>, analyzing the storyThe Old Man and The Bureaucrats (Pe strada Mântuleasa), says The memories<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> create the chaos, because "the myth makes irruption in a world in tormented birth, without memory, and transform all in a labyrinth". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coincidentia_oppositorum">Coincidentia oppositorum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Coincidentia oppositorum">edit</a>]</div> Eliade claims that many myths, rituals, and mystical experiences involve a "coincidence of opposites," or <a href="/wiki/Coincidentia_oppositorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Coincidentia oppositorum">coincidentia oppositorum</a>. In fact, he calls the coincidentia oppositorum "the mythical pattern."<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Many myths, Eliade notes, "present us with a twofold revelation": <blockquote>they express on the one hand the diametrical opposition of two divine figures sprung from one and the same principle and destined, in many versions, to be reconciled at some illud tempus of eschatology, and on the other, the coincidentia oppositorum in the very nature of the divinity, which shows itself, by turns or even simultaneously, benevolent and terrible, creative and destructive, solar and serpentine, and so on (in other words, actual and potential).<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></blockquote> Eliade argues that "Yahweh is both kind and wrathful; the God of the Christian mystics and theologians is terrible and gentle at once."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.450-90">[90]</a> He also thought that the Indian and Chinese mystic tried to attain "a state of perfect indifference and neutrality" that resulted in a coincidence of opposites in which "pleasure and pain, desire and repulsion, cold and heat [...] are expunged from his awareness".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.450-90">[90]</a> According to Eliade, the coincidentia oppositorum's appeal lies in "man's deep dissatisfaction with his actual situation, with what is called the human condition".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.439-107">[107]</a> In many mythologies, the end of the mythical age involves a "fall", a fundamental "<a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> change in the structure of the World".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.440-108">[108]</a> Because the coincidentia oppositorum is a contradiction, it represents a denial of the world's current logical structure, a reversal of the "fall". Also, traditional man's dissatisfaction with the post-mythical age expresses itself as a feeling of being "torn and separate".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.439-107">[107]</a> In many mythologies, the lost mythical age was a Paradise, "a paradoxical state in which the contraries exist side by side without conflict, and the multiplications form aspects of a mysterious Unity".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.440-108">[108]</a> The coincidentia oppositorum expresses a wish to recover the lost unity of the mythical Paradise, for it presents a reconciliation of opposites and the unification of diversity: <blockquote>On the level of pre-systematic thought, the mystery of totality embodies man's endeavor to reach a perspective in which the contraries are abolished, the Spirit of Evil reveals itself as a stimulant of Good, and Demons appear as the night aspect of the Gods.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.440-108">[108]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exceptions_to_the_general_nature">Exceptions to the general nature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Exceptions to the general nature">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg/270px-Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg/405px-Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg/540px-Meister_von_Torcello_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="1737" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a> (detail) in the 12th century <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine mosaic</a> at <a href="/wiki/Torcello" title="Torcello">Torcello</a>.</figcaption></figure> Eliade acknowledges that not all religious behavior has all the attributes described in his theory of sacred time and the eternal return. The <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a>, Jewish, Christian, and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> traditions embrace linear, historical time as sacred or capable of sanctification, while some <a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern traditions</a> largely reject the notion of sacred time, seeking escape from the <a href="/wiki/Wheel_of_time" title="Wheel of time">cycles of time</a>. Because they contain rituals, Judaism and Christianity necessarily—Eliade argues—retain a sense of cyclic time: <blockquote>by the very fact that it is a religion, Christianity had to keep at least one mythical aspect—<a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> Time, that is, the periodic rediscovery of the illud tempus of the beginnings [and] an imitation of the Christ as exemplary pattern.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></blockquote> However, Judaism and Christianity do not see time as a circle endlessly turning on itself; nor do they see such a cycle as desirable, as a way to participate in the Sacred. Instead, these religions embrace the concept of linear history progressing toward the <a href="/wiki/Messianic_Age" title="Messianic Age">Messianic Age</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Last_Judgment" title="Last Judgment">Last Judgment</a>, thus initiating the idea of "progress" (humans are to work for a Paradise in the future).<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> However, Eliade's understanding of Judaeo-Christian <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">eschatology</a> can also be understood as cyclical in that the "end of time" is a return to God: "The final catastrophe will put an end to history, hence will restore man to eternity and beatitude."<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The pre-<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian</a> religion of Zoroastrianism, which made a notable "contribution to the religious formation of the West",<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_v.1_p.302-112">[112]</a> also has a linear sense of time; although, according to Eliade, the Hebrews' linear sense of time predates their being influenced by Zoroastrianism.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_v.1_p.302-112">[112]</a> In fact, Eliade identifies the Hebrews, not the Zoroastrians, as the first culture to truly "valorize" historical time, the first to see all major historical events as episodes in a continuous divine revelation.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> However, Eliade argues, Judaism elaborated its mythology of linear time by adding elements borrowed from Zoroastrianism—including <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology#Moral_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">ethical dualism</a>, a savior figure, the future resurrection of the body, and the idea of cosmic progress toward "the final triumph of Good."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_v.1_p.302-112">[112]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a> of the East generally retain a cyclic view of time—for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(aeon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalpa (aeon)">kalpas</a>. According to Eliade, most religions that accept the cyclic view of time also embrace it: they see it as a way to return to the sacred time. However, in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, and some forms of Hinduism, the Sacred lies outside the flux of the material world (called <a href="/wiki/Maya_(illusion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maya (illusion)">maya</a>, or "illusion"), and one can only reach it by escaping from the cycles of time.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Because the Sacred lies outside cyclic time, which conditions humans, people can only reach the Sacred by escaping the <a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">human condition</a>. According to Eliade, <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a> techniques aim at escaping the limitations of the body, allowing the soul (<a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">atman</a>) to rise above maya and reach the Sacred (<a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">nirvana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a>). Imagery of "freedom", and of death to one's old body and rebirth with a new body, occur frequently in Yogic texts, representing escape from the bondage of the temporal human condition.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Eliade discusses these themes in detail in Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolism_of_the_Center">Symbolism of the Center</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Symbolism of the Center">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">Axis mundi</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg/150px-Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="466" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg/225px-Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg/300px-Yggdrasil_AM_738_4to.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="2329" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/World_Tree" class="mw-redirect" title="World Tree">Cosmic Tree</a> <a href="/wiki/Yggdrasill" class="mw-redirect" title="Yggdrasill">Yggdrasill</a>, as depicted in a 17th-century Icelandic miniature</figcaption></figure> A recurrent theme in Eliade's myth analysis is the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a>, the Center of the World. According to Eliade, the Cosmic Center is a necessary corollary to the division of reality into the Sacred and the profane. The Sacred contains all value, and the world gains purpose and meaning only through hierophanies: <blockquote>In the homogeneous and infinite expanse, in which no point of reference is possible and hence no orientation is established, the <a href="/wiki/Hierophany" title="Hierophany">hierophany</a> reveals an absolute fixed point, a center.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.21-93">[93]</a></blockquote> Because profane space gives man no orientation for his life, the Sacred must manifest itself in a hierophany, thereby establishing a sacred site around which man can orient himself. The site of a hierophany establishes a "fixed point, a center".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.21-93">[93]</a> This Center abolishes the "homogeneity and relativity of profane space",<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.22-92">[92]</a> for it becomes "the central axis for all future orientation".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.21-93">[93]</a> A manifestation of the Sacred in profane space is, by definition, an example of something breaking through from one plane of existence to another. Therefore, the initial hierophany that establishes the Center must be a point at which there is contact between different planes—this, Eliade argues, explains the frequent mythical imagery of a <a href="/wiki/World_Tree" class="mw-redirect" title="World Tree">Cosmic Tree</a> or Pillar joining Heaven, Earth, and the <a href="/wiki/Underworld" title="Underworld">underworld</a>.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Eliade noted that, when traditional societies found a new territory, they often perform consecrating rituals that reenact the hierophany that established the center and founded the world.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In addition, the designs of traditional buildings, especially temples, usually imitate the mythical image of the axis mundi joining the different cosmic levels. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurats</a> were built to resemble cosmic mountains passing through the heavenly spheres, and the rock of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> was supposed to reach deep into the <a href="/wiki/Tehom" title="Tehom">tehom</a>, or primordial waters.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> According to the logic of the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">eternal return</a>, the site of each such symbolic Center will actually be the Center of the World: <blockquote>It may be said, in general, that the majority of the sacred and ritual trees that we meet with in the history of religions are only replicas, imperfect copies of this exemplary archetype, the Cosmic Tree. Thus, all these sacred trees are thought of as situated at the Centre of the World, and all the ritual trees or posts [...] are, as it were, magically projected into the Centre of the World.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></blockquote> According to Eliade's interpretation, religious man apparently feels the need to live not only near, but at, the mythical Center as much as possible, given that the center is the point of communication with the Sacred.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Thus, Eliade argues, many traditional societies share common outlines in their mythical geographies. In the middle of the known world is the sacred Center, "a place that is sacred above all";<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> this Center anchors the established order.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.22-92">[92]</a> Around the sacred Center lies the known world, the realm of established order; and beyond the known world is a chaotic and dangerous realm, "peopled by ghosts, demons, [and] 'foreigners' (who are [identified with] demons and the souls of the dead)".<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> According to Eliade, traditional societies place their known world at the Center because (from their perspective) their known world is the realm that obeys a recognizable order, and it therefore must be the realm in which the Sacred manifests itself; the regions beyond the known world, which seem strange and foreign, must lie far from the center, outside the order established by the Sacred.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_High_God">The High God</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The High God">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sky_father" title="Sky father">Sky father</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deus_otiosus" title="Deus otiosus">Deus otiosus</a></div> According to some "evolutionistic" theories of religion, especially that of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a>, cultures naturally progress from <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheism</a> to <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> According to this view, more advanced cultures should be more monotheistic, and more primitive cultures should be more polytheistic. However, many of the most "primitive", pre-agricultural societies believe in a supreme <a href="/wiki/Sky_father" title="Sky father">sky-god</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Thus, according to Eliade, post-19th-century scholars have rejected Tylor's theory of evolution from <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Based on the discovery of supreme sky-gods among "primitives", Eliade suspects that the earliest humans worshiped a heavenly Supreme Being.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In Patterns in Comparative Religion, he writes, "The most popular prayer in the world is addressed to 'Our Father who art in heaven.' It is possible that man's earliest prayers were addressed to the same heavenly father."<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> However, Eliade disagrees with <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Schmidt_(linguist)" title="Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist)">Wilhelm Schmidt</a>, who thought the earliest form of religion was a strict monotheism. Eliade dismisses this theory of "primordial monotheism" (Urmonotheismus) as "rigid" and unworkable.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> "At most," he writes, "this schema [Schmidt's theory] renders an account of human [religious] evolution since the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> era".<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> If an Urmonotheismus did exist, Eliade adds, it probably differed in many ways from the conceptions of God in many modern monotheistic faiths: for instance, the primordial High God could manifest himself as an animal without losing his status as a celestial Supreme Being.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> According to Eliade, heavenly Supreme Beings are actually less common in more advanced cultures.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Eliade speculates that the discovery of agriculture brought a host of <a href="/wiki/Fertility_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility god">fertility gods and goddesses</a> into the forefront, causing the celestial Supreme Being to fade away and eventually vanish from many ancient religions.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Even in primitive hunter-gatherer societies, the High God is a vague, distant figure, dwelling high above the world.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Often he has no <a href="/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)" title="Cult (religious practice)">cult</a> and receives prayer only as a last resort, when all else has failed.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Eliade calls the distant High God a <a href="/wiki/Deus_otiosus" title="Deus otiosus">deus otiosus</a> ("idle god").<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> In belief systems that involve a deus otiosus, the distant High God is believed to have been closer to humans during the mythical age. After finishing his works of creation, the High God "forsook the earth and withdrew into the highest heaven".<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> This is an example of the Sacred's distance from "profane" life, life lived after the mythical age: by escaping from the profane condition through religious behavior, figures such as the <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">shaman</a> return to the conditions of the mythical age, which include nearness to the High God ("by his flight or ascension, the shaman [...] meets the God of Heaven face to face and speaks directly to him, as man sometimes did in illo tempore").<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.66-138">[138]</a> The shamanistic behaviors surrounding the High God are a particularly clear example of the eternal return. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shamanism">Shamanism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Shamanism">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg/260px-Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg/390px-Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg/520px-Schamanin_w%C3%A4hrend_einer_Kamlanie-Zeremonie_am_Feuer_in_Kysyl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaman">shaman</a> performing a ceremonial in <a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a>.</figcaption></figure> Eliade's scholarly work includes a study of <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shamanism:_Archaic_Techniques_of_Ecstasy" title="Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy">Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy</a>, a survey of shamanistic practices in different areas. His Myths, Dreams and Mysteries also addresses shamanism in some detail. In Shamanism, Eliade argues for a restrictive use of the word shaman: it should not apply to just any <a href="/wiki/Magician_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magician (paranormal)">magician</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">medicine man</a>, as that would make the term redundant; at the same time, he argues against restricting the term to the practitioners of the sacred of <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and Central Asia (it is from one of the titles for this function, namely, šamán, considered by Eliade to be of <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> origin, that the term itself was introduced into Western languages).<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Eliade defines a shaman as follows: <blockquote>he is believed to cure, like all doctors, and to perform miracles of the <a href="/wiki/Fakir" title="Fakir">fakir</a> type, like all magicians [...] But beyond this, he is a <a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">psychopomp</a>, and he may also be a priest, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a>, and poet.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4-140">[140]</a></blockquote> If we define shamanism this way, Eliade claims, we find that the term covers a collection of phenomena that share a common and unique "structure" and "history."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4-140">[140]</a> (When thus defined, shamanism tends to occur in its purest forms in <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herding" title="Herding">pastoral</a> societies like those of Siberia and Central Asia, which revere a celestial High God "on the way to becoming a <a href="/wiki/Deus_otiosus" title="Deus otiosus">deus otiosus</a>."<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Eliade takes the shamanism of those regions as his most representative example.) In his examinations of shamanism, Eliade emphasizes the shaman's attribute of regaining man's condition before the "Fall" out of sacred time: "The most representative mystical experience of the archaic societies, that of shamanism, betrays the Nostalgia for Paradise, the desire to recover the state of freedom and beatitude before 'the Fall'."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.66-138">[138]</a> This concern—which, by itself, is the concern of almost all religious behavior, according to Eliade—manifests itself in specific ways in shamanism. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Death,_resurrection_and_secondary_functions">Death, resurrection and secondary functions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Death, resurrection and secondary functions">edit</a>]</div> According to Eliade, one of the most common shamanistic themes is the shaman's supposed death and <a href="/wiki/Resurrection" title="Resurrection">resurrection</a>. This occurs in particular during his <a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">initiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Often, the procedure is supposed to be performed by spirits who dismember the shaman and strip the flesh from his bones, then put him back together and revive him. In more than one way, this death and resurrection represents the shaman's elevation above human nature. First, the shaman dies so that he can rise above human nature on a quite literal level. After he has been dismembered by the initiatory spirits, they often replace his old organs with new, magical ones (the shaman dies to his profane self so that he can rise again as a new, sanctified, being).<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Second, by being reduced to his bones, the shaman experiences rebirth on a more symbolic level: in many hunting and herding societies, the bone represents the source of life, so reduction to a skeleton "is equivalent to re-entering the womb of this primordial life, that is, to a complete renewal, a mystical rebirth".<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Eliade considers this return to the source of life essentially equivalent to the eternal return.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Third, the shamanistic phenomenon of repeated death and resurrection also represents a transfiguration in other ways. The shaman dies not once but many times: having died during initiation and risen again with new powers, the shaman can send his spirit out of his body on errands; thus, his whole career consists of repeated deaths and resurrections. The shaman's new ability to die and return to life shows that he is no longer bound by the laws of profane time, particularly the law of death: "the ability to 'die' and come to life again [...] denotes that [the shaman] has surpassed the human condition."<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Having risen above the human condition, the shaman is not bound by the flow of history. Therefore, he enjoys the conditions of the mythical age. In many myths, humans can speak with animals; and, after their initiations, many shamans claim to be able to communicate with animals. According to Eliade, this is one manifestation of the shaman's return to "the illud tempus described to us by the paradisiac myths."<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The shaman can descend to the underworld or ascend to heaven, often by climbing the <a href="/wiki/World_Tree" class="mw-redirect" title="World Tree">World Tree</a>, the cosmic pillar, the sacred ladder, or some other form of the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Often, the shaman will ascend to heaven to speak with the High God. Because the gods (particularly the High God, according to Eliade's deus otiosus concept) were closer to humans during the mythical age, the shaman's easy communication with the High God represents an abolition of history and a return to the mythical age.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.66-138">[138]</a> Because of his ability to communicate with the gods and descend to the land of the dead, the shaman frequently functions as a <a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">psychopomp</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">medicine man</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_contributions">Early contributions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Early contributions">edit</a>]</div> In addition to his political essays, the young Mircea Eliade authored others, philosophical in content. Connected with the ideology of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tr%C4%83irism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trăirism (page does not exist)">Trăirism</a>, they were often prophetic in tone, and saw Eliade being hailed as a herald by various representatives of his generation.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> When Eliade was 21 years old and publishing his Itinerar spiritual, literary critic <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eerban_Cioculescu" class="mw-redirect" title="Şerban Cioculescu">Şerban Cioculescu</a> described him as "the column leader of the spiritually mystical and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Orthodox_Church" title="Romanian Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a> youth."<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Cioculescu discussed his "impressive erudition", but argued that it was "occasionally plethoric, poetically inebriating itself through abuse."<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Cioculescu's colleague <a href="/wiki/Perpessicius" title="Perpessicius">Perpessicius</a> saw the young author and his generation as marked by "the specter of war", a notion he connected to various essays of the 1920s and 30s in which Eliade threatened the world with the verdict that a new conflict was looming (while asking that young people be allowed to manifest their will and fully experience freedom before perishing).<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> One of Eliade's noted contributions in this respect was the 1932 Soliloquii ('Soliloquies'), which explored <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existential philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> who saw in it "an echo of <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a>'s lectures",<a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p.954-149">[149]</a> traced a parallel with the essays of another of Ionescu's disciples, <a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a>, while noting that Cioran's were "of a more exulted tone and written in the <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphoristic</a> form of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a>."<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Călinescu recorded Eliade's rejection of <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objectivity</a>, citing the author's stated indifference towards any "naïveté" or "contradictions" that the reader could possibly reproach him, as well as his dismissive thoughts of "theoretical data" and mainstream philosophy in general (Eliade saw the latter as "inert, infertile and pathogenic").<a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p.954-149">[149]</a> Eliade thus argued, "a sincere brain is unassailable, for it denies itself to any relationship with outside truths."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.954-151">[151]</a> The young writer was however careful to clarify that the existence he took into consideration was not the life of "instincts and personal <a href="/wiki/Idiosyncrasy" title="Idiosyncrasy">idiosyncrasies</a>", which he believed determined the lives of many humans, but that of a distinct set comprising "personalities".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.954-151">[151]</a> He described "personalities" as characterized by both "purpose" and "a much more complicated and dangerous alchemy."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.954-151">[151]</a> This differentiation, George Călinescu believed, echoed Ionescu's metaphor of man, seen as "the only animal who can fail at living", and the duck, who "shall remain a duck no matter what it does".<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> According to Eliade, the purpose of personalities is infinity: "consciously and gloriously bringing [existence] to waste, into as many skies as possible, continuously fulfilling and polishing oneself, seeking ascent and not circumference."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.954-151">[151]</a> In Eliade's view, two roads await man in this process. One is glory, determined by either work or procreation, and the other the <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> of religion or magic—both, Călinescu believed, were aimed at reaching the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">absolute</a>, even in those cases where Eliade described the latter as an "abyssal experience" into which man may take the plunge.<a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p.954-149">[149]</a> The critic pointed out that the addition of "a magical solution" to the options taken into consideration seemed to be Eliade's own original contributions to his mentor's philosophy, and proposed that it may have owed inspiration to <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a> and his disciples.<a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p.954-149">[149]</a> He also recorded that Eliade applied this concept to human creation, and specifically to artistic creation, citing him describing the latter as "a magical joy, the victorious break of the iron circle" (a reflection of <a href="/wiki/Imitatio_dei" class="mw-redirect" title="Imitatio dei">imitatio dei</a>, having salvation for its ultimate goal).<a href="#cite_note-Călinescu,_p.954-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosopher_of_religion">Philosopher of religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Philosopher of religion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anti-reductionism_and_the_"transconscious"">Anti-reductionism and the "transconscious"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Anti-reductionism and the "transconscious"">edit</a>]</div> By profession, Eliade was a historian of religion. However, his scholarly works draw heavily on philosophical and psychological terminology. In addition, they contain a number of philosophical arguments about religion. In particular, Eliade often implies the existence of a universal psychological or spiritual "essence" behind all religious phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Because of these arguments, some have accused Eliade of overgeneralization and "<a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>," or even of promoting a theological agenda under the guise of historical scholarship. However, others argue that Eliade is better understood as a scholar who is willing to openly discuss sacred experience and its consequences.<a href="#cite_note-154">[note 1]</a> In studying religion, Eliade rejects certain "<a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionist</a>" approaches.<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> Eliade thinks a religious phenomenon cannot be reduced to a product of culture and history. He insists that, although religion involves "the social man, the economic man, and so forth", nonetheless "all these conditioning factors together do not, of themselves, add up to the life of the spirit."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_p.32-156">[155]</a> Using this anti-reductionist position, Eliade argues against those who accuse him of overgeneralizing, of looking for <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a> at the expense of <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">particulars</a>. Eliade admits that every religious phenomenon is shaped by the particular culture and history that produced it: <blockquote>When the Son of God incarnated and became the Christ, he had to speak <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>; he could only conduct himself as a Hebrew of his times [...] His religious message, however universal it might be, was conditioned by the past and present history of the Hebrew people. If the Son of God had been born in India, his spoken language would have had to conform itself to the structure of the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_India" title="Languages of India">Indian languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_p.32-156">[155]</a></blockquote> However, Eliade argues against those he calls "<a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a> philosophers" who do not recognize "man in general" behind particular men produced by particular situations<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_p.32-156">[155]</a> (Eliade cites <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> as the likely forerunner of this kind of "historicism".)<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_p.32-156">[155]</a> He adds that human consciousness transcends (is not reducible to) its historical and cultural conditioning,<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a> and even suggests the possibility of a "transconscious".<a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> By this, Eliade does not necessarily mean anything supernatural or mystical: within the "transconscious," he places religious motifs, symbols, images, and nostalgias that are supposedly universal and whose causes therefore cannot be reduced to historical and cultural conditioning.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Platonism_and_"primitive_ontology"">Platonism and "primitive ontology"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Platonism and "primitive ontology"">edit</a>]</div> According to Eliade, traditional man feels that things "acquire their reality, their identity, only to the extent of their participation in a transcendent reality".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.5-160">[159]</a> To traditional man, the profane world is "meaningless", and a thing rises out of the profane world only by conforming to an ideal, mythical model.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.34-161">[160]</a> Eliade describes this view of reality as a fundamental part of "primitive <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>" (the study of "existence" or "reality").<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.34-161">[160]</a> Here he sees a similarity with the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, who believed that physical phenomena are pale and transient imitations of eternal models or "Forms" (see <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a>). He argued: <blockquote>Plato could be regarded as the outstanding philosopher of 'primitive mentality,' that is, as the thinker who succeeded in giving philosophic currency and validity to the modes of life and behavior of archaic humanity.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.34-161">[160]</a></blockquote> Eliade thinks the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Platonic</a> <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a> is "primitive ontology" persisting in <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a>. He claims that Platonism is the "most fully elaborated" version of this primitive ontology.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> In The Structure of Religious Knowing: Encountering the Sacred in Eliade and Lonergan, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Daniel_Dadosky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Daniel Dadosky (page does not exist)">John Daniel Dadosky</a> argues that, by making this statement, Eliade was acknowledging "indebtedness to Greek philosophy in general, and to Plato's theory of forms specifically, for his own theory of archetypes and repetition".<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> However, Dadosky also states that "one should be cautious when trying to assess Eliade's indebtedness to Plato".<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> Dadosky quotes <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Segal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Segal (page does not exist)">Robert Segal</a>, a professor of religion, who draws a distinction between Platonism and Eliade's "primitive ontology": for Eliade, the ideal models are patterns that a person or object may or may not imitate; for Plato, there is a Form for everything, and everything imitates a Form by the very fact that it exists.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Existentialism_and_secularism">Existentialism and secularism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Existentialism and secularism">edit</a>]</div> Behind the diverse cultural forms of different religions, Eliade proposes a universal: traditional man, he claims, "always believes that there is an absolute reality, the sacred, which transcends this world but manifests itself in this world, thereby sanctifying it and making it real."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.202-166">[165]</a> Furthermore, traditional man's behavior gains purpose and meaning through the Sacred: "By imitating divine behavior, man puts and keeps himself close to the gods—that is, in the real and the significant."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.202-166">[165]</a> According to Eliade, "modern nonreligious man assumes a new existential situation."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.202-166">[165]</a> For traditional man, historical events gain significance by imitating sacred, transcendent events. In contrast, nonreligious man lacks sacred models for how history or human behavior should be, so he must decide on his own how history should proceed—he "regards himself solely as the subject and agent of history, and refuses all appeal to transcendence".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.203-167">[166]</a> From the standpoint of religious thought, the world has an objective purpose established by mythical events, to which man should conform himself: "Myth teaches [religious man] the primordial 'stories' that have constituted him existentially."<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> From the standpoint of <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> thought, any purpose must be invented and imposed on the world by man. Because of this new "existential situation," Eliade argues, the Sacred becomes the primary obstacle to nonreligious man's "freedom". In viewing himself as the proper maker of history, nonreligious man resists all notions of an externally (for instance, divinely) imposed order or model he must obey: modern man "makes himself, and he only makes himself completely in proportion as he desacralizes himself and the world. [...] He will not truly be free until he has killed the last god."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.203-167">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religious_survivals_in_the_secular_world">Religious survivals in the secular world</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Religious survivals in the secular world">edit</a>]</div> Eliade says that secular man cannot escape his bondage to religious thought. By its very nature, secularism depends on religion for its sense of identity: by resisting sacred models, by insisting that man make history on his own, secular man identifies himself only through opposition to religious thought: "He [secular man] recognizes himself in proportion as he 'frees' and 'purifies' himself from the '<a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstitions</a>' of his ancestors."<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> Furthermore, modern man "still retains a large stock of camouflaged myths and degenerated rituals".<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> For example, modern social events still have similarities to traditional initiation rituals, and modern novels feature mythical motifs and themes.<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> Finally, secular man still participates in something like the eternal return: by reading modern literature, "modern man succeeds in obtaining an 'escape from time' comparable to the 'emergence from time' effected by myths".<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> Eliade sees traces of religious thought even in secular academia. He thinks modern scientists are motivated by the religious desire to return to the sacred time of origins: <blockquote>One could say that the anxious search for the origins of Life and Mind; the fascination in the 'mysteries of Nature'; the urge to penetrate and decipher the inner structure of Matter—all these longings and drives denote a sort of nostalgia for the primordial, for the original universal matrix. Matter, Substance, represents the absolute origin, the beginning of all things.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a></blockquote> Eliade believes the rise of materialism in the 19th century forced the religious nostalgia for "origins" to express itself in science. He mentions his own field of History of Religions as one of the fields that was obsessed with origins during the 19th century: <blockquote>The new discipline of History of Religions developed rapidly in this cultural context. And, of course, it followed a like pattern: the <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivistic</a> approach to the facts and the search for origins, for the very beginning of religion.</blockquote> <blockquote>All Western historiography was during that time obsessed with the quest of origins. [...] This search for the origins of human institutions and cultural creations prolongs and completes the naturalist's quest for the origin of species, the biologist's dream of grasping the origin of life, the geologist's and the astronomer's endeavor to understand the origin of the Earth and the Universe. From a psychological point of view, one can decipher here the same nostalgia for the 'primordial' and the 'original'.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a></blockquote> In some of his writings, Eliade describes modern political ideologies as secularized mythology. According to Eliade, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> "takes up and carries on one of the great <a href="/wiki/Eschatological" class="mw-redirect" title="Eschatological">eschatological</a> myths of the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean world, namely: the redemptive part to be played by the Just (the 'elect', the 'anointed', the 'innocent', the 'missioners', in our own days the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>), whose sufferings are invoked to change the ontological status of the world."<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> Eliade sees the widespread myth of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age" title="Golden Age">Golden Age</a>, "which, according to a number of traditions, lies at the beginning and the end of History", as the "precedent" for <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s vision of a <a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">classless society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Myths2526,_Ell92-176">[175]</a> Finally, he sees Marx's belief in the final triumph of the good (the proletariat) over the evil (the <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>) as "a truly messianic Judaeo-Christian ideology".<a href="#cite_note-Myths2526,_Ell92-176">[175]</a> Despite Marx's hostility toward religion, Eliade implies, his ideology works within a conceptual framework inherited from religious mythology. Likewise, Eliade notes that Nazism involved a <a href="/wiki/Nazi_occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi occultism">pseudo-pagan mysticism</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">ancient Germanic religion</a>. He suggests that the differences between the Nazis' pseudo-Germanic mythology and Marx's pseudo-Judaeo-Christian mythology explain their differing success: <blockquote>In comparison with the vigorous optimism of the communist myth, the mythology propagated by the national socialists seems particularly inept; and this is not only because of the limitations of the racial myth (how could one imagine that the rest of Europe would voluntarily accept submission to the master-race?), but above all because of the fundamental pessimism of the Germanic mythology. [...] For the eschaton prophesied and expected by the ancient Germans was the <a href="/wiki/Ragnarok" class="mw-redirect" title="Ragnarok">ragnarok</a>—that is, a catastrophic end of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Myths2526,_Ell92-176">[175]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_man_and_the_"terror_of_history"">Modern man and the "terror of history"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern man and the "terror of history"">edit</a>]</div> According to Eliade, modern man displays "traces" of "mythological behavior" because he intensely needs sacred time and the eternal return.<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> Despite modern man's claims to be nonreligious, he ultimately cannot find value in the linear progression of historical events; even modern man feels the "terror of history": "Here too [...] there is always the struggle against Time, the hope to be freed from the weight of 'dead Time,' of the Time that crushes and kills."<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> This "terror of history" becomes especially acute when violent and threatening historical events confront modern man—the mere fact that a terrible event has happened, that it is part of history, is of little comfort to those who suffer from it. Eliade asks rhetorically how modern man can "tolerate the catastrophes and horrors of history—from collective deportations and massacres to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings</a>—if beyond them he can glimpse no sign, no transhistorical meaning".<a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a> He indicates that, if repetitions of mythical events provided sacred value and meaning for history in the eyes of ancient man, modern man has denied the Sacred and must therefore invent value and purpose on his own. Without the Sacred to confer an absolute, objective value upon historical events, modern man is left with "a <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilistic</a> view of history" and a resulting "spiritual aridity".<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> In chapter 4 ("The Terror of History") of The Myth of the Eternal Return and chapter 9 ("Religious Symbolism and the Modern Man's Anxiety") of Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, Eliade argues at length that the rejection of religious thought is a primary cause of modern man's anxieties. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inter-cultural_dialogue_and_a_"new_humanism"">Inter-cultural dialogue and a "new humanism"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Inter-cultural dialogue and a "new humanism"">edit</a>]</div> Eliade argues that modern man may escape the "Terror of history" by learning from traditional cultures. For example, Eliade thinks <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> has advice for modern Westerners. According to many branches of Hinduism, the world of historical time is illusory, and the only absolute reality is the immortal soul or <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">atman</a> within man. According to Eliade, Hindus thus escape the terror of history by refusing to see historical time as the true reality.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> Eliade notes that a <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> or <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a> philosopher might feel suspicious toward this Hindu view of history: <blockquote>One can easily guess what a European historical and <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialist</a> philosopher might reply [...] You ask me, he would say, to 'die to History'; but man is not, and he cannot be anything else but History, for his very essence is temporality. You are asking me, then, to give up my authentic existence and to take refuge in an abstraction, in pure Being, in the atman: I am to sacrifice my dignity as a creator of History to live an a-historic, inauthentic existence, empty of all human content. Well, I prefer to put up with my anxiety: at least, it cannot deprive me of a certain heroic grandeur, that of becoming conscious of, and accepting, the human condition.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p._241-182">[181]</a></blockquote> However, Eliade argues that the Hindu approach to history does not necessarily lead to a rejection of history. On the contrary, in Hinduism historical human existence is not the "absurdity" that many Continental philosophers see it as.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p._241-182">[181]</a> According to Hinduism, history is a divine creation, and one may live contentedly within it as long as one maintains a certain degree of detachment from it: "One is devoured by Time, by History, not because one lives in them, but because one thinks them real and, in consequence, one forgets or undervalues eternity."<a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> Furthermore, Eliade argues that Westerners can learn from non-Western cultures to see something besides absurdity in suffering and death. Traditional cultures see suffering and death as a <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rite of passage</a>. In fact, their <a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">initiation</a> rituals often involve a symbolic death and resurrection, or symbolic ordeals followed by relief. Thus, Eliade argues, modern man can learn to see his historical ordeals, even death, as necessary initiations into the next stage of one's existence.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.243-184">[183]</a> Eliade even suggests that traditional thought offers relief from the vague <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> caused by "our obscure presentiment of the end of the world, or more exactly of the end of our world, our own civilization".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.243-184">[183]</a> Many traditional cultures have myths about the end of their world or civilization; however, these myths do not succeed "in paralysing either Life or Culture".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_p.243-184">[183]</a> These traditional cultures emphasize cyclic time and, therefore, the inevitable rise of a new world or civilization on the ruins of the old. Thus, they feel comforted even in contemplating the end times.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> Eliade argues that a Western spiritual rebirth can happen within the framework of Western spiritual traditions.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> However, he says, to start this rebirth, Westerners may need to be stimulated by ideas from non-Western cultures. In his Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, Eliade claims that a "genuine encounter" between cultures "might well constitute the point of departure for a new <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>, upon a world scale".<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christianity_and_the_"salvation"_of_History">Christianity and the "salvation" of History</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Christianity and the "salvation" of History">edit</a>]</div> Mircea Eliade sees the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrahamic religion">Abrahamic religions</a> as a turning point between the ancient, cyclic view of time and the modern, linear view of time, noting that, in their case, sacred events are not limited to a far-off primordial age, but continue throughout history: "time is no longer [only] the circular Time of the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_Return_(Eliade)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eternal Return (Eliade)">Eternal Return</a>; it has become linear and irreversible Time".<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> He thus sees in Christianity the ultimate example of a religion embracing linear, historical time. When God is born as a man, into the stream of history, "all history becomes a <a href="/wiki/Theophany" title="Theophany">theophany</a>".<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> According to Eliade, "Christianity strives to save history".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_p.170-190">[189]</a> In Christianity, the Sacred enters a human being (Christ) to save humans, but it also enters history to "save" history and turn otherwise ordinary, historical events into something "capable of transmitting a trans-historical message".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_p.170-190">[189]</a> From Eliade's perspective, Christianity's "trans-historical message" may be the most important help that modern man could have in confronting the terror of history. In his book Mito ("Myth"), Italian researcher <a href="/wiki/Furio_Jesi" title="Furio Jesi">Furio Jesi</a> argues that Eliade denies man the position of a true protagonist in history: for Eliade, true human experience lies not in intellectually "making history", but in man's experiences of joy and grief. Thus, from Eliade's perspective, the Christ story becomes the perfect myth for modern man.<a href="#cite_note-Jesi,_p.66-67-191">[190]</a> In Christianity, God willingly entered historical time by being born as Christ, and accepted the suffering that followed. By identifying with Christ, modern man can learn to confront painful historical events.<a href="#cite_note-Jesi,_p.66-67-191">[190]</a> Ultimately, according to Jesi, Eliade sees Christianity as the only religion that can save man from the "Terror of history".<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> In Eliade's view, traditional man sees time as an endless repetition of mythical archetypes. In contrast, modern man has abandoned mythical archetypes and entered linear, historical time—in this context, unlike many other religions, Christianity attributes value to historical time. Thus, Eliade concludes, "Christianity incontestably proves to be the religion of 'fallen man'", of modern man who has lost "the paradise of archetypes and repetition".<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Modern_gnosticism",_Romanticism_and_Eliade's_nostalgia">"Modern gnosticism", Romanticism and Eliade's nostalgia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: "Modern gnosticism", Romanticism and Eliade's nostalgia">edit</a>]</div> In analyzing the similarities between the "mythologists" Eliade, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a> and Carl Jung, Robert Ellwood concluded that the three modern mythologists, all of whom believed that myths reveal "timeless truth",<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> fulfilled the role "<a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">gnostics</a>" had in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>. The diverse religious movements covered by the term "gnosticism" share the basic doctrines that the surrounding world is fundamentally evil or inhospitable, that we are trapped in the world through no fault of our own, and that we can be saved from the world only through secret knowledge (<a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnosis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> Ellwood claimed that the three mythologists were "modern gnostics through and through",<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a> remarking, <blockquote>Whether in <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan Rome</a> or modern Europe, democracy all too easily gave way to <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>, technology was as readily used for battle as for comfort, and immense wealth lay alongside abysmal poverty. [...] Gnostics past and present sought answers not in the course of outward human events, but in knowledge of the world's beginning, of what lies above and beyond the world, and of the secret places of the human soul. To all this the mythologists spoke, and they acquired large and loyal followings.<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a></blockquote> According to Ellwood, the mythologists believed in gnosticism's basic doctrines (even if in a secularized form). Ellwood also believes that <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, which stimulated the modern study of mythology,<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.19-198">[197]</a> strongly influenced the mythologists. Because Romantics stress that emotion and imagination have the same dignity as reason, Ellwood argues, they tend to think political truth "is known less by rational considerations than by its capacity to fire the passions" and, therefore, that political truth is "very apt to be found [...] in the distant past".<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.19-198">[197]</a> As modern gnostics, Ellwood argues, the three mythologists felt alienated from the surrounding modern world. As scholars, they knew of primordial societies that had operated differently from modern ones. And as people influenced by Romanticism, they saw myths as a saving gnosis that offered "avenues of eternal return to simpler primordial ages when the values that rule the world were forged".<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a> In addition, Ellwood identifies Eliade's personal sense of nostalgia as a source for his interest in, or even his theories about, traditional societies.<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> He cites Eliade himself claiming to desire an "eternal return" like that by which traditional man returns to the mythical paradise: "My essential preoccupation is precisely the means of escaping History, of saving myself through symbol, myth, rite, archetypes".<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> In Ellwood's view, Eliade's nostalgia was only enhanced by his exile from Romania: "In later years Eliade felt about his own Romanian past as did primal folk about mythic time. He was drawn back to it, yet he knew he could not live there, and that all was not well with it."<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.101-202">[201]</a> He suggests that this nostalgia, along with Eliade's sense that "exile is among the profoundest metaphors for all human life",<a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a> influenced Eliade's theories. Ellwood sees evidence of this in Eliade's concept of the "Terror of history" from which modern man is no longer shielded.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a> In this concept, Ellwood sees an "element of nostalgia" for earlier times "when the sacred was strong and the terror of history had barely raised its head".<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_Eliade's_scholarship">Criticism of Eliade's scholarship</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Criticism of Eliade's scholarship">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overgeneralization">Overgeneralization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Overgeneralization">edit</a>]</div> Eliade cites a wide variety of myths and rituals to support his theories. However, he has been accused of making overgeneralizations: many scholars think he lacks sufficient evidence to put forth his ideas as universal, or even general, principles of religious thought. According to one scholar, "Eliade may have been the most popular and influential contemporary historian of religion", but "many, if not most, specialists in anthropology, sociology, and even history of religions have either ignored or quickly dismissed" Eliade's works.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a> The classicist <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk" title="Geoffrey Kirk">G. S. Kirk</a> criticizes Eliade's insistence that <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aborigines">Australian Aborigines</a> and ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> had concepts of "being", "non-being", "real", and "becoming", although they lacked words for them. Kirk also believes that Eliade overextends his theories: for example, Eliade claims that the modern myth of the "<a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>" results from the religious tendency to idealize the primordial, mythical age.<a href="#cite_note-Kirk,_Myth...,_footnote,_p.255-207">[206]</a> According to Kirk, "such extravagances, together with a marked repetitiousness, have made Eliade unpopular with many anthropologists and sociologists".<a href="#cite_note-Kirk,_Myth...,_footnote,_p.255-207">[206]</a> In Kirk's view, Eliade derived his theory of <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">eternal return</a> from the functions of <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Aboriginal mythology">Australian Aboriginal mythology</a> and then proceeded to apply the theory to other mythologies to which it did not apply. For example, Kirk argues that the eternal return does not accurately describe the functions of <a href="/wiki/Native_American_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American mythology">Native American</a> or <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a> Kirk concludes, "Eliade's idea is a valuable perception about certain myths, not a guide to the proper understanding of all of them".<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a> Even <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Wendy Doniger</a>, Eliade's successor at the University of Chicago, claims (in an introduction to Eliade's own Shamanism) that the eternal return does not apply to all myths and rituals, although it may apply to many of them.<a href="#cite_note-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii-2">[2]</a> However, although Doniger agrees that Eliade made overgeneralizations, she notes that his willingness to "argue boldly for universals" allowed him to see patterns "that spanned the entire globe and the whole of human history".<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a> Whether they were true or not, she argues, Eliade's theories are still useful "as starting points for the comparative study of religion". She also argues that Eliade's theories have been able to accommodate "new data to which Eliade did not have access".<a href="#cite_note-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lack_of_empirical_support">Lack of empirical support</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Lack of empirical support">edit</a>]</div> Several researchers have criticized Eliade's work as having no <a href="/wiki/Empirical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical method">empirical</a> support. Thus, he is said to have "failed to provide an adequate methodology for the history of religions and to establish this discipline as an empirical science",<a href="#cite_note-ricketts-211">[210]</a> though the same critics admit that "the history of religions should not aim at being an empirical science anyway".<a href="#cite_note-ricketts-211">[210]</a> Specifically, his claim that the sacred is a structure of human consciousness is distrusted as not being empirically provable: "no one has yet turned up the basic category sacred".<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a> Also, there has been mention of his tendency to ignore the social aspects of religion.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> Anthropologist Alice Kehoe is highly critical of Eliade's work on Shamanism, namely because he was not an anthropologist but a historian. She contends that Eliade never did any field work or contacted any indigenous groups that practiced Shamanism, and that his work was synthesized from various sources without being supported by direct field research.<a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> In contrast, Professor Kees W. Bolle of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> argues that "Professor Eliade's approach, in all his works, is empirical":<a href="#cite_note-bolle-214">[213]</a> Bolle sets Eliade apart for what he sees as Eliade's particularly close "attention to the various particular motifs" of different myths.<a href="#cite_note-bolle-214">[213]</a> French researcher Daniel Dubuisson places doubt on Eliade's scholarship and its scientific character, citing the Romanian academic's alleged refusal to accept the treatment of religions in their historical and cultural context, and proposing that Eliade's notion of <a href="/wiki/Hierophany" title="Hierophany">hierophany</a> refers to the actual existence of a supernatural level.<a href="#cite_note-mlimpost-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Inden" title="Ronald Inden">Ronald Inden</a>, a historian of India and University of Chicago professor, criticized Mircea Eliade, alongside other intellectual figures (<a href="/wiki/Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a> among them), for encouraging a "romantic view" of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-indenmorny-215">[214]</a> He argued that their approach to the subject relied mainly on an <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalist</a> approach, and made Hinduism seem like "a private realm of the imagination and the religious which modern, Western man lacks but needs."<a href="#cite_note-indenmorny-215">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Far-right_and_nationalist_influences">Far-right and nationalist influences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Far-right and nationalist influences">edit</a>]</div> Although his scholarly work was never subordinated to his early political beliefs, the school of thought he was associated with in <a href="/wiki/Interwar" class="mw-redirect" title="Interwar">interwar</a> Romania, namely <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tr%C4%83irism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trăirism (page does not exist)">Trăirism</a>, as well as the works of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a> he continued to draw inspiration from, have thematic links to fascism.<a href="#cite_note-pccheie-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-mlimpost-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> Writer and academic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcel_Tolcea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcel Tolcea (page does not exist)">Marcel Tolcea</a> [<a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Tolcea" class="extiw" title="ro:Marcel Tolcea">ro</a>] has argued that, through Evola's particular interpretation of Guénon's works, Eliade kept a traceable connection with far right ideologies in his academic contributions.<a href="#cite_note-pccheie-38">[38]</a> Daniel Dubuisson singled out Eliade's concept of homo religiosus as a reflection of fascist <a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">elitism</a>, and argued that the Romanian scholar's views of Judaism and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>, which depicted Hebrews as the enemies of an ancient cosmic religion, were ultimately the preservation of an <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> discourse.<a href="#cite_note-mlimpost-60">[60]</a> A piece authored in 1930 saw Eliade defining Julius Evola as a great thinker and offering praise to the controversial intellectuals <a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Oswald Spengler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> ideologue <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mlimpost-60">[60]</a> Evola, who continued to defend the core principles of mystical fascism, once protested to Eliade about the latter's failure to cite him and Guénon. Eliade replied that his works were written for a contemporary public, and not to initiates of esoteric circles.<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> After the 1960s, he, together with Evola, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Rougier" title="Louis Rougier">Louis Rougier</a>, and other intellectuals, offered support to <a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Alain de Benoist</a>'s controversial <a href="/wiki/Groupement_de_recherche_et_d%27%C3%A9tudes_pour_la_civilisation_europ%C3%A9enne" class="mw-redirect" title="Groupement de recherche et d'études pour la civilisation européenne">Groupement de recherche et d'études pour la civilisation européenne</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_Droite" title="Nouvelle Droite">Nouvelle Droite</a> intellectual trend.<a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a> Notably, Eliade was also preoccupied with the cult of <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> deity <a href="/wiki/Zalmoxis" title="Zalmoxis">Zalmoxis</a> and its supposed <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-boia-219">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[219]</a> This, like his conclusion that <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a> had been superficial inside <a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Roman Dacia</a>, was a view celebrated by contemporary partisans of <a href="/wiki/Protochronism" class="mw-redirect" title="Protochronism">protochronist</a> nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-boia-219">[218]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Sorin_Antohi" title="Sorin Antohi">Sorin Antohi</a>, Eliade may have actually encouraged protochronists such as <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Papu" title="Edgar Papu">Edgar Papu</a> to carry out research which resulted in the claim that medieval Romanians had anticipated the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a> In his study of Eliade, Jung, and Campbell, Ellwood also discusses the connection between academic theories and controversial political involvements, noting that all three mythologists have been accused of <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> political positions. Ellwood notes the obvious parallel between the conservatism of myth, which speaks of a primordial golden age, and the conservatism of far right politics.<a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> However, Ellwood argues that the explanation is more complex than that. Wherever their political sympathies may have sometimes been, he claims, the three mythologists were often "apolitical if not antipolitical, scorning any this-worldly salvation".<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> Moreover, the connection between mythology and politics differs for each of the mythologists in question: in Eliade's case, Ellwood believes, a strong sense of nostalgia ("for childhood, for historical times past, for cosmic religion, for paradise"),<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.99-88">[88]</a> influenced not only the scholar's academic interests, but also his political views. Because Eliade stayed out of politics during his later life, Ellwood tries to extract an implicit political philosophy from Eliade's scholarly works. Ellwood argues that the later Eliade's nostalgia for ancient traditions did not make him a political reactionary, even a quiet one. He concludes that the later Eliade was, in fact, a "radical <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.119-224">[223]</a> According to Ellwood, <blockquote>Those who see Eliade's fascination with the primordial as merely reactionary in the ordinary political or religious sense of the word do not understand the mature Eliade in a sufficiently radical way. [...] Tradition was not for him exactly <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burkean</a> 'prescription' or sacred trust to be kept alive generation after generation, for Eliade was fully aware that tradition, like men and nations, lives only by changing and even occultation. The tack is not to try fruitlessly to keep it unchanging, but to discover where it is hiding.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.119-224">[223]</a></blockquote> According to Eliade, religious elements survive in secular culture, but in new, "camouflaged" forms.<a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a> Thus, Ellwood believes that the later Eliade probably thought modern man should preserve elements of the past, but should not try to restore their original form through reactionary politics.<a href="#cite_note-226">[225]</a> He suspects that Eliade would have favored "a minimal rather than a maximalist state" that would allow personal spiritual transformation without enforcing it.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.120-227">[226]</a> Many scholars have accused Eliade of "<a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>", a type of overgeneralization in which one incorrectly attributes a common "essence" to a whole group—in this case, all "religious" or "traditional" societies. Furthermore, some see a connection between Eliade's essentialism with regard to religion and fascist essentialism with regard to races and nations.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.111-228">[227]</a> To Ellwood, this connection "seems rather tortured, in the end amounting to little more than an ad hominem argument which attempts to tar Eliade's entire [scholarly] work with the ill-repute all decent people feel for <a href="/wiki/Sturmabteilung" title="Sturmabteilung">storm troopers</a> and the Iron Guard".<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.111-228">[227]</a> However, Ellwood admits that common tendencies in "mythological thinking" may have caused Eliade, as well as Jung and Campbell, to view certain groups in an "essentialist" way, and that this may explain their purported antisemitism: "A tendency to think in generic terms of peoples, races, religions, or parties, which as we shall see is undoubtedly the profoundest flaw in mythological thinking, including that of such modern mythologists as our three, can connect with nascent anti-Semitism, or the connection can be the other way."<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_works">Literary works</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Literary works">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generic_traits">Generic traits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Generic traits">edit</a>]</div> Many of Mircea Eliade's literary works, in particular his earliest ones, are noted for their <a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">eroticism</a> and their focus on subjective experience. Modernist in style, they have drawn comparisons to the contemporary writings of <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sebastian" title="Mihail Sebastian">Mihail Sebastian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/I._Valerian" title="I. Valerian">I. Valerian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ion_Biberi" title="Ion Biberi">Ion Biberi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> Alongside <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Honoré de Balzac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Papini" title="Giovanni Papini">Giovanni Papini</a>, his literary passions included <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Miguel de Unamuno</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Şora,_Handoca-27">[27]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">André Gide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Eliade also read with interest the prose of <a href="/wiki/Romain_Rolland" title="Romain Rolland">Romain Rolland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> thinkers <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> As a youth, he read the works of Romanian authors such as <a href="/wiki/Liviu_Rebreanu" title="Liviu Rebreanu">Liviu Rebreanu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panait_Istrati" title="Panait Istrati">Panait Istrati</a>; initially, he was also interested in <a href="/wiki/Ionel_Teodoreanu" title="Ionel Teodoreanu">Ionel Teodoreanu</a>'s prose works, but later rejected them and criticized their author.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Investigating the works' main characteristics, <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> stressed that Eliade owed much of his style to the direct influence of French author André Gide, concluding that, alongside <a href="/wiki/Camil_Petrescu" title="Camil Petrescu">Camil Petrescu</a> and a few others, Eliade was among Gide's leading disciples in <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Romania">Romanian literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.956-5">[5]</a> He commented that, like Gide, Eliade believed that the artist "does not take a stand, but experiences good and evil while setting himself free from both, maintaining an intact curiosity."<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.956-5">[5]</a> A specific aspect of this focus on experience is sexual experimentation—Călinescu notes that Eliade's fiction works tend to depict a male figure "possessing all practicable women in [a given] family".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> He also considered that, as a rule, Eliade depicts woman as "a basic means for a sexual experience and repudiated with harsh <a href="/wiki/Egotism" title="Egotism">egotism</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> For Călinescu, such a perspective on life culminated in "banality," leaving authors gripped by the "cult of the self" and "a contempt for literature".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.956-5">[5]</a> Polemically, Călinescu proposed that Mircea Eliade's supposed focus on "aggressive youth" served to instill his <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar</a> Romanian writers with the idea that they had a common destiny as a generation apart.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.956-5">[5]</a> He also commented that, when set in Romania, Mircea Eliade's stories lacked the "perception of immediate reality", and, analyzing the non-traditional names the writer tended to ascribe to his Romanian characters, that they did not depict "specificity".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Additionally, in Călinescu's view, Eliade's stories were often "<a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">sensationalist</a> compositions of the illustrated magazine kind."<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.960-235">[234]</a> Mircea Eliade's assessment of his own pre-1940 literary contributions oscillated between expressions of pride<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> and the bitter verdict that they were written for "an audience of little ladies and high school students".<a href="#cite_note-cavrcitim-59">[59]</a> A secondary but unifying feature present in most of Eliade's stories is their setting, a magical and part-fictional <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> In part, they also serve to illustrate or allude to Eliade's own research in the field of religion, as well as to the concepts he introduced.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Thus, commentators such as <a href="/wiki/Matei_C%C4%83linescu" title="Matei Călinescu">Matei Călinescu</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carmen_Mu%C8%99at&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carmen Mușat (page does not exist)">Carmen Mușat</a> have also argued that a main characteristic of Eliade's fantasy prose is a substitution between the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> and the mundane: in this interpretation, Eliade turns the daily world into an incomprehensible place, while the intrusive supernatural aspect promises to offer the sense of life.<a href="#cite_note-musatalcatuire-236">[235]</a> The notion was in turn linked to Eliade's own thoughts on <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(philosophy)" title="Transcendence (philosophy)">transcendence</a>, and in particular his idea that, once "camouflaged" in life or history, <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a> become "unrecognizable".<a href="#cite_note-musatalcatuire-236">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oriental-themed_novels">Oriental-themed novels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Oriental-themed novels">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Isabel_și_apele_diavolului">Isabel și apele diavolului</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Isabel și apele diavolului">edit</a>]</div> One of Eliade's earliest fiction writings, the controversial <a href="/wiki/First-person_narrative" title="First-person narrative">first-person narrative</a> Isabel şi apele diavolului ('Isabel and the Devil's Waters'), focused on the figure of a young and brilliant academic, whose self-declared fear is that of "being common."<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.956-237">[236]</a> The hero's experience is recorded in "notebooks", which are compiled to form the actual narrative, and which serve to record his unusual, mostly sexual, experiences in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>—the narrator describes himself as dominated by "a devilish indifference" towards "all things having to do with art or <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>", focusing instead on eroticism.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.956-237">[236]</a> The guest of a pastor, the scholar ponders sexual adventures with his host's wife, servant girl, and finally with his daughter Isabel. Persuading the pastor's adolescent son to run away from home, becoming the sexual initiator of a twelve-year-old girl and the lover of a much older woman, the character also attempts to seduce Isabel. Although she falls in love, the young woman does not give in to his pressures, but eventually allows herself to be abused and impregnated by another character, letting the object of her affection know that she had thought of him all along.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.957-238">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maitreyi">Maitreyi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Maitreyi">edit</a>]</div> One of Eliade's best-known works, the novel <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Nights_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal Nights (novel)">Maitreyi</a>, dwells on Eliade's own experience, comprising camouflaged details of his relationships with <a href="/wiki/Surendranath_Dasgupta" title="Surendranath Dasgupta">Surendranath Dasgupta</a> and Dasgupta's daughter <a href="/wiki/Maitreyi_Devi" title="Maitreyi Devi">Maitreyi Devi</a>. The main character, Allan, is an <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">Englishman</a> who visits the Indian engineer Narendra Sen and courts his daughter, herself known as Maitreyi. The narrative is again built on "notebooks" to which Allan adds his comments. This technique Călinescu describes as "boring", and its result "cynical".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.957-238">[237]</a> Allan himself stands alongside Eliade's male characters, whose focus is on action, sensation and experience—his chaste contacts with Maitreyi are encouraged by Sen, who hopes for a marriage which is nonetheless abhorred by his would-be European son-in-law.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.957-238">[237]</a> Instead, Allan is fascinated to discover Maitreyi's Oriental version of <a href="/wiki/Platonic_love" title="Platonic love">Platonic love</a>, marked by spiritual attachment more than by physical contact.<a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a> However, their affair soon after turns physical, and she decides to attach herself to Allan as one would to a husband, in what is an informal and intimate wedding ceremony (which sees her vowing her love and invoking an <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">earth goddess</a> as the seal of union).<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Upon discovering this, Narendra Sen becomes enraged, rejecting their guest and keeping Maitreyi in confinement. As a result, his daughter decides to have intercourse with a lowly stranger, becoming pregnant in the hope that her parents would consequently allow her to marry her lover. However, the story also casts doubt on her earlier actions, reflecting rumors that Maitreyi was not a virgin at the time she and Allan first met, which also seems to expose her father as a hypocrite.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> George Călinescu objected to the narrative, arguing that both the physical affair and the father's rage seemed artificial, while commenting that Eliade placing doubt on his Indian characters' honesty had turned the plot into a piece of "<a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnological</a> humor".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Noting that the work developed on a classical theme of <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a>, which recalled the prose of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">François-René de Chateaubriand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Loti" title="Pierre Loti">Pierre Loti</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.957-238">[237]</a> the critic proposed that its main merit was in introducing the <a href="/wiki/Exoticism" title="Exoticism">exotic novel</a> to local literature.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Șantier">Șantier</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Șantier">edit</a>]</div> Mircea Eliade's other early works include Șantier ('Building Site'), a part-novel, part-diary account of his Indian sojourn. George Călinescu objected to its "monotony", and, noting that it featured a set of "intelligent observations," criticized the "banality of its ideological conversations."<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Șantier was also noted for its portrayal of <a href="/wiki/Drug_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug addiction">drug addiction</a> and intoxication with <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, both of which could have referred to Eliade's actual travel experience.<a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portraits_of_a_generation">Portraits of a generation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Portraits of a generation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Novel_of_the_Nearsighted_Adolescent">Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent">edit</a>]</div> In his earliest novel, titled <a href="/wiki/Romanul_Adolescentului_Miop" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanul Adolescentului Miop">Novel of the Nearsighted Adolescent</a> and written in the first person, Eliade depicts his experience through high school.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> It is proof of the influence exercised on him by the literature of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Papini" title="Giovanni Papini">Giovanni Papini</a>, and in particular by Papini's story <a href="/wiki/Un_uomo_finito" class="mw-redirect" title="Un uomo finito">Un uomo finito</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Each of its chapters reads like an independent novella, and, in all, the work experiments with the limits traced between novel and diary.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Literary critic <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Simion" title="Eugen Simion">Eugen Simion</a> called it "the most valuable" among Eliade's earliest literary attempts, but noted that, being "ambitious", the book had failed to achieve "an aesthetically satisfactory format".<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> According to Simion, the innovative intent of the Novel... was provided by its technique, by its goal of providing authenticity in depicting experiences, and by its insight into <a href="/wiki/Adolescent_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolescent psychology">adolescent psychology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> The novel notably shows its narrator practicing <a href="/wiki/Self-flagellation" title="Self-flagellation">self-flagellation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Întoarcerea_din_rai">Întoarcerea din rai</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Întoarcerea din rai">edit</a>]</div> Eliade's 1934 novel Întoarcerea din rai ('Return from Paradise') centers on Pavel Anicet, a young man who seeks knowledge through what Călinescu defined as "sexual excess".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> His search leaves him with a reduced sensitivity: right after being confronted with his father's death, Anicet breaks out in tears only after sitting through an entire dinner.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> The other characters, standing for Eliade's generation, all seek knowledge through violence or retreat from the world—nonetheless, unlike Anicet, they ultimately fail at imposing rigors upon themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Pavel himself eventually abandons his belief in sex as a means for enlightenment, and commits suicide in hopes of reaching the level of primordial unity. The solution, George Călinescu noted, mirrored the strange murder in Gide's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lafcadio%27s_Adventures&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lafcadio's Adventures (page does not exist)">Lafcadio's Adventures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Eliade himself indicated that the book dealt with the "loss of the beatitude, illusions, and optimism that had dominated the first twenty years of '<a href="/wiki/Greater_Romania" title="Greater Romania">Greater Romania</a>'."<a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a> Robert Ellwood connected the work to Eliade's recurring sense of loss in respect to the "atmosphere of euphoria and faith" of his adolescence.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.101-202">[201]</a> Călinescu criticizes Întoarcerea din rai, describing its dialog sequences as "awkward", its narrative as "void", and its artistic interest as "non-existent", proposing that the reader could however find it relevant as the "document of a mentality".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Huliganii">Huliganii</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Huliganii">edit</a>]</div> The novel Huliganii ('The Hooligans') is intended as the fresco of a family, and, through it, that of an entire generation. The book's main protagonist, Petru Anicet, is a composer who places value in experiments; other characters include Dragu, who considers "a hooligan's experience" as "the only fertile debut into life", and the <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> Alexandru Pleşa, who is on the search for "the heroic life" by enlisting youth in "perfect regiments, equally intoxicated by a collective myth."<a href="#cite_note-admestmeanea-241">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[241]</a> Călinescu thought that the young male characters all owed inspiration to <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Rodion_Romanovich_Raskolnikov" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov">Rodion Romanovich Raskolnikov</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment" title="Crime and Punishment">Crime and Punishment</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> Anicet, who partly shares Pleșa's vision for a collective experiment, is also prone to sexual adventures, and seduces the women of the Lecca family (who have hired him as a piano teacher).<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> Romanian-born novelist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Manea" title="Norman Manea">Norman Manea</a> called Anicet's experiment: "the paraded defiance of <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> conventions, in which venereal disease and lubricity dwell together."<a href="#cite_note-admestmeanea-241">[240]</a> In one episode of the book, Anicet convinces Anișoara Lecca to gratuitously steal from her parents—an outrage which leads her mother to moral decay and, eventually, to suicide.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> George Călinescu criticized the book for inconsistencies and "excesses in Dostoyevskianism," but noted that the Lecca family portrayal was "suggestive", and that the dramatic scenes were written with "a remarkable poetic calm."<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marriage_in_Heaven">Marriage in Heaven</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Marriage in Heaven">edit</a>]</div> The novel <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Heaven" title="Marriage in Heaven">Marriage in Heaven</a> depicts the correspondence between two male friends, an artist and a common man, who complain to each other about their failures in love: the former complains about a lover who wanted his children when he did not, while the other recalls being abandoned by a woman who, despite his intentions, did not want to become pregnant by him. Eliade lets the reader understand that they are in fact talking about the same woman.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.960-235">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fantastic_and_fantasy_literature">Fantastic and fantasy literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Fantastic and fantasy literature">edit</a>]</div> Mircea Eliade's earliest works, most of which were published at later stages, belong to the fantasy genre. One of the first such literary exercises to be printed, the 1921 Cum am găsit piatra filosofală, showed its adolescent author's interest in themes that he was to explore throughout his career, in particular <a href="/wiki/Esotericism" class="mw-redirect" title="Esotericism">esotericism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Written in the first person, it depicts an experiment which, for a moment, seems to be the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophers%27_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophers' stone">philosophers' stone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> These early writings also include two sketches for novels: Minunata călătorie a celor cinci cărăbuși in țara furnicilor roșii ('The Wonderful Journey of the Five Beetles into the Land of the Red Ants') and Memoriile unui soldat de plumb ('The Memoirs of a Lead Soldier').<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> In the former, a company of beetle spies is sent among the red ants—their travel offers a setting for <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> commentary.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Eliade himself explained that Memoriile unui soldat de plumb was an ambitious project, designed as a fresco to include the birth of the Universe, <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>, and the entire world history.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Eliade's fantasy novel <a href="/wiki/Domni%C8%99oara_Christina" class="mw-redirect" title="Domnișoara Christina">Domnișoara Christina</a>, was, on its own, the topic of a scandal.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> The novel deals with the fate of an eccentric family, the Moscus, who are haunted by the ghost of a murdered young woman, known as Christina. The apparition shares characteristics with <a href="/wiki/Vampire" title="Vampire">vampires</a> and with <a href="/wiki/Strigoi" title="Strigoi">strigoi</a>: she is believed to be drinking the blood of cattle and that of a young family member.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> The young man Egor becomes the object of Christina's desire, and is shown to have intercourse with her.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> Noting that the plot and setting reminded one of <a href="/wiki/Horror_fiction" title="Horror fiction">horror fiction</a> works by the German author <a href="/wiki/Hanns_Heinz_Ewers" title="Hanns Heinz Ewers">Hanns Heinz Ewers</a>, and defending Domnişoara Christina in front of harsher criticism, Călinescu nonetheless argued that the "international environment" in which it took place was "upsetting".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> He also depicted the plot as focused on "major impurity", summarizing the story's references to <a href="/wiki/Necrophilia" title="Necrophilia">necrophilia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstrual</a> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_fetishism" title="Sexual fetishism">fetish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ephebophilia" title="Ephebophilia">ephebophilia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Șarpele">Șarpele</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Șarpele">edit</a>]</div> Eliade's short story Șarpele ('The Snake') was described by George Călinescu as "<a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">hermetic</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> While on a trip to the forest, several persons witness a feat of magic performed by the male character Andronic, who summons a snake from the bottom of a river and places it on an island. At the end of the story, Andronic and the female character Dorina are found on the island, naked and locked in a sensual embrace.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> Călinescu saw the piece as an allusion to <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian mythology">Babylonian mythology</a>, while linking the snake to the <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythological</a> figure and major <a href="/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Serpent (symbolism)">serpent symbol</a> <a href="/wiki/Ophion" title="Ophion">Ophion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> He was however dissatisfied with this introduction of iconic images, describing it as "languishing".<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.960-235">[234]</a> In Curte la Dionis In the relation between history and culture, „the memory acts from the event toward the creation, so that the cultural memory is the prisoner of history."<a href="#cite_note-243">[242]</a> When it will liberate itself, the human will escape the labyrinth, according to a character of the In Dionysus’ Court, of which ideal is the cultural memory; but, for him, the amnesia becomes a torment because, although he forgot details of his own existence, he kept the vague impression of a decisive meeting and with the obsession that he is not knowing his place in the universe: he had forgotten the message that he had to transmit to the world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Un_om_mare">Un om mare</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Un om mare">edit</a>]</div> The short story Un om mare ('A Big Man'), which Eliade authored during his stay in Portugal, shows a common person, the engineer Cucoanes, who grows steadily and uncontrollably, reaching immense proportions and ultimately disappearing into the wilderness of the <a href="/wiki/Bucegi_Mountains" title="Bucegi Mountains">Bucegi Mountains</a>.<a href="#cite_note-milaffaireii-244">[243]</a> Eliade himself referenced the story and <a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Aldous Huxley</a>'s experiments in the same section of his private notes, a matter which allowed <a href="/wiki/Matei_C%C4%83linescu" title="Matei Călinescu">Matei Călinescu</a> to propose that Un om mare was a direct product of its author's experience with drugs.<a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> The same commentator, who deemed Un om mare "perhaps Eliade's most memorable short story", connected it with the <a href="/wiki/Uria%C8%99" title="Uriaș">uriași</a> characters present in <a href="/wiki/Romanian_folklore" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian folklore">Romanian folklore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-milaffaireii-244">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_writings">Other writings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Other writings">edit</a>]</div> Eliade reinterpreted the Greek mythological figure <a href="/wiki/Iphigeneia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iphigeneia">Iphigeneia</a> in his eponymous 1941 play. Here, the maiden falls in love with <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a>, and accepts to be sacrificed on the <a href="/wiki/Pyre" title="Pyre">pyre</a> as a means to ensure both her lover's happiness (as predicted by an <a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">oracle</a>) and her father <a href="/wiki/Agamemnon" title="Agamemnon">Agamemnon</a>'s victory in the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Trojan War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-raifigenia-245">[244]</a> Discussing the association Iphigenia's character makes between love and death, Romanian theater critic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radu_Albala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radu Albala (page does not exist)">Radu Albala</a> noted that it was a possible echo of <a href="/wiki/Me%C5%9Fterul_Manole" class="mw-redirect" title="Meşterul Manole">Meşterul Manole</a> legend, in which a builder of the <a href="/wiki/Curtea_de_Arge%C5%9F_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtea de Argeş Cathedral">Curtea de Argeș Monastery</a> has to sacrifice his wife in exchange for permission to complete work.<a href="#cite_note-raifigenia-245">[244]</a> In contrast with early renditions of the myth by authors such as <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Racine" title="Jean Racine">Jean Racine</a>, Eliade's version ends with the sacrifice being carried out in full.<a href="#cite_note-raifigenia-245">[244]</a> In addition to his fiction, the exiled Eliade authored several volumes of memoirs and diaries and travel writings. They were published sporadically, and covered various stages of his life. One of the earliest such pieces was India, grouping accounts of the travels he made through the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a> Writing for the Spanish journal <a href="/wiki/La_Vanguardia" title="La Vanguardia">La Vanguardia</a>, commentator <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Vila-Sanju%C3%A1n" title="Sergio Vila-Sanjuán">Sergio Vila-Sanjuán</a> described the first volume of Eliade's Autobiography (covering the years 1907 to 1937) as "a great book", while noting that the other main volume was "more conventional and insincere."<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> In Vila-Sanjuán's view, the texts reveal Mircea Eliade himself as "a Dostoyevskyian character", as well as "an accomplished person, a <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethian</a> figure".<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> A work that drew particular interest was his Jurnal portughez ('Portuguese Diary'), completed during his stay in <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> and published only after its author's death. A portion of it dealing with his stay in Romania is believed to have been lost.<a href="#cite_note-scnostal-6">[6]</a> The travels to Spain, partly recorded in Jurnal portughez, also led to a separate volume, Jurnal cordobez ('Cordoban Diary'), which Eliade compiled from various independent notebooks.<a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a> Jurnal portughez shows Eliade coping with clinical depression and political crisis, and has been described by <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Oi%C8%99teanu" title="Andrei Oișteanu">Andrei Oișteanu</a> as "an overwhelming [read], through the immense suffering it exhales."<a href="#cite_note-aoopium-68">[68]</a> Literary historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cernat" title="Paul Cernat">Paul Cernat</a> argued that part of the volume is "a masterpiece of its time," while concluding that some 700 pages were passable for the "among others" section of <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Mircea_Eliade" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of Mircea Eliade">Eliade's bibliography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> Noting that the book featured parts where Eliade spoke of himself in eulogistic terms, notably comparing himself favorably to Goethe and Romania's national poet <a href="/wiki/Mihai_Eminescu" title="Mihai Eminescu">Mihai Eminescu</a>, Cernat accused the writer of "egolatry", and deduced that Eliade was "ready to step over dead bodies for the sake of his spiritual 'mission' ".<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> The same passages led philosopher and journalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=C%C4%83t%C4%83lin_Avramescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cătălin Avramescu (page does not exist)">Cătălin Avramescu</a> to argue that Eliade's behavior was evidence of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megalomania" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:megalomania">megalomania</a>".<a href="#cite_note-cavrcitim-59">[59]</a> Eliade also wrote various essays of literary criticism. In his youth, alongside his study on <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a>, he published essays which introduced the Romanian public to representatives of modern <a href="/wiki/Spanish_literature" title="Spanish literature">Spanish literature</a> and philosophy, among them <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adolfo_Bonilla_San_Mart%C3%ADn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adolfo Bonilla San Martín (page does not exist)">Adolfo Bonilla San Martín</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">José Ortega y Gasset</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_d%27Ors" title="Eugenio d'Ors">Eugenio d'Ors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Blasco_Ib%C3%A1%C3%B1ez" title="Vicente Blasco Ibáñez">Vicente Blasco Ibáñez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcelino_Men%C3%A9ndez_y_Pelayo" title="Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo">Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a> He also wrote an essay on the works of <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, connecting it with his own theories on the <a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">eternal return</a> ("[Joyce's literature is] saturated with nostalgia for the myth of the eternal repetition"), and deeming Joyce himself an anti-<a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">historicist</a> "archaic" figure among the modernists.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> In the 1930s, Eliade edited the collected works of Romanian historian <a href="/wiki/Bogdan_Petriceicu_Hasdeu" title="Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu">Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> M. L. Ricketts discovered and translated into English a previously unpublished play written by Mircea Eliade in Paris 1946 Aventura Spirituală ('A Spiritual Adventure'). It was published first in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_in_Action&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory in Action (page does not exist)">Theory in Action</a> – the journal of the <a href="/wiki/Transformative_Studies_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformative Studies Institute">Transformative Studies Institute</a>,<a href="#cite_note-247">[246]</a> vol. 5 (2012): 2–58 -, and then in Italian (M. Eliade, Tutto il teatro, Milano: Edizioni Bietti, 2016). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy:_antisemitism_and_links_with_the_Iron_Guard">Controversy: antisemitism and links with the Iron Guard</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Controversy: antisemitism and links with the Iron Guard">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_statements">Early statements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Early statements">edit</a>]</div> The early years in Eliade's public career show him to have been highly tolerant of Jews in general, and of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Jewish minority in Romania</a> in particular. His early condemnation of <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> policies was accompanied by his caution and moderation in regard to <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a>'s various anti-Jewish attacks.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> Late in the 1930s, Mihail Sebastian was marginalized by Romania's antisemitic policies, and came to reflect on his Romanian friend's association with the far right. The subsequent ideological break between him and Eliade has been compared by writer <a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Adame%C5%9Fteanu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriela Adameşteanu">Gabriela Adameșteanu</a> with that between <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-admestmeanea-241">[240]</a> In his Journal, published long after his 1945 death, Sebastian claimed that Eliade's actions during the 1930s show him to be an antisemite. According to Sebastian, Eliade had been friendly to him until the start of his political commitments, after which he severed all ties.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[248]</a> Before their friendship came apart, however, Sebastian claimed that he took notes on their conversations (which he later published) during which Eliade was supposed to have expressed antisemitic views. According to Sebastian, Eliade said in 1939: <blockquote>The <a href="/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II" title="Polish resistance movement in World War II">Poles' resistance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Warsaw" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a> is a Jewish resistance. Only yids are capable of the blackmail of putting women and children in the front line, to take advantage of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germans</a>' sense of scruple. The Germans have no interest in the destruction of Romania. Only a pro-German government can save us... What is <a href="/wiki/Bukovina#Second_World_War" title="Bukovina">happening on the frontier with Bukovina</a> is a scandal, because new waves of Jews are flooding into the country. Rather than a Romania again invaded by kikes, it would be better to have a German protectorate.<a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a></blockquote> The friendship between Eliade and Sebastian drastically declined during the war: the latter writer, fearing for his security during the pro-Nazi <a href="/wiki/Ion_Antonescu" title="Ion Antonescu">Ion Antonescu</a> regime (see <a href="/wiki/Romania_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Romania during World War II">Romania during World War II</a>), hoped that Eliade, by then a diplomat, could intervene in his favor; however, upon his brief return to Romania, Eliade did not see or approach Sebastian.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> Later, Mircea Eliade expressed his regret at not having had the chance to redeem his friendship with Sebastian before the latter was killed in a car accident.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-in_Handoca-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cernat" title="Paul Cernat">Paul Cernat</a> notes that Eliade's statement includes an admission that he "counted on [Sebastian's] support, in order to get back into Romanian life and culture", and proposes that Eliade may have expected his friend to vouch for him in front of hostile authorities.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> Some of Sebastian's late recordings in his diary show that their author was reflecting with nostalgia on his relationship with Eliade, and that he deplored the outcome.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> Eliade provided two distinct explanations for not having met with Sebastian: one was related to his claim of being followed around by the <a href="/wiki/Gestapo" title="Gestapo">Gestapo</a>, and the other, expressed in his diaries, was that the shame of representing a regime that humiliated Jews had made him avoid facing his former friend.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> Another take on the matter was advanced in 1972 by the Israeli magazine Toladot, which claimed that, as an official representative, Eliade was aware of Antonescu's agreement to implement the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a> in Romania and of how this could affect Sebastian (see <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust in Romania">Holocaust in Romania</a>).<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> In addition, rumors were sparked that Sebastian and Nina Mareș had a physical relationship, one which could have contributed to the clash between the two literary figures.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Beyond his involvement with a movement known for its antisemitism, Eliade did not usually comment on Jewish issues. However, an article titled Piloții orbi ("The Blind Pilots"), contributed to the journal Vremea in 1936, showed that he supported at least some Iron Guard accusations against the Jewish community: <blockquote>Since the war [that is, <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>], Jews have occupied the villages of <a href="/wiki/Maramure%C5%9F_historical_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Maramureş historical region">Maramureș</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a>, and gained the absolute majority in the towns and cities in <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[note 2]</a> [...] It would be absurd to expect Jews to resign themselves to become a minority with certain rights and very many duties—after they have tasted the honey of power and conquered as many command positions as they have. Jews are currently fighting with all forces to maintain their positions, expecting a future offensive—and, as far as I am concerned, I understand their fight and admire their vitality, tenacity, genius.<a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a></blockquote> One year later, a text, accompanied by his picture, was featured as answer to an inquiry by the Iron Guard's <a href="/wiki/Buna_Vestire" title="Buna Vestire">Buna Vestire</a> about the reasons he had for supporting the movement. A short section of it summarizes an anti-Jewish attitude: <blockquote>Can the Romanian nation end its life in the saddest decay witnessed by history, undermined by misery and <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, conquered by Jews and torn to pieces by foreigners, demoralized, betrayed, sold for a few million <a href="/wiki/Romanian_leu" title="Romanian leu">lei</a>?<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a></blockquote> According to the literary critic <a href="/wiki/Z._Ornea" class="mw-redirect" title="Z. Ornea">Z. Ornea</a>, in the 1980s Eliade denied authorship of the text. He explained the use of his signature, his picture, and the picture's caption, as having been applied by the magazine's editor, <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Polihroniade" title="Mihail Polihroniade">Mihail Polihroniade</a>, to a piece the latter had written after having failed to obtain Eliade's contribution; he also claimed that, given his respect for Polihroniade, he had not wished to publicize this matter previously.<a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polemics_and_exile">Polemics and exile</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Polemics and exile">edit</a>]</div> Dumitru G. Danielopol, a fellow diplomat present in London during Eliade's stay in the city, later stated that the latter had identified himself as "a guiding light of [the Iron Guard] movement" and victim of <a href="/wiki/Carol_II_of_Romania" title="Carol II of Romania">Carol II</a>'s repression.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> In October 1940, as the <a href="/wiki/National_Legionary_State" title="National Legionary State">National Legionary State</a> came into existence, the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign and Commonwealth Office">British Foreign Office</a> <a href="/wiki/Blacklist" class="mw-redirect" title="Blacklist">blacklisted</a> Mircea Eliade, alongside five other Romanians, due to his Iron Guard connections and suspicions that he was prepared to spy in favor of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-zfscriit-78">[78]</a> According to various sources, while in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, the diplomat was also preparing to disseminate propaganda in favor of the Iron Guard.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> In Jurnal portughez, Eliade defines himself as "a Legionary",<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> and speaks of his own "Legionary climax" as a stage he had gone through during the early 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> The depolitisation of Eliade after the start of his diplomatic career was also mistrusted by his former close friend <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>, who indicated that, upon the close of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Eliade's personal beliefs as communicated to his friends amounted to "all is over now that Communism has won".<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a> This forms part of Ionesco's severe and succinct review of the careers of Legionary-inspired intellectuals, many of them his friends and former friends, in a letter he sent to <a href="/wiki/Tudor_Vianu" title="Tudor Vianu">Tudor Vianu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> In 1946, Ionesco indicated to <a href="/wiki/Petru_Comarnescu" title="Petru Comarnescu">Petru Comarnescu</a> that he did not want to see either Eliade or Cioran, and that he considered the two of them "Legionaries for ever"—adding "we are <a href="/wiki/Hyena" title="Hyena">hyenas</a> to one another".<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> Eliade's former friend, the communist <a href="/wiki/Belu_Zilber" title="Belu Zilber">Belu Zilber</a>, who was attending the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Treaties,_1947" title="Paris Peace Treaties, 1947">Paris Conference</a> in 1946, refused to see Eliade, arguing that, as an Iron Guard affiliate, the latter had "denounced left-wingers", and contrasting him with Cioran ("They are both Legionaries, but [Cioran] is honest").<a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> Three years later, Eliade's political activities were brought into discussion as he was getting ready to publish a translation of his Techniques du Yoga with the left-leaning Italian company <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Einaudi_Editore" class="mw-redirect" title="Giulio Einaudi Editore">Giulio Einaudi Editore</a>—the denunciation was probably orchestrated by Romanian officials.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.210-259">[257]</a> In August 1954, when <a href="/wiki/Horia_Sima" title="Horia Sima">Horia Sima</a>, who led the Iron Guard during its exile, was rejected by a faction inside the movement, Mircea Eliade's name was included on a list of persons who supported the latter—although this may have happened without his consent.<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.210-259">[257]</a> According to exiled dissident and novelist <a href="/wiki/Dumitru_%C5%A2epeneag" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumitru Ţepeneag">Dumitru Ţepeneag</a>, around that date, Eliade expressed his sympathy for Iron Guard members in general, whom he viewed as "courageous".<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> However, according to Robert Ellwood, the Eliade he met in the 1960s was entirely apolitical, remained aloof from "the passionate politics of that era in the United States", and "[r]eportedly [...] never read newspapers"<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.83-261">[259]</a> (an assessment shared by <a href="/wiki/Sorin_Alexandrescu" title="Sorin Alexandrescu">Sorin Alexandrescu</a>).<a href="#cite_note-scnostal-6">[6]</a> Eliade's student <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Petru_Culianu" title="Ioan Petru Culianu">Ioan Petru Culianu</a> noted that journalists had come to refer to the Romanian scholar as "the great recluse".<a href="#cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">[9]</a> Despite Eliade's withdrawal from radical politics, Ellwood indicates, he still remained concerned with Romania's welfare. He saw himself and other exiled Romanian intellectuals as members of a circle who worked to "maintain the culture of a free Romania and, above all, to publish texts that had become unpublishable in Romania itself".<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> Beginning in 1969, Eliade's past became the subject of public debate in Israel. At the time, historian <a href="/wiki/Gershom_Scholem" title="Gershom Scholem">Gershom Scholem</a> asked Eliade to explain his attitudes, which the latter did using vague terms.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul...-263">[261]</a> As a result of this exchange, Scholem declared his dissatisfaction, and argued that Israel could not extend a welcome to the Romanian academic.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> During the final years of Eliade's life, his disciple Culianu exposed and publicly criticized his 1930s pro-Iron Guard activities; relations between the two soured as a result.<a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> Eliade's other Romanian disciple, <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Oi%C5%9Fteanu" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrei Oişteanu">Andrei Oişteanu</a>, noted that, in the years following Eliade's death, conversations with various people who had known the scholar had made Culianu less certain of his earlier stances, and had led him to declare: "Mr. Eliade was never antisemitic, a member of the Iron Guard, or pro-Nazi. But, in any case, I am led to believe that he was closer to the Iron Guard than I would have liked to believe."<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> At an early stage of his polemic with Culianu, Eliade complained in writing that "it is not possible to write an objective history" of the Iron Guard and its leader <a href="/wiki/Corneliu_Zelea_Codreanu" title="Corneliu Zelea Codreanu">Corneliu Zelea Codreanu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_in_Ellwood,_p.91-266">[264]</a> Arguing that people "would only accept apologetics [...] or executions", he contended: "After <a href="/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp" title="Buchenwald concentration camp">Buchenwald</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a>, even honest people cannot afford being objective".<a href="#cite_note-Eliade,_in_Ellwood,_p.91-266">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Posterity">Posterity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Posterity">edit</a>]</div> Alongside the arguments introduced by Daniel Dubuisson, criticism of Mircea Eliade's political involvement with antisemitism and fascism came from Adriana Berger, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leon_Volovici&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leon Volovici (page does not exist)">Leon Volovici</a>, Alexandra Lagniel-Lavastine, Florin Țurcanu and others, who have attempted to trace Eliade's antisemitism throughout his work and through his associations with contemporary antisemites, such as the Italian fascist <a href="/wiki/Occultist" class="mw-redirect" title="Occultist">occultist</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Julius Evola</a>. Volovici, for example, is critical of Eliade not only because of his support for the Iron Guard, but also for spreading antisemitism and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">anti-Masonry</a> in 1930s Romania.<a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> In 1991, exiled novelist <a href="/wiki/Norman_Manea" title="Norman Manea">Norman Manea</a> published an essay firmly condemning Eliade's attachment to the Iron Guard.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Other scholars, like <a href="/wiki/Bryan_S._Rennie" class="mw-redirect" title="Bryan S. Rennie">Bryan S. Rennie</a>, have claimed that there is, to date, no evidence of Eliade's membership, active services rendered, or of any real involvement with any fascist or totalitarian movements or membership organizations, nor that there is any evidence of his continued support for nationalist ideals after their inherently violent nature was revealed. They further assert that there is no imprint of overt political beliefs in Eliade's scholarship, and also claim that Eliade's critics are following political agendas.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a> Romanian scholar Mircea Handoca, editor of Eliade's writings, argues that the controversy surrounding Eliade was encouraged by a group of exiled writers, of whom Manea was a main representative, and believes that Eliade's association with the Guard was a conjectural one, determined by the young author's Christian values and conservative stance, as well as by his belief that a Legionary Romania could mirror Portugal's <a href="/wiki/Estado_Novo_(Portugal)" title="Estado Novo (Portugal)">Estado Novo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Handoca opined that Eliade changed his stance after discovering that the Legionaries had turned violent, and argued that there was no evidence of Eliade's actual affiliation with the Iron Guard as a political movement.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Additionally, Joaquín Garrigós, who translated Eliade's works into Spanish, claimed that none of Eliade's texts he ever encountered show him to be an antisemite.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Mircea Eliade's nephew and commentator <a href="/wiki/Sorin_Alexandrescu" title="Sorin Alexandrescu">Sorin Alexandrescu</a> himself proposed that Eliade's politics were essentially conservative and patriotic, in part motivated by a fear of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> which he shared with many other young intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Based on Mircea Eliade's admiration for <a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Gandhi</a>, various other authors assess that Eliade remained committed to <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Robert Ellwood also places Eliade's involvement with the Iron Guard in relation to scholar's conservatism, and connects this aspect of Eliade's life with both his nostalgia and his study of primal societies. According to Ellwood, the part of Eliade that felt attracted to the "freedom of new beginnings suggested by primal myths" is the same part that felt attracted to the Guard, with its almost mythological notion of a new beginning through a "national resurrection".<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> On a more basic level, Ellwood describes Eliade as an "instinctively spiritual" person who saw the Iron Guard as a spiritual movement.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a> In Ellwood's view, Eliade was aware that the "<a href="/wiki/Golden_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age">golden age</a>" of antiquity was no longer accessible to secular man, that it could be recalled but not re-established. Thus, a "more accessible" object for nostalgia was a "secondary silver age within the last few hundred years"—the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania" title="Kingdom of Romania">Kingdom of Romania</a>'s 19th century cultural renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> To the young Eliade, the Iron Guard seemed like a path for returning to the silver age of Romania's glory, being a movement "dedicated to the cultural and national renewal of the Romanian people by appeal to their spiritual roots".<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.83-261">[259]</a> Ellwood describes the young Eliade as someone "capable of being fired up by mythological archetypes and with no awareness of the evil that was to be unleashed".<a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> Because of Eliade's withdrawal from politics, and also because the later Eliade's religiosity was very personal and idiosyncratic,<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.120-227">[226]</a> Ellwood believes the later Eliade probably would have rejected the "corporate sacred" of the Iron Guard.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.120-227">[226]</a> According to Ellwood, the later Eliade had the same desire for a Romanian "resurrection" that had motivated the early Eliade to support the Iron Guard, but he now channeled it apolitically through his efforts to "maintain the culture of a free Romania" abroad.<a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a> In one of his writings, Eliade says, "Against the terror of History there are only two possibilities of defense: action or contemplation."<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> According to Ellwood, the young Eliade took the former option, trying to reform the world through action, whereas the older Eliade tried to resist the terror of history intellectually.<a href="#cite_note-Ellwood,_p.101-202">[201]</a> Eliade's own version of events, presenting his involvement in far right politics as marginal, was judged to contain several inaccuracies and unverifiable claims.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-275">[273]</a> For instance, Eliade depicted his arrest as having been solely caused by his friendship with <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a> On another occasion, answering Gershom Scholem's query, he is known to have explicitly denied ever having contributed to <a href="/wiki/Buna_Vestire" title="Buna Vestire">Buna Vestire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oscaderea-53">[53]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Sorin_Antohi" title="Sorin Antohi">Sorin Antohi</a>, "Eliade died without ever clearly expressing regret for his Iron Guard sympathies".<a href="#cite_note-Antohi_p.xxiii-277">[275]</a> <a href="/wiki/Z._Ornea" class="mw-redirect" title="Z. Ornea">Z. Ornea</a> noted that, in a short section of his Autobiography where he discusses the Einaudi incident, Eliade speaks of "my imprudent acts and errors committed in youth", as "a series of malentendus that would follow me all my life."<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> Ornea commented that this was the only instance where the Romanian academic spoke of his political involvement with a dose of self-criticism, and contrasted the statement with Eliade's usual refusal to discuss his stances "pertinently".<a href="#cite_note-Ornea,_p.210-259">[257]</a> Reviewing the arguments brought in support of Eliade, Sergio Vila-Sanjuán concluded: "Nevertheless, Eliade's pro-Legionary columns endure in the newspaper libraries, he never showed his regret for this connection [with the Iron Guard] and always, right up to his final writings, he invoked the figure of his teacher Nae Ionescu."<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> In his Felix Culpa, Manea directly accused Eliade of having embellished his memoirs to minimize an embarrassing past.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> A secondary debate surrounding Eliade's alleged unwillingness to dissociate with the Guard took place after Jurnalul portughez saw print. Sorin Alexandrescu expressed a belief that notes in the diary show Eliade's "break with his far right past".<a href="#cite_note-scnostal-6">[6]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=C%C4%83t%C4%83lin_Avramescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cătălin Avramescu (page does not exist)">Cătălin Avramescu</a> defined this conclusion as "whitewashing", and, answering to Alexandrescu's claim that his uncle's support for the Guard was always superficial, argued that Jurnal portughez and other writings of the time showed Eliade's disenchantment with the Legionaries' Christian stance in tandem with his growing sympathy for <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Nazi_occultism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi occultism">pagan messages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cavrcitim-59">[59]</a> Paul Cernat, who stressed that it was the only one of Eliade's autobiographical works not to have been reworked by its author, concluded that the book documented Eliade's own efforts to "camouflage" his political sympathies without rejecting them altogether.<a href="#cite_note-pcommare-26">[26]</a> Oișteanu argued that, in old age, Eliade moved away from his earlier stances and even came to sympathize with the non-<a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> Left and the <a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">hippie</a> <a href="/wiki/Youth_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Youth movement">youth movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-teodoist-81">[81]</a> He noted that Eliade initially felt apprehensive about the consequences of hippie activism, but that the interests they shared, as well as their advocacy of <a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">communalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">free love</a> had made him argue that hippies were "a quasi-religious movement" that was "rediscovering the sacrality of Life".<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> Andrei Oișteanu, who proposed that Eliade's critics were divided into a "maximalist" and a "minimalist" camp (trying to, respectively, enhance or shadow the impact Legionary ideas had on Eliade), argued in favor of moderation, and indicated that Eliade's fascism needed to be correlated to the political choices of his generation.<a href="#cite_note-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul...-263">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_symbolism_in_Eliade's_fiction">Political symbolism in Eliade's fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Political symbolism in Eliade's fiction">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border: 4px double #154E9D; border-spacing:0.2em 0;color: var(--color-base, #000);"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservatism" title="Category:Conservatism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joseph de Maistre"><img alt="Joseph de Maistre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg/100px-Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg/150px-Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg/200px-Joseph_de_Maistre_by_Vallotton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="634" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-enlightenment">Counter-enlightenment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Catholicism">Political Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postliberalism" title="Postliberalism">Postliberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(Europe)" title="Radical right (Europe)">Radical conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_New_Right" title="European New Right">European New Right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_Droite" title="Nouvelle Droite">Nouvelle Droite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalism_(perennialism)" title="Traditionalism (perennialism)">Perennialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_values" title="Christian values">Christian values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Civilizational impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_movements" title="Anti-abortion movements">Pro-Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnic pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe_of_100_Flags" title="Europe of 100 Flags">Europe of 100 Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender roles">Gender roles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_order_(politics)" title="Law and order (politics)">Law and order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalist" title="Royalist">Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organicism#In_politics_and_sociology" title="Organicism">Organicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Paideia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_identity" title="Pan-European identity">Pan-European identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euroscepticism" title="Euroscepticism">Euroscepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_nationalism" title="Pan-European nationalism">Nationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Europe" title="Federal Europe">Federalist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Social institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">Social order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity" title="Subsidiarity">Subsidiarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invented_tradition" title="Invented tradition">Metamodern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Western values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occidentalism" title="Occidentalism">Occidentalism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Intellectuals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_More" title="Hannah More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilaire_Belloc" title="Hilaire Belloc">Belloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Iorga" title="Nicolae Iorga">Iorga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._K._Chesterton" title="G. K. Chesterton">Chesterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrado_Gini#Italian_Unionist_Movement" title="Corrado Gini">Gini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger" title="Ernst Jünger">Jünger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Lefebvre" title="Marcel Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_von_Kuehnelt-Leddihn" title="Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn">Kuehnelt-Leddihn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yann_Fou%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Yann Fouéré">Fouéré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhart_Koselleck" title="Reinhart Koselleck">Koselleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat_Ye%27or" title="Bat Ye'or">Ye'or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Hitchens" title="Peter Hitchens">Hitchens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan_Peterson" title="Jordan Peterson">Peterson</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_or_Europe_(Novalis)" title="Christianity or Europe (Novalis)">Christianity or Europe</a> (1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Considerations_on_France" title="Considerations on France">Considerations on France</a> (1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memoirs_Illustrating_the_History_of_Jacobinism" title="Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism">Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism</a> (1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Genius_of_Christianity" title="The Genius of Christianity">The Genius of Christianity</a> (1802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Decline_of_the_West" title="The Decline of the West">The Decline of the West</a> (1918, 1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_the_Political" title="The Concept of the Political">The Concept of the Political</a> (1932)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Peace_(essay)" title="The Peace (essay)">The Peace</a>" (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_West" title="The Death of the West">The Death of the West</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/While_Europe_Slept" title="While Europe Slept">While Europe Slept</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_Europe" title="Reflections on the Revolution in Europe">Reflections on the Revolution in Europe</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Are_Doomed" title="We Are Doomed">We Are Doomed</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_to_Be_a_Conservative" title="How to Be a Conservative">How to Be a Conservative</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Strange_Death_of_Europe" title="The Strange Death of Europe">The Strange Death of Europe</a> (2017)</li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">Pitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Canning" title="George Canning">Canning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klemens_von_Metternich" title="Klemens von Metternich">Metternich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Disraeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Salisbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Mannerheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikl%C3%B3s_Horthy" title="Miklós Horthy">Horthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioannis_Metaxas" title="Ioannis Metaxas">Metaxas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Adenauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi" title="Alcide De Gasperi">De Gasperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_de_Oliveira_Salazar" title="António de Oliveira Salazar">Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">De Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Franco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Coudenhove-Kalergi" title="Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi">von Coudenhove-Kalergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Habsburg" title="Otto von Habsburg">von Habsburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Kohl" title="Helmut Kohl">Kohl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pim_Fortuyn" title="Pim Fortuyn">Fortuyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Orbán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geert_Wilders" title="Geert Wilders">Wilders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Meloni</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_European_Renewal" title="Center for European Renewal">Center for European Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Democrat_International" title="Centrist Democrat International">Centrist Democrat International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke_Stichting" title="Edmund Burke Stichting">Edmund Burke Stichting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Conservatives_Group_and_Democratic_Alliance" title="European Conservatives Group and Democratic Alliance">European Conservatives Group and Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democrats" title="European Democrats">European Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe_of_Sovereign_Nations_Group" title="Europe of Sovereign Nations Group">Europe of Sovereign Nations Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe_of_Sovereign_Nations_(party)" title="Europe of Sovereign Nations (party)">Europe of Sovereign Nations (party)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Conservatives_and_Reformists_Party" title="European Conservatives and Reformists Party">European Conservatives and Reformists Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party" title="European People's Party">European People's Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_People%27s_Party_Group" title="European People's Party Group">European People's Party Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Monarchist_League" title="International Monarchist League">International Monarchist League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertas.eu" title="Libertas.eu">Libertas.eu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Movement_(right-wing_populist_group)" title="The Movement (right-wing populist group)">The Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_European_Reform" title="Movement for European Reform">Movement for European Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conservatism_Conference" title="National Conservatism Conference">NatCon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriots_for_Europe" title="Patriots for Europe">Patriots for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegida" title="Pegida">Pegida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Islamisation_of_Europe" title="Stop Islamisation of Europe">Stop Islamisation of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Media</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_European_Conservative" title="The European Conservative">The European Conservative</a> EU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Figaro" title="Le Figaro">Le Figaro</a> (Fr)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_%C3%89cole" title="Nouvelle École">Nouvelle École</a> (FR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Z%C3%BCricher_Zeitung" class="mw-redirect" title="Neue Züricher Zeitung">NZZ</a> (CH)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Personal variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_positions_of_David_Cameron" title="Political positions of David Cameron">Cameronism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuynism" title="Fortuynism">Fortuynism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Francoism">Francoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaullism" title="Gaullism">Gaullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurrassisme" title="Maurrassisme">Maurrassisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellismo" title="Mellismo">Mellismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxism" title="Metaxism">Metaxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powellism" title="Powellism">Powellism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaganism">Reaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarkozysm" title="Sarkozysm">Sarkozysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thatcherism" title="Thatcherism">Thatcherism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Australia" title="Conservatism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Austria" title="Conservatism">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Belgium" title="Conservatism">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Canada" title="Conservatism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Denmark" title="Conservatism">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Finland" title="Conservatism">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_France" title="Conservatism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Germany" title="Conservatism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Greece" title="Conservatism">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Hungary" title="Conservatism">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Iceland" title="Conservatism">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Italy" title="Conservatism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Luxembourg" title="Conservatism">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Netherlands" title="Conservatism">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_conservatism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic conservatism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Norway" title="Conservatism">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Poland" title="Conservatism">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Russia" title="Conservatism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Serbia" title="Conservatism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Sweden" title="Conservatism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Switzerland" title="Conservatism">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism#Ukraine" title="Conservatism">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservatism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restauration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Order" title="Conservative Order">Conservative Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary#France" title="Counter-revolutionary">Counter-revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-royalist" title="Ultra-royalist">Ultra-royalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #36c; 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border-top:1px solid #36c; border-bottom:1px solid #36c; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/15px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/22px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/30px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservatism_in_Europe" title="Template:Conservatism in Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Conservatism_in_Europe" title="Template talk:Conservatism in Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism_in_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conservatism in Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Various critics have traced links between Eliade's fiction works and his political views, or Romanian politics in general. Early on, <a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a> argued that the <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> model outlined in Huliganii was: "An allusion to certain bygone political movements [...], sublimated in the ever so abstruse philosophy of death as a path to knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">[232]</a> By contrast, Întoarcerea din rai partly focuses on a failed <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a> rebellion, which enlists the participation of its main characters.<a href="#cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">[233]</a> Iphigenia‍'s story of self-sacrifice, turned voluntary in Eliade's version, was taken by various commentators, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sebastian" title="Mihail Sebastian">Mihail Sebastian</a>, as a favorable allusion to the Iron Guard's beliefs on commitment and death, as well as to the bloody outcome of the 1941 <a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_rebellion_and_Bucharest_pogrom" title="Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom">Legionary Rebellion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> Ten years after its premiere, the play was reprinted by Legionary refugees in Argentina: on the occasion, the text was reviewed for publishing by Eliade himself.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> Reading Iphigenia was what partly sparked Culianu's investigation of his mentor's early political affiliations.<a href="#cite_note-aoamniotica-31">[31]</a> A special debate was sparked by Un om mare. Culianu viewed it as a direct reference to <a href="/wiki/Corneliu_Zelea_Codreanu" title="Corneliu Zelea Codreanu">Corneliu Zelea Codreanu</a> and his rise in popularity, an interpretation partly based on the similarity between, on one hand, two monikers ascribed to the Legionary leader (by, respectively, his adversaries and his followers), and, on the other, the main character's name (Cucoanes).<a href="#cite_note-milaffaireii-244">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/Matei_C%C4%83linescu" title="Matei Călinescu">Matei Călinescu</a> did not reject Culianu's version, but argued that, on its own, the piece was beyond political interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-milaffaireii-244">[243]</a> Commenting on this dialog, literary historian and essayist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Iorgulescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mircea Iorgulescu (page does not exist)">Mircea Iorgulescu</a> objected to the original verdict, indicating his belief that there was no historical evidence to substantiate Culianu's point of view.<a href="#cite_note-milaffaireii-244">[243]</a> Alongside Eliade's main works, his attempted novel of youth, Minunata călătorie a celor cinci cărăbuși in țara furnicilor roșii, which depicts a population of red ants living in a totalitarian society and forming bands to harass the beetles, was seen as a potential allusion to the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and to communism.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> Despite Eliade's ultimate reception in <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Romania">Communist Romania</a>, this writing could not be published during the period, after <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censors</a> singled out fragments which they saw as especially problematic.<a href="#cite_note-ihincep-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_legacy">Cultural legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Cultural legacy">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tributes">Tributes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Tributes">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg/230px-Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg/345px-Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg/460px-Stamp_of_Moldova_038.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Eliade's portrait on a Moldovan stamp</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg/230px-Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg/345px-Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg/460px-Aleea_Clasicilor_Eliade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Portrait on the <a href="/wiki/Alley_of_Classics,_Chi%C5%9Fin%C4%83u" class="mw-redirect" title="Alley of Classics, Chişinău">Alley of Classics</a>, Chişinău</figcaption></figure> An endowed chair in the History of Religions at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> Divinity School was named after Eliade in recognition of his wide contribution to the research on this subject; the first holder of this chair is <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Wendy Doniger</a>, who was succeeded by Brook Ziporyn in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> To evaluate the legacy of Eliade and <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wach" title="Joachim Wach">Joachim Wach</a> within the discipline of the history of religions, the University of Chicago chose 2006 (the intermediate year between the 50th anniversary of Wach's death and the 100th anniversary of Eliade's birth), to hold a two-day conference to reflect upon their academic contributions and their political lives in their social and historical contexts, as well as the relationship between their works and their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Hermeneutics_in_History-73">[73]</a> In 1990, after the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revolution_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian Revolution of 1989">Romanian Revolution</a>, Eliade was elected posthumously to the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>. In Romania, Mircea Eliade's legacy in the field of the history of religions is mirrored by the journal Archaeus (founded 1997, and affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bucharest" title="University of Bucharest">University of Bucharest</a> Faculty of History). The 6th European Association for the Study of Religion and International Association for the History of Religions Special Conference on Religious History of Europe and Asia took place from September 20 to September 23, 2006, in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>. An important section of the Congress was dedicated to the memory of Mircea Eliade, whose legacy in the field of history of religions was scrutinized by various scholars, some of whom were his direct students at the University of Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> As Antohi noted, Eliade, <a href="/wiki/Emil_Cioran" title="Emil Cioran">Emil Cioran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Noica" title="Constantin Noica">Constantin Noica</a> "represent in <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Romania" title="Culture of Romania">Romanian culture</a> ultimate expressions of excellence, [Eliade and Cioran] being regarded as proof that Romania's <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar</a> culture (and, by extension, Romanian culture as a whole) was able to reach the ultimate levels of depth, sophistication and creativity."<a href="#cite_note-Antohi_p.xxiii-277">[275]</a> A <a href="/wiki/TVR_1" title="TVR 1">Romanian Television 1</a> poll carried out in 2006 nominated Mircea Eliade as the 7th Greatest Romanian in history; his case was argued by the journalist <a href="/wiki/Drago%C5%9F_Bucurenci" class="mw-redirect" title="Dragoş Bucurenci">Dragoş Bucurenci</a> (see <a href="/wiki/100_greatest_Romanians" class="mw-redirect" title="100 greatest Romanians">100 greatest Romanians</a>). His name was given to a boulevard in the northern Bucharest area of <a href="/wiki/Prim%C4%83verii" title="Primăverii">Primăverii</a>, to a street in <a href="/wiki/Cluj-Napoca" title="Cluj-Napoca">Cluj-Napoca</a>, and to high schools in Bucharest, <a href="/wiki/Sighi%C5%9Foara" class="mw-redirect" title="Sighişoara">Sighişoara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Re%C5%9Fi%C5%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Reşiţa">Reşiţa</a>. The Eliades' house on Melodiei Street was torn down during the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Romania">communist regime</a>, and an apartment block was raised in its place; his second residence, on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dacia_Boulevard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dacia Boulevard (page does not exist)">Dacia Boulevard</a>, features a memorial plaque in his honor.<a href="#cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">[7]</a> Eliade's image in contemporary culture also has political implications. Historian <a href="/wiki/Irina_Livezeanu" title="Irina Livezeanu">Irina Livezeanu</a> proposed that the respect he enjoys in Romania is matched by that of other "nationalist thinkers and politicians" who "have reentered the contemporary scene largely as heroes of a pre- and anticommunist past", including Nae Ionescu and Cioran, but also <a href="/wiki/Ion_Antonescu" title="Ion Antonescu">Ion Antonescu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nichifor_Crainic" title="Nichifor Crainic">Nichifor Crainic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a> In parallel, according to Oişteanu (who relied his assessment on Eliade's own personal notes), Eliade's interest in the American hippie community was reciprocated by members of the latter, some of whom reportedly viewed Eliade as "a <a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a>".<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-75">[75]</a> Eliade has also been hailed as an inspiration by German representatives of the <a href="/wiki/Neue_Rechte" title="Neue Rechte">Neue Rechte</a>, claiming legacy from the <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Revolutionary_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Revolutionary movement">Conservative Revolutionary movement</a> (among them is the controversial magazine <a href="/wiki/Junge_Freiheit" title="Junge Freiheit">Junge Freiheit</a> and the essayist <a href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Wei%C3%9Fmann" title="Karlheinz Weißmann">Karlheinz Weißmann</a>).<a href="#cite_note-altitudini-283">[281]</a> In 2007, Florin Ţurcanu's biographical volume on Eliade was issued in a German translation by the Antaios publishing house, which is mouthpiece for the Neue Rechte.<a href="#cite_note-altitudini-283">[281]</a> The edition was not reviewed by the mainstream German press.<a href="#cite_note-altitudini-283">[281]</a> Other sections of the European far right also claim Eliade as an inspiration, and consider his contacts with the Iron Guard to be a merit—among their representatives are the Italian <a href="/wiki/Neo-fascism" title="Neo-fascism">neofascist</a> <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Mutti" title="Claudio Mutti">Claudio Mutti</a> and Romanian groups who trace their origin to the Legionary Movement.<a href="#cite_note-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul...-263">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portrayals,_filmography_and_dramatizations">Portrayals, filmography and dramatizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Portrayals, filmography and dramatizations">edit</a>]</div> Early on, Mircea Eliade's novels were the subject of satire: before the two of them became friends, <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Steinhardt" title="Nicolae Steinhardt">Nicolae Steinhardt</a>, using the pen name Antisthius, authored and published <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parodies</a> of them.<a href="#cite_note-Steinhardt,_in_Handoca-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maitreyi_Devi" title="Maitreyi Devi">Maitreyi Devi</a>, who strongly objected to Eliade's account of their encounter and relationship, wrote her own novel as a reply to his <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Nights_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengal Nights (novel)">Maitreyi</a>; written in <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, it was titled <a href="/wiki/Na_Hanyate" title="Na Hanyate">Na Hanyate</a> ('It Does Not Die').<a href="#cite_note-kamani-20">[20]</a> Several authors, including <a href="/wiki/Ioan_Petru_Culianu" title="Ioan Petru Culianu">Ioan Petru Culianu</a>, have drawn a parallel between <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Absurdist</a> play of 1959, <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros_(play)" title="Rhinoceros (play)">Rhinoceros</a>, which depicts the population of a small town falling victim to a mass metamorphosis, and the impact fascism had on Ionesco's closest friends (Eliade included).<a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Saul Bellow</a> published his controversial <a href="/wiki/Ravelstein" title="Ravelstein">Ravelstein</a> novel. Having for its setting the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, it had among its characters Radu Grielescu, who was identified by several critics as Eliade. The latter's portrayal, accomplished through statements made by the eponymous character, is polemical: Grielescu, who is identified as a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Nae_Ionescu" title="Nae Ionescu">Nae Ionescu</a>, took part in the <a href="/wiki/Legionnaires%27_Rebellion_and_Bucharest_Pogrom" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionnaires' Rebellion and Bucharest Pogrom">Bucharest Pogrom</a>, and is in Chicago as a refugee scholar, searching for the friendship of a Jewish colleague as a means to rehabilitate himself.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> In 2005, the Romanian literary critic and translator Antoaneta Ralian, who was an acquaintance of Bellow's, argued that much of the negative portrayal was owed to a personal choice Bellow made (after having divorced from <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Bellow" title="Alexandra Bellow">Alexandra Bagdasar</a>, his Romanian wife and Eliade disciple).<a href="#cite_note-ralian-286">[284]</a> She also mentioned that, during a 1979 interview, Bellow had expressed admiration for Eliade.<a href="#cite_note-ralian-286">[284]</a> The film Mircea Eliade et la redécouverte du Sacré (1987), and part of the television series Architecture et Géographie sacrées by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Barb%C4%83_Neagr%C4%83" title="Paul Barbă Neagră">Paul Barbă Neagră</a>, discuss Eliade's works. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Film_adaptations">Film adaptations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Film adaptations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bengali_Night" title="The Bengali Night">The Bengali Night</a> (1988), directed by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Klotz" title="Nicolas Klotz">Nicolas Klotz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miss_Christina_(1992_film)" title="Miss Christina (1992 film)">Domnişoara Christina</a> ('Miss Christina', 1992), directed by Viorel Sergovici</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C8%98arpele&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Șarpele (page does not exist)">Șarpele</a> ('The Snake', 1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eu_sunt_Adam" title="Eu sunt Adam">Eu sunt Adam</a>! (1996), directed by <a href="/wiki/Dan_Pi%C8%9Ba" title="Dan Pița">Dan Pița</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_Without_Youth_(film)" title="Youth Without Youth (film)">Youth Without Youth</a> (2007), directed by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ford_Coppola" title="Francis Ford Coppola">Francis Ford Coppola</a></li> <li>Domnişoara Christina (2013)</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/The_Bengali_Night" title="The Bengali Night">The Bengali Night</a>, a 1988 film directed by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Klotz" title="Nicolas Klotz">Nicolas Klotz</a> and based upon the French translation of Maitreyi, stars British actor <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Grant" title="Hugh Grant">Hugh Grant</a> as Allan, the European character based on Eliade, while <a href="/wiki/Supriya_Pathak" title="Supriya Pathak">Supriya Pathak</a> is Gayatri, a character based on Maitreyi Devi (who had refused to be mentioned by name).<a href="#cite_note-kamani-20">[20]</a> The film, considered "simply" by <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> activists, was only shown once in India.<a href="#cite_note-kamani-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Live_adaptations">Live adaptations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Live adaptations">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Domnișoara Christina (1981), opera at the Romanian Radio<a href="#cite_note-:0-287">[285]</a></li> <li>Iphigenia (1982), play at the <a href="/wiki/National_Theater_Bucharest" class="mw-redirect" title="National Theater Bucharest">National Theater Bucharest</a><a href="#cite_note-raifigenia-245">[244]</a></li> <li>La señorita Cristina (2000), opera at the <a href="/wiki/Teatro_Real" title="Teatro Real">Teatro Real</a>, Madrid<a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a></li> <li>Cazul Gavrilescu ('The Gavrilescu Case', 2001), play at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nottara_Theater&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nottara Theater (page does not exist)">Nottara Theater</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-288">[286]</a></li> <li>La Țigănci (2003), play at the <a href="/wiki/Odeon_Theatre_(Bucharest)" title="Odeon Theatre (Bucharest)">Odeon Theater</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-289">[287]</a></li> <li>Apocalipsa după Mircea Eliade ('The Apocalypse According to Mircea Eliade', 2007)<a href="#cite_note-:3-290">[288]</a></li></ul> Eliade's Iphigenia was again included in theater programs during the late years of the <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C5%9Fescu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolae Ceauşescu">Nicolae Ceauşescu</a> regime: in January 1982, a new version, directed by <a href="/wiki/Ion_Cojar" title="Ion Cojar">Ion Cojar</a>, premiered at the <a href="/wiki/National_Theater_Bucharest" class="mw-redirect" title="National Theater Bucharest">National Theater Bucharest</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Albulescu" title="Mircea Albulescu">Mircea Albulescu</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tania_Filip&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tania Filip (page does not exist)">Tania Filip</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Pintea" title="Adrian Pintea">Adrian Pintea</a> in some of the main roles.<a href="#cite_note-raifigenia-245">[244]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=La_%C8%9Aig%C4%83nci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="La Țigănci (page does not exist)">La Țigănci</a>  [<a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_%C8%9Aig%C4%83nci" class="extiw" title="ro:La Țigănci">ro</a>] has been the basis for two theater adaptations: Cazul Gavrilescu ('The Gavrilescu Case'), directed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gelu_Colceag&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gelu Colceag (page does not exist)">Gelu Colceag</a> and hosted by the Nottara Theater;<a href="#cite_note-:1-288">[286]</a> and an eponymous play by director Alexandru Hausvater, first staged by the <a href="/wiki/Odeon_Theatre_(Bucharest)" title="Odeon Theatre (Bucharest)">Odeon Theater</a> in 2003, starring, among others, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adriana_Trandafir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adriana Trandafir (page does not exist)">Adriana Trandafir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florin_Zamfirescu" title="Florin Zamfirescu">Florin Zamfirescu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carmen_T%C4%83nase" title="Carmen Tănase">Carmen Tănase</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-289">[287]</a> In March 2007, on Eliade's 100th birthday, the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Radio_Broadcasting_Company" title="Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company">Romanian Radio Broadcasting Company</a> hosted the Mircea Eliade Week, during which <a href="/wiki/Radio_drama" title="Radio drama">radio drama</a> adaptations of several works were broadcast.<a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> In September of that year, director and dramatist Cezarina Udrescu staged a <a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">multimedia</a> performance based on a number of works Mircea Eliade wrote during his stay in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>; titled Apocalipsa după Mircea Eliade ('The Apocalypse According to Mircea Eliade'), and shown as part of a Romanian Radio cultural campaign, it starred <a href="/wiki/Ion_Caramitru" title="Ion Caramitru">Ion Caramitru</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oana_Pellea" title="Oana Pellea">Oana Pellea</a> and <a href="/wiki/R%C4%83zvan_Vasilescu" title="Răzvan Vasilescu">Răzvan Vasilescu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-290">[288]</a> Domnișoara Christina has been the subject of two operas: the first, carrying the same Romanian title, was authored by Romanian composer <a href="/wiki/%C8%98erban_Nichifor" title="Șerban Nichifor">Șerban Nichifor</a> and premiered in 1981 at the Romanian Radio;<a href="#cite_note-:0-287">[285]</a> the second, titled La señorita Cristina, was written by Spanish composer <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Pablo" title="Luis de Pablo">Luis de Pablo</a> and premiered in 2000 at the <a href="/wiki/Teatro_Real" title="Teatro Real">Teatro Real</a> in Madrid.<a href="#cite_note-jgspania-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_bibliography">Selected bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Selected bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Mircea_Eliade" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of Mircea Eliade">Bibliography of Mircea Eliade</a>.</div> <ul><li>A History of Religious Ideas. Vol. 1: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries. Trans. Willard R. Trask. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1978. (Histoire des croyances et des idées religieuses. 3 vols. 1976–83.)</li> <li>Images and Symbols: Studies in Religious Symbolism (trans. Philip Mairet), <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, Princeton, 1991</li> <li>Myth and Reality (trans. Willard R. Trask), <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Row">Harper & Row</a>, New York, 1963</li> <li>Myths, Dreams and Mysteries (trans. Philip Mairet), Harper & Row, New York, 1967</li> <li>Myths, Rites, Symbols: A Mircea Eliade Reader, Vol. 2, Ed. Wendell C. Beane and William G. Doty, Harper Colophon, New York, 1976</li> <li>Patterns in Comparative Religion, Sheed & Ward, New York, 1958</li> <li>Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2004</li> <li>The Myth of the Eternal Return: Cosmos and History (trans. Willard R. Trask), Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1971</li> <li>"The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", in History of Religions 4.1 (1964), p. 154–169</li> <li>The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (trans. Willard R. Trask), Harper Torchbooks, New York, 1961</li> <li>‘’Hypermnésie et évasion. <a href="/wiki/Doina_Ru%C8%99ti" title="Doina Ruști">Doina Ruști</a>, „Philologica Jassyensia", An III, Nr. 1, 2007, p. 235–241</li> <li>Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (trans. Willard R. Trask), Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2009</li> <li>Isabela Vasiliu-Scraba, Harismele Duhului Sfânt si fotografia "de 14 ani" (Mircea Eliade), în rev. "Acolada", Satu Mare, annul XIV, nr. 12 (157), decembrie 2020, pp. 12–13</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A2ntoaderi" title="Sântoaderi">Sântoaderi</a>, supernatural entities found in Romanian folklore</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> For example, according to Wendy Doniger (Doniger, "Foreword to the 2004 Edition", Eliade, Shamanism, p. xv.), Eliade has been accused "of being a crypto-theologian"; however, Doniger argues that Eliade is better characterized as "an open hierogian". Likewise, Robert Ellwood (Ellwood, p. 111) denies that Eliade practiced "covert theology". </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> It was popular prejudice in the late 1930s to claim that <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukrainian Jews</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> had obtained Romanian citizenship illegally after crossing the border into <a href="/wiki/Maramure%C5%9F_historical_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Maramureş historical region">Maramureş</a> and Bukovina. In 1938, this accusation served as an excuse for the <a href="/wiki/Octavian_Goga" title="Octavian Goga">Octavian Goga</a>-<a href="/wiki/A._C._Cuza" title="A. C. Cuza">A. C. Cuza</a> government to suspend and review all Jewish citizenship guaranteed after 1923, rendering it very difficult to regain (Ornea, p.391). Eliade's mention of Bessarabia probably refers to an earlier period, being his interpretation of a pre-<a href="/wiki/Greater_Romania" title="Greater Romania">Greater Romania</a> process. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRennie2001" class="citation book cs1">Rennie, Bryan (January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=stVC1DH-SAIC&dq=mircea+eliade+influential&pg=PA207">Changing Religious Worlds: The Meaning and End of Mircea Eliade</a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4729-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4729-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-4729-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Religious+Worlds%3A+The+Meaning+and+End+of+Mircea+Eliade&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001-01&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-4729-1&rft.aulast=Rennie&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DstVC1DH-SAIC%26dq%3Dmircea%2Beliade%2Binfluential%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doniger_Forward_p.xiii_2-4">e</a> Wendy Doniger, "Foreword to the 2004 Edition", Eliade, Shamanism, p. xiii </li> <li id="cite_note-Biografie_in_Handoca-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Biografie_in_Handoca_3-17">r</a> Biografie, in Handoca </li> <li id="cite_note-smihai-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smihai_4-18">s</a> Silviu Mihai, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cotidianul.ro/index.php?id=3920&art=8997&diraut=123&cHash=ae6af0be58">"A doua viaţă a lui Mircea Eliade" ("Mircea Eliade's Second Life")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Cotidianul" title="Cotidianul">Cotidianul</a>, February 6, 2006; retrieved July 31, 2007 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-Căl._p.956-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.956_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.956_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.956_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.956_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.956_5-4">e</a> Călinescu, p. 956 </li> <li id="cite_note-scnostal-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scnostal_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scnostal_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scnostal_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scnostal_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scnostal_6-4">e</a> Simona Chiţan, "Nostalgia după România" ("Nostalgia for Romania"), interview with Sorin Alexandrescu, in <a href="/wiki/Evenimentul_Zilei" title="Evenimentul Zilei">Evenimentul Zilei</a>, June 24, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-vilasanjpaseo-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-32">ag</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vilasanjpaseo_7-33">ah</a> Sergio Vila-Sanjuán, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lavanguardia.com/cultura/20070530/51355796343/paseo-por-el-bucarest-de-mircea-eliade.html">"Paseo por el Bucarest de Mircea Eliade" ("Passing through Mircea Eliade's Bucharest")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/La_Vanguardia" title="La Vanguardia">La Vanguardia</a>, May 30, 2007 (in Spanish); retrieved January 16, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-ihincep-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ihincep_8-30">ae</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion_Had%C3%A2rc%C4%83" title="Ion Hadârcă">Ion Hadârcă</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sud-est.md/numere/20070428/article_3/">"Mircea Eliade la începuturi" ("Mircea Eliade at His Beginnings")</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071108070458/http://www.sud-est.md/numere/20070428/article_3/">Archived</a> 2007-11-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in Revista Sud-Est, 1/2007; retrieved January 21, 2008 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-ipcmahapar-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ipcmahapar_9-6">g</a> <a href="/wiki/Ioan_P._Culianu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ioan P. Culianu">Ioan P. Culianu</a>, "Mahaparanirvana", in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elhilodeariadna.org/index.asp">El Hilo de Ariadna</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230010917/http://www.elhilodeariadna.org/index.asp">Archived</a> 2007-12-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Vol. II </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood98-99-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood98-99_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood98-99_10-1">b</a> Ellwood, pp. 98–99 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Eliade, Autobiography, in Ellwood, pp. 98–99 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Ellwood, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Steinhardt,_in_Handoca-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steinhardt,_in_Handoca_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steinhardt,_in_Handoca_13-1">b</a> Steinhardt, in Handoca </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Veronica Marinescu, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.curierulnational.ro/Specializat/2004-03-13/%E2%80%9CAm+luat+din+intamplarile+vietii+tot+ce+este+mai+frumos%E2%80%9D,+spune+cercetatorul+operei+brancusiene">" 'Am luat din întâmplările vieții tot ce este mai frumos', spune cercetătorul operei brâncușiene" (" 'I Took the Best Out of Life's Occurrences', Says Researcher of Brâncuși's Work")</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180526190816/http://www.curierulnational.ro/Specializat/2004-03-13/%E2%80%9CAm+luat+din+intamplarile+vietii+tot+ce+este+mai+frumos%E2%80%9D,+spune+cercetatorul+operei+brancusiene">Archived</a> 2018-05-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, interview with <a href="/wiki/Barbu_Brezianu" title="Barbu Brezianu">Barbu Brezianu</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Curierul_Na%C8%9Bional" title="Curierul Național">Curierul Național</a>, March 13, 2004; retrieved February 22, 2008 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Maria Vlădescu, "100 de ani de cercetaşi" ("100 Years of Scouting"), in <a href="/wiki/Evenimentul_Zilei" title="Evenimentul Zilei">Evenimentul Zilei</a>, August 2, 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Constantin Roman, Continental Drift: Colliding Continents, Converging Cultures, <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Physics Publishing">Institute of Physics Publishing</a>, Bristol and Philadelphia, 2000, p. 60 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7503-0686-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7503-0686-6">0-7503-0686-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Călinescu, pp. 954, 955; Nastasă, p. 76 </li> <li id="cite_note-Nastasă,_p.237-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nastasă,_p.237_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nastasă,_p.237_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nastasă,_p.237_18-2">c</a> Nastasă, p. 237 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> McGuire, p. 150; Nastasă, p. 237 </li> <li id="cite_note-kamani-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kamani_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kamani_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kamani_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kamani_20-3">d</a> Ginu Kamani, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/143651.html">"A Terrible Hurt: The Untold Story behind the Publishing of Maitreyi Devi"</a>, at the University of Chicago Press website; retrieved July 16, 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Biografie, in Handoca; Nastasă, p. 237 </li> <li id="cite_note-ribas-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ribas_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ribas_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ribas_22-2">c</a> Albert Ribas, "Mircea Eliade, historiador de las religiones" ("Mircea Eliade, Historian of Religions"), in El Ciervo. 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(2019). Intellectuals and Fascism in Interwar Romania: The Criterion Association. 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De la Bîrca la Chicago şi înapoi" ("The Tamer of Socialist Romania. From Bîrca to Chicago and Back"), part of Paul Cernat, Ion Manolescu, Angelo Mitchievici, Ioan Stanomir, Explorări în comunismul românesc ("Forays into Romanian Communism"), <a href="/wiki/Polirom" title="Polirom">Polirom</a>, Iaşi, 2004, p. 346 </li> <li id="cite_note-teodoist-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-teodoist_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-teodoist_81-1">b</a> Cristian Teodorescu, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cotidianul.ro/index.php?id=11526&art=30480&cHash=19a3e7c987">"Eliade şi Culianu prin ocheanul lui Oişteanu" ("Eliade and Culianu through Oişteanu's Lens")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Cotidianul" title="Cotidianul">Cotidianul</a>, June 14, 2007; retrieved November 7, 2007 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.ELIADEM">"Guide to the Mircea Eliade Papers 1926–1998"</a>. www.lib.uchicago.edu. Retrieved November 8, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lib.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=Guide+to+the+Mircea+Eliade+Papers+1926%E2%80%931998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lib.uchicago.edu%2Fe%2Fscrc%2Ffindingaids%2Fview.php%3Feadid%3DICU.SPCL.ELIADEM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Davíd Carrasco, "Codex Charles Long / The Scholar Who Traveled to Many Places to Understand Others," in With This Root About My Person: Charles H. Long and New Directions in the Study of Religion, ed. Jennifer Reid and Davíd Carrasco (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2020), 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adevarul.ro/news/eveniment/mae-repatrierea-cioran-eliade-brancusi-romania-diminua-semnificativ-afluxul-turisti-1_50ad0f8d7c42d5a6638e1191/index.html">"MAE: Repatrierea lui Cioran, Eliade și Brâncuși în România ar diminua semnificativ afluxul de turiști" ("Foreign Affairs Ministry: Repatriation to Romania of Cioran, Eliade and Brâncuși Would Significantly Diminish Tourist Arrivals")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Adev%C4%83rul" title="Adevărul">Adevărul</a>, April 11, 2011; retrieved May 21, 2014 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalian2010" class="citation book cs1">Calian, George Florin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe/FlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy#page/n0/mode/2up">Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy</a>. Budapest: Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. p. 169. <q>Eliade offers a theoretical background for understanding alchemy from the perspective of the history of religion. Alchemy is a spiritual technique and can be understood not as an important moment in the history of science but rather as a kind of religious phenomenon with its own particular rules.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alkimia+Operativa+and+Alkimia+Speculativa.+Some+Modern+Controversies+on+the+Historiography+of+Alchemy&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Annual+of+Medieval+Studies+at+CEU&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Calian&rft.aufirst=George+Florin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnThe%2FFlorinGeorgeCalian-AlkimiaOperativaAndAlkimiaSpeculativa.SomeModernControversiesOnTheHistoriographyOfAlchemy%23page%2Fn0%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Doniger's foreword to Eliade's Shamanism (Princeton University Press edition, 1972, p. xii) </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Dumézil, "Introducere", in Eliade, Tratat de istorie a religiilor: Introducere ("Religious History Treatise" – Patterns in Comparative Religion), <a href="/wiki/Humanitas_publishing_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitas publishing house">Humanitas</a>, Bucharest, 1992 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.99-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.99_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.99_88-1">b</a> Ellwood, p. 99 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.104-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.104_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.104_89-1">b</a> Ellwood, p. 104 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.450-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.450_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.450_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.450_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.450_90-3">d</a> Eliade, Myths, Rites, Symbols, p. 450 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, pp. 20–22; Shamanism, p. xiii </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.22-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.22_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.22_92-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.22_92-2">c</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 22 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.21-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.21_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.21_93-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.21_93-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.21_93-3">d</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.23-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.23_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.23_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.23_95-2">c</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 34 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.44-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.44_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.44_99-1">b</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 44 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, pp. 68–69 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Leeming, "Archetypes" </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, pp. 47–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, Chapter 4; Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, pp. 231–245 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoina1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Doina, Ruști (1997). Dicționar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade (in Romanian). Bucuresti: Corint. p. 90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dic%C8%9Bionar+de+simboluri+din+opera+lui+Mircea+Eliade&rft.place=Bucuresti&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Corint&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Doina&rft.aufirst=Ru%C8%99ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> In Patterns in Comparative Religion (p. 419), Eliade gives a section about the coincidentia oppositorum the title "Coincidentia Oppositorum—THE MYTHICAL PATTERN". Beane and Doty chose to retain this title when excerpting this section in Myths, Rites, Symbols (p. 449). </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Rites, Symbols, p. 449 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.439-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.439_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.439_107-1">b</a> Eliade, Myths, Rites, Symbols, p. 439 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_Myths_p.440-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.440_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.440_108-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Myths_p.440_108-2">c</a> Eliade, Myths, Rites, Symbols, p. 440 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 169 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, pp. 64–65, 169 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 124 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_v.1_p.302-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_v.1_p.302_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_v.1_p.302_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_v.1_p.302_112-2">c</a> Eliade, A History of Religious Ideas, vol. 1, p. 302 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Eliade, A History of Religious Ideas, vol. 1, p. 356 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 109 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Rites, Symbols, Volume 2, pp. 312–314 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Eliade, Shamanism, pp. 259–260 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, pp. 32–36 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, pp. 40, 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, p. 44 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, p. 39 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, pp. 39–40; Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 30 </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", pp. 157, 161 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 93; Patterns in Comparative Religion, pp. 38–40, 54–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", p. 161 </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, pp. 38, 54; Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 176 </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, p. 38 </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", p. 162; see also Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, pp. 54–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 176 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, pp. 176–177 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, pp. 54–55 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> See Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, pp. 54–56 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, pp. 134–136; The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 97 </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, pp. 93–94 </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 134 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.66-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.66_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.66_138-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.66_138-2">c</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 66 </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Eliade, Shamanism, pp. 3–4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_Shamanism,_p.4_140-2">c</a> Eliade, Shamanism, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Eliade, Shamanism, pp. 6, 8–9 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> See, for example, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, pp. 82–83 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Eliade, Shamanism, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Eliade, Shamanism, p. 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 84 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 102 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams and Mysteries, p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-Călinescu,_p.954-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p.954_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p.954_149-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p.954_149-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p.954_149-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Călinescu,_p.954_149-4">e</a> Călinescu, p. 954 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Călinescu, p. 955 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.954-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Căl._p.954_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Căl._p.954_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Căl._p.954_151-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Căl._p.954_151-3">d</a> Eliade, in Călinescu, p. 954 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Ionescu, in Călinescu, pp. 953, 954 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Ellwood, pp. 110–111. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Douglas Allen, Myth and Religion in Mircea Eliade, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, London, 2002, pp. 45–46; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adrian_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adrian Marino (page does not exist)">Adrian Marino</a>, L'Herméneutique de Mircea Eliade, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimard" title="Éditions Gallimard">Éditions Gallimard</a>, Paris, 1981, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_p.32-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_p.32_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_p.32_156-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_p.32_156-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_p.32_156-3">d</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.5-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.5_160-0">^</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.34-161">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.34_161-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.34_161-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.34_161-2">c</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 34 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Eliade, in Dadosky, p. 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Dadosky, p. 105 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Dadosky, p. 106 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Segal, in Dadosky, pp. 105–106 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.202-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.202_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.202_166-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.202_166-2">c</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 202 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.203-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.203_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.203_167-1">b</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 203 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 12; see also Eliade, Myth and Reality, pp. 20, 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 204 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 205 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 205; Myth and Reality, p. 191 </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 205; see also Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 192 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", p. 158 </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Eliade, "The Quest for the 'Origins' of Religion", p. 160 </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries 1960, pp. 25–26, in Ellwood, pp. 91–92 </li> <li id="cite_note-Myths2526,_Ell92-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Myths2526,_Ell92_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Myths2526,_Ell92_176-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Myths2526,_Ell92_176-2">c</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries 1960, pp. 25–26, in Ellwood, p. 92 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 192 </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 193 </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 151 </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 152 </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, pp. 240–241 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p._241-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p._241_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p._241_182-1">b</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 241 </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 242 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade,_p.243-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.243_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.243_184-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade,_p.243_184-2">c</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 243 </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, pp. 243–244 </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 244 </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 245 </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Eliade, Myth and Reality, p. 65 </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> Eliade, Myths, Dreams, and Mysteries, p. 153 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_p.170-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_p.170_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_p.170_190-1">b</a> Eliade, Images and Symbols, p. 170 </li> <li id="cite_note-Jesi,_p.66-67-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jesi,_p.66-67_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jesi,_p.66-67_191-1">b</a> Jesi, pp. 66–67 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Jesi, pp. 66–70 </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, p. 162 </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Ellwood, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Ellwood, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Ellwood, p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Ellwood, p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.19-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.19_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.19_198-1">b</a> Ellwood, p. 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> Ellwood, p. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Ellwood, pp. 99, 117 </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Eliade, quoted by <a href="/wiki/Virgil_Ierunca" title="Virgil Ierunca">Virgil Ierunca</a>, The Literary Work of Mircea Eliade, in Ellwood, p. 117 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.101-202">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.101_202-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.101_202-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.101_202-2">c</a> Ellwood, p. 101 </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Ellwood, p. 97 </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Ellwood, p. 102 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Ellwood, p. 103 </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Douglas Allen, "Eliade and History", in Journal of Religion, 52:2 (1988), p. 545 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kirk,_Myth...,_footnote,_p.255-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kirk,_Myth...,_footnote,_p.255_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kirk,_Myth...,_footnote,_p.255_207-1">b</a> Kirk, Myth..., footnote, p. 255 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Kirk, The Nature of Greek Myths, pp. 64–66 </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Kirk, The Nature of Greek Myths, p. 66 </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Wendy Doniger, "Foreword to the 2004 Edition", Eliade, Shamanism, p. xii </li> <li id="cite_note-ricketts-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ricketts_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ricketts_211-1">b</a> Mac Linscott Ricketts, "Review of Religion on Trial: Mircea Eliade and His Critics by Guilford Dudley III", in Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 46, No. 3 (September 1978), pp. 400–402 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Gregory D. Alles, "Review of Changing Religious Worlds: The Meaning and End of Mircea Eliade by Brian Rennie", in Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 71, pp. 466–469 (Alles' italics) </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Alice Kehoe, Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking, Waveland Press, London, 2000, passim. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57766-162-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-57766-162-1">1-57766-162-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-bolle-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bolle_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bolle_214-1">b</a> Kees W. Bolle, The Freedom of Man in Myth, <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_University_Press" title="Vanderbilt University Press">Vanderbilt University Press</a>, Nashville, 1968, p. 14. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8265-1248-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8265-1248-8">0-8265-1248-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-indenmorny-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-indenmorny_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-indenmorny_215-1">b</a> Inden, in Morny Joy, "Irigaray's Eastern Expedition", Chapter 4 of Morny Joy, <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_O%27Grady" title="Kathleen O'Grady">Kathleen O'Grady</a>, Judith L. Poxon, Religion in French Feminist Thought: Critical Perspectives, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, London, 2003, p. 63. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21536-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21536-6">0-415-21536-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Griffin, passim </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Eliade, Fragments d'un Journal 11, 1970–1978, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89ditions_Gallimard" title="Éditions Gallimard">Éditions Gallimard</a>, Paris, 1981, p. 194 </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Griffin, p. 173; Douglas R. Holmes, Integral Europe: Fast-Capitalism, Multiculturalism, Neofascism, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, Princeton, 2000, p. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-boia-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-boia_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-boia_219-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Boia" title="Lucian Boia">Lucian Boia</a>, Istorie şi mit în conştiinţa românească, <a href="/wiki/Humanitas_publishing_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitas publishing house">Humanitas</a>, Bucharest, 1997 (tr. History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness, <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>, Budapest, 2001), p. 152 </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Eliade, "Zalmoxis, The Vanishing God", in <a href="/wiki/Slavic_Review" title="Slavic Review">Slavic Review</a>, Vol. 33, No. 4 (December 1974), pp. 807–809 </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Antohi, preface to Liiceanu, p. xx </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Ellwood, pp. xiii–xiv </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Ellwood, p. 13 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.119-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.119_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.119_224-1">b</a> Ellwood, p. 119 </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Ellwood, p. 118 </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Ellwood, pp. 119–120 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.120-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.120_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.120_227-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.120_227-2">c</a> Ellwood, p. 120 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.111-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.111_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.111_228-1">b</a> Ellwood, p. 111 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Ellwood, p. x </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Călinescu, p. 963 </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Călinescu, p. 843 </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Călinescu, p. 967 </li> <li id="cite_note-Căl._p.959-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.959_233-14">o</a> Călinescu, p. 959 </li> <li id="cite_note-Căl._p.958-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.958_234-11">l</a> Călinescu, p. 958 </li> <li id="cite_note-Căl._p.960-235">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.960_235-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.960_235-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.960_235-2">c</a> Călinescu, p. 960 </li> <li id="cite_note-musatalcatuire-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-musatalcatuire_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-musatalcatuire_236-1">b</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carmen_Mu%C5%9Fat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carmen Muşat (page does not exist)">Carmen Muşat</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.observatorcultural.ro/informatiiarticol.phtml?xid=4693&print=true">"Despre fantastica alcătuire a realului" ("On the Fantastic Shape of Reality")</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110423225057/http://www.observatorcultural.ro/informatiiarticol.phtml?xid=4693&print=true">Archived</a> April 23, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Observator_Cultural" title="Observator Cultural">Observator Cultural</a>, Nr. 131, August–September 2002; retrieved January 17, 2008(in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-Eliade_Căl._p.956-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Căl._p.956_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eliade_Căl._p.956_237-1">b</a> Eliade, in Călinescu, p. 956 </li> <li id="cite_note-Căl._p.957-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.957_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.957_238-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.957_238-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Căl._p.957_238-3">d</a> Călinescu, p. 957 </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Călinescu, pp. 957–958 </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Eliade, in Ellwood, p. 101 </li> <li id="cite_note-admestmeanea-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-admestmeanea_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-admestmeanea_241-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-admestmeanea_241-2">c</a> <a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Adame%C5%9Fteanu" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriela Adameşteanu">Gabriela Adameşteanu</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.observatorcultural.ro/Cum-suporta-individul-socurile-Istoriei.-Dialog-cu-Norman-MANEA*articleID_14662-articles_details.html">"Cum suportă individul şocurile Istoriei. Dialog cu Norman Manea" ("How the Individual Bears the Shocks of History. A Dialog with Norman Manea")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Observator_Cultural" title="Observator Cultural">Observator Cultural</a>, Nr. 304, January 2006; retrieved January 16, 2008 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> Eliade, in Călinescu, pp. 958–959 </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoina1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Doina, Ruști (1997). Dicționar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade (in Romanian). București: Coresi. p. 89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dic%C8%9Bionar+de+simboluri+din+opera+lui+Mircea+Eliade&rft.place=Bucure%C8%99ti&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Coresi&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Doina&rft.aufirst=Ru%C8%99ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-milaffaireii-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-milaffaireii_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-milaffaireii_244-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-milaffaireii_244-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-milaffaireii_244-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-milaffaireii_244-4">e</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Iorgulescu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mircea Iorgulescu (page does not exist)">Mircea Iorgulescu</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revista22.ro/html/index.php?art=99&nr=2002-05-20">"L'Affaire, după Matei" (L'Affaire, according to Matei"), Part II</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927010509/http://www.revista22.ro/html/index.php?art=99&nr=2002-05-20">Archived</a> 2007-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a href="/wiki/22_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="22 (magazine)">22</a>, Nr. 636, May 2002; retrieved January 17, 2008 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-raifigenia-245">^ <a href="#cite_ref-raifigenia_245-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raifigenia_245-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raifigenia_245-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raifigenia_245-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-raifigenia_245-4">e</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Radu_Albala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Radu Albala (page does not exist)">Radu Albala</a>, "Teatrul Naţional din București. Ifigenia de Mircea Eliade" ("National Theater Bucharest. Ifigenia by Mircea Eliade"), in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimec.ro/Teatre/revista/1982/1982_feb.htm">Teatru</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180911094714/http://www.cimec.ro/teatre/revista/1982/1982_feb.htm">Archived</a> September 11, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Vol. XXVII, Nr. 2, February 1982 – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimec.ro/Teatre/revista/1982/Nr.2.anul.XXVII.februarie.1982/imagepages/16755.1982.02.pag040-pag041.html">text facsimile</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202062127/http://www.cimec.ro/Teatre/revista/1982/Nr.2.anul.XXVII.februarie.1982/imagepages/16755.1982.02.pag040-pag041.html">Archived</a> 2008-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> republished by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimec.ro/e_default.htm">Institute for Cultural Memory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100919180706/http://cimec.ro/e_default.htm">Archived</a> 2010-09-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; retrieved January 19, 2008 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Eliade, in Robert Spoo, James Joyce and the Language of History: Dedalus's Nightmare, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, New York, Oxford, 1994, p. 158. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508749-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508749-6">0-19-508749-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://transformativestudies.org/publications/theory-in-action-the-journal-of-tsi/past-issues/volume-5-number-1-january-2012/">"Volume 5, Number 1, January 2012 | Transformative Studies Institute"</a>. January 10, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volume+5%2C+Number+1%2C+January+2012+%26%23124%3B+Transformative+Studies+Institute&rft.date=2012-01-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftransformativestudies.org%2Fpublications%2Ftheory-in-action-the-journal-of-tsi%2Fpast-issues%2Fvolume-5-number-1-january-2012%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> Ornea, pp. 408–409, 412. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> Sebastian, passim </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Sebastian, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Eliade, 1936, in Ornea, pp. 412–413; partially in the Final Report, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Eliade, 1937, in Ornea, p. 413; in the Final Report, p. 49 </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Ornea, p. 206; Ornea is skeptical of these explanations, given the long period of time spent before Eliade gave them, and especially the fact that the article itself, despite the haste in which it must have been written, has remarkably detailed references to many articles written by Eliade in various papers over a period of time. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Ionesco, 1945, in Ornea, p. 184 </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Ornea, pp. 184–185 </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> Ionesco, 1946, in Ornea, p. 211 </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Stelian_T%C4%83nase" title="Stelian Tănase">Stelian Tănase</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revista22.ro/html/index.php?art=575&nr=2003-08-25">"Belu Zilber" (III)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927011339/http://www.revista22.ro/html/index.php?nr=2003-08-25&art=575">Archived</a> 2007-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a href="/wiki/22_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="22 (magazine)">22</a>, Nr.702, August 2003; retrieved October 4, 2007 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-Ornea,_p.210-259">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p.210_259-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p.210_259-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ornea,_p.210_259-2">c</a> Ornea, p. 210 </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Constantin Coroiu, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090115020500/http://www.evenimentul.ro/articol/un-roman-la-paris-0.html">"Un român la Paris"</a>, in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Evenimentul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Evenimentul (page does not exist)">Evenimentul</a>, August 31, 2006; retrieved October 4, 2007 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-Ellwood,_p.83-261">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.83_261-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ellwood,_p.83_261-1">b</a> Ellwood, p. 83 </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> Eliade, Ordeal by Labyrinth, in Ellwood, p. 115 </li> <li id="cite_note-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul...-263">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul..._263-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul..._263-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oişteanu,_Angajamentul..._263-2">c</a> Oişteanu, "Angajamentul..." </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sorin_Antohi" title="Sorin Antohi">Sorin Antohi</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwm.at/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=306&Itemid=478">"Exploring the Legacy of Ioan Petru Culianu"</a>, in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iwm.at/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=109&Itemid=231">Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen Post</a>, Newsletter 72, Spring 2001; 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Festival Details")</a> (in Romanian), at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cimec.ro/e_default.htm">Institute for Cultural Memory</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100919180706/http://cimec.ro/e_default.htm">Archived</a> 2010-09-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; retrieved February 18, 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_288-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Irina_Margareta_Nistor" title="Irina Margareta Nistor">Irina Margareta Nistor</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agenda.liternet.ro/articol/5148/Irina-Margareta-Nistor/Un-cuplu-creator-de-teatru---Gelu-si-Roxana-Colceag.html">"Un cuplu creator de teatru – Gelu şi Roxana Colceag" ("A Theater Producing Couple – Gelu and Roxana Colceag")</a>, September 2001, at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agenda.liternet.ro/">LiterNet publishing house</a>; retrieved January 18, 2008 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_289-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adevarul.ro/index.php?section=articole&screen=index&id=39710&duminica=1">"La ţigănci... cu Popescu" (To the Gypsy Girls... with Popescu")</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080327210015/http://www.adevarul.ro/index.php?section=articole&screen=index&id=39710&duminica=1">Archived</a> 2008-03-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Adev%C4%83rul" title="Adevărul">Adevărul</a>, May 31, 2003; retrieved December 4, 2007 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-290">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_290-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_290-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gandul.info/arte/scrieri-eliade-visniec-cadrul-festivalului-enescu.html?3940;909322">"Scrieri de Eliade şi Vişniec, în cadrul festivalului Enescu" ("Texts by Eliade and Vişniec, as Part of the Enescu Festival")</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070922041749/http://www.gandul.info/arte/scrieri-eliade-visniec-cadrul-festivalului-enescu.html?3940;909322">Archived</a> 2007-09-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A2ndul" title="Gândul">Gândul</a>, September 12, 2007; retrieved December 4, 2007 (in Romanian) </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agenda.liternet.ro/articol/3964/Comunicat-de-presa/Saptamana-Mircea-Eliade-la-Radio-Romania.html">"Săptămâna Mircea Eliade la Radio România" ("The Mircea Eliade Week on Radio Romania")</a> (2007 press communique) (in Romanian), at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agenda.liternet.ro/">LiterNet publishing house</a>; retrieved December 4, 2007 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Secondary_source" title="Secondary source">Secondary sources</a></dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070629095556/http://www.inshr-ew.ro/pdf/Final_Report.pdf">Final Report</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Wiesel_Commission" title="Wiesel Commission">International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polirom" title="Polirom">Polirom</a>, Iași, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-681-989-2" title="Special:BookSources/973-681-989-2">973-681-989-2</a>; retrieved October 8, 2007.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Antohi" title="Sorin Antohi">Sorin Antohi</a>, "Commuting to Castalia: Noica's 'School', Culture and Power in Communist Romania", preface to <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Liiceanu" title="Gabriel Liiceanu">Gabriel Liiceanu</a>, The Păltiniş Diary: A Paideic Model in Humanist Culture, <a href="/wiki/Central_European_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Central European University Press">Central European University Press</a>, Budapest, 2000, pp. vii–xxiv. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9116-89-0" title="Special:BookSources/963-9116-89-0">963-9116-89-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C%C4%83linescu" title="George Călinescu">George Călinescu</a>, Istoria literaturii române de la origini până în prezent ("The History of Romanian Literature from Its Origins to Present Times"), <a href="/wiki/Editura_Minerva" title="Editura Minerva">Editura Minerva</a>, Bucharest, 1986</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Daniel_Dadosky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Daniel Dadosky (page does not exist)">John Daniel Dadosky</a>, The Structure of Religious Knowing: Encountering the Sacred in Eliade and Lonergan, <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>, Albany, 2004.</li> <li>Robert Ellwood, The Politics of Myth: A Study of C. G. Jung, Mircea Eliade, and Joseph Campbell, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1999.</li> <li>Victor Frunză, Istoria stalinismului în România ("The History of Stalinism in Romania"), Humanitas, Bucharest, 1990</li> <li>Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, Routledge, London, 1993.</li> <li>Mircea Handoca, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061106144320/http://autori.humanitas.ro/eliade/despre.php">Convorbiri cu şi despre Mircea Eliade ("Conversations with and about Mircea Eliade")</a> on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061004085003/http://autori.humanitas.ro/">Autori ("Published Authors")</a> page of the Humanitas publishing house (in Romanian)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furio_Jesi" title="Furio Jesi">Furio Jesi</a>, Mito, <a href="/wiki/Mondadori" class="mw-redirect" title="Mondadori">Mondadori</a>, Milan, 1980.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Kirk" title="Geoffrey Kirk">G. S. Kirk</a>, <ul><li>Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, Berkeley, 1973.</li> <li>The Nature of Greek Myths, <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>, Harmondsworth, 1974.</li></ul></li> <li>William McGuire, Bollingen: An Adventure in Collecting the Past, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01885-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01885-5">0-691-01885-5</a>.</li> <li>Lucian Nastasă, "Suveranii" universităţilor româneşti ("The 'Sovereigns' of Romanian Universities"), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_Limes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura Limes (page does not exist)">Editura Limes</a>, Cluj-Napoca, 2007 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-cluj.ro/Istorie/cercet/Nastasa/SuveraniiUniversitatilorI.pdf">available online</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-cluj.ro/">George Bariţ Institute of History</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Oi%C5%9Fteanu" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrei Oişteanu">Andrei Oişteanu</a>, <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20071019121751/http://www.revista22.ro/html/index.php?art=3610&nr=2007-04-06">"Angajamentul politic al lui Mircea Eliade" ("Mircea Eliade's Political Affiliation")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/22_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="22 (magazine)">22</a>, Nr. 891, March–April 2007; retrieved November 15, 2007; retrieved January 17, 2008. (in Romanian)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160411020033/http://dilemaveche.ro/index.php?nr=120&cmd=articol&id=615">"Mircea Eliade şi mişcarea hippie" ("Mircea Eliade and the Hippie Movement")</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Dilema_Veche" class="mw-redirect" title="Dilema Veche">Dilema Veche</a>, Vol. III, May 2006; retrieved November 7, 2007 (in Romanian)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Ornea" class="mw-redirect" title="Z. Ornea">Z. Ornea</a>, Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească ("The 1930s: The Romanian Far Right"), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Editura_EST-Samuel_Tastet_Editeur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Editura EST-Samuel Tastet Editeur (page does not exist)">Editura EST-Samuel Tastet Editeur</a>, Bucharest, 2008</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihail_Sebastian" title="Mihail Sebastian">Mihail Sebastian</a>, Journal, 1935–1944: The Fascist Years, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56663-326-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56663-326-5">1-56663-326-5</a>.</li> <li>David Leeming. "Archetypes". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. UC—Irvine. 30 May 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t208.e126">[1]</a></li> <li>Isabela Vasiliu-Scraba, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44725087/Isabela_Vasiliu_Scraba_Harismele_Duhului_Sf%C3%A2nt_%C8%99i_fotografia_de_14_ani_Mircea_Eliade_,">Harismele Duhului Sfânt si fotografia "de 14 ani" (Mircea Eliade)</a>, în rev. "Acolada", Satu Mare, annul XIV, nr. 12 (157), decembrie 2020, pp. 12–13</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English">English</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: English">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Allen, Douglas. 1978. Structure and Creativity in Religion: Hermeneutics in Mircea Eliade’s Phenomenology and New Directions. NY/The Hague: Mouton.</li> <li>Altizer, Thomas J. J. 1968. Eliade and the Dialectic of the Sacred. Philadelphia, Penn.: The Westminster Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Carrasco" title="David Carrasco">Carrasco, David</a> & Jane Marie Law, eds. 1985. Waiting for the Dawn. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press.</li> <li>Cave, David. 1993. Mircea Eliade's Vision for a New Humanism. NY/London: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Dudley, Guilford. 1977. Religion on Trial: Mircea Eliade & His Critics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</li> <li>Idel, Moshe. 2014. Mircea Eliade: From Magic to Myth. NY: Peter Lang.</li> <li>Idinopulos, Thomas A. & Edward A. Yonan, eds. 1994. Religion and Reductionism: Essays on Eliade, Segal, and the Challenge of the Social Sciences for the Study of Religion, Leiden: Brill Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06788-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-06788-4">90-04-06788-4</a></li> <li>Lincoln, Bruce. 2024. Secrets, Lies, and Consequences: A Great Scholar's Hidden Past and His Protégé's Unsolved Murder. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>McCutcheon, Russell T. 1997. Manufacturing Religion: The Discourse on Sui Generis Religion and the Politics of Nostalgia. New York: Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Olson, Carl. 1992. The Theology and Philosophy of Eliade: A Search for the Centre. New York: St Martins Press.</li> <li>Pals, Daniel L. 1996. Seven Theories of Religion. USA: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508725-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508725-9">0-19-508725-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_Rennie_(historian)" title="Bryan Rennie (historian)">Rennie, Bryan S.</a> 1996. Reconstructing Eliade: Making Sense of Religion. Albany: State University of New York Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRennie2001" class="citation cs2">———, ed. (2001), Changing Religious Worlds: The Meaning and End of Mircea Eliade, Albany: State University of New York Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Changing+Religious+Worlds%3A+The+Meaning+and+End+of+Mircea+Eliade&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRennie2007" class="citation cs2">——— (2007), The International Eliade, Albany: State University of New York Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7087-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7087-9"><bdi>978-0-7914-7087-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Eliade&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7087-9&rft.aulast=Rennie&rft.aufirst=Bryan+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMircea+Eliade" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Ricketts, Mac Linscott. 1988. Mircea Eliade: The Romanian Roots 1907-1945. Boulder, Col.: Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Sedgwick, Mark. 2004. Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Simion" title="Eugen Simion">Simion, Eugen</a>. 2001. Mircea Eliade: A Spirit of Amplitude. Boulder: East European Monographs.</li> <li>Strenski, Ivan. 1987. Four Theories of Myth in Twentieth-Century History: Cassirer, Eliade, Levi Strauss and Malinowski. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.</li> <li>Wasserstrom, Steven M. 1999. Religion after Religion: Gershom Scholem, Mircea Eliade, and Henry Corbin at Eranos. Princeton: Princeton University Press</li> <li>Wedemeyer, Christian & Wendy Doniger, eds. 2010. Hermeneutics, Politics, and the History of Religions: The Contested Legacies of Joachim Wach and Mircea Eliade. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Other languages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Alexandrescu" title="Sorin Alexandrescu">Alexandrescu, Sorin</a>. 2007. Mircea Eliade, dinspre Portugalia. Bucharest: <a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(publishing_house)" title="Humanitas (publishing house)">Humanitas</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-50-1220-0" title="Special:BookSources/973-50-1220-0">973-50-1220-0</a></li> <li>Assaraf, Albert. 2022. L’Erreur de Mircea Eliade: Une autre histoire des religions est possible. Paris: Connaissances et Savoirs.</li> <li>Băicuș, Iulian, 2009, Mircea Eliade: Literator și mitodolog. În căutarea Centrului pierdut. Bucharest: Editura Universității București</li> <li>Barié, Paul. 2002. Mircea Eliade: Das Heilige im Profanen, oder: wie real ist die Realität?. Landshut: Sonnenberg.</li> <li>Bœspflug, François, & Françoise Dunand, eds. 1996. Le comparatisme en histoire des religions. Paris: du Cerf.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matei_C%C4%83linescu" title="Matei Călinescu">Călinescu, Matei</a>. 2002. Despre Ioan P. Culianu și Mircea Eliade: Amintiri, lecturi, reflecții. Iași: <a href="/wiki/Polirom" title="Polirom">Polirom</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-681-064-X" title="Special:BookSources/973-681-064-X">973-681-064-X</a></li> <li>Charpentier, Anne. 1975. Sens et fonction du sacré selon Mircea Eliade. Leuven: Catholic University of Leuven.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ioan_P._Culianu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ioan P. Culianu">Culianu, Ioan Petru</a>. 1978. Mircea Eliade. Assisi: Cittadella Editrice; 2008 Rome: Settimo Sigillo.</li> <li>David, Dorin. 2010. De la Eliade la Culianu (I). Bucharest: Eikon.</li> <li>David, Dorin. 2014. Mircea Eliade: la marginea labirintului: corespondențe între opera științifică și proza fantastică. Bucharest: Eikon.</li> <li>De Martino, Marcello. 2008. Mircea Eliade esoterico. Rome: Settimo Sigillo.</li> <li>Deprez, Stanislas. 1999. Mircea Eliade: La philosophie du sacré. Paris: L’Harmattan.</li> <li>Dubuisson, Daniel. 2005. Impostures et pseudo-science: L'œuvre de Mircea Eliade. Villeneuve-d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion.</li> <li>Dubuisson, Daniel. 2008. Mythologies du XXe siècle: Dumézil, Lévi-Strauss, Eliade. Villeneuve-d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion.</li> <li>Duchène, Henri. 1965. Le thème du temps dans l'œuvre d'Eliade. Leuven: Catholic University of Leuven.</li> <li>Gorshunova, Olga. 2008. ‘Terra Incognita of Ioan Culianu’, in Ètnografičeskoe obozrenie, no. 6, pp. 94–110. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0869-5415">0869-5415</a>.(in Russian).</li> <li>Itu, Mircea. 1999. L'indianisme de Mircea Eliade. Thesis. Paris: École pratique des hautes études; Sorbonne: Section des sciences historiques et philologiques.</li> <li>Keshavjee, Shafique. 1993. Mircea Eliade et la coïncidence des opposés ou l’existence en duel. Bern: Peter Lang.</li> <li>Laignel-Lavastine, Alexandra. 2002. Cioran, Eliade, Ionesco – L'oubli du fascisme. Paris: <a href="/wiki/Presses_Universitaires_de_France" title="Presses Universitaires de France">Presses Universitaires de France</a>.</li> <li>Marino, Adrian. 1981. L’herméneutique de Mircea Eliade. Paris: Gallimard.</li> <li>Müller, Hannelore. 2004. Der frühe Mircea Eliade: Sein rumänischer Hintergrund und die Anfänge seiner universalistischen Religionsphilosophie. Munster: Lit.</li> <li>Mutti, Claudio. 2009. Mircea Eliade und die Eiserne Garde: Rumänische Intellektuelle im Umfeld der Legion Erzengel Michael. Preetz: Regin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Oi%C8%99teanu" title="Andrei Oișteanu">Oișteanu, Andrei</a>. 2007. Religie, politică și mit: Texte despre Mircea Eliade și Ioan Petru Culianu. Iași: Polirom.</li> <li>Posada, Mihai. 2006. Opera publicistică a lui Mircea Eliade. Bucharest: Editura Criterion. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-973-8982-14-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-973-8982-14-7">978-973-8982-14-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doina_Ru%C8%99ti" title="Doina Ruști">Ruști, Doina</a>. 1997. Dicționar de simboluri din opera lui Mircea Eliade. Bucharest: Editura Coresi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/43585381/Dictionar_de_simboluri_din_opera_lui_Mircea_Eliade">E-book</a></li> <li>Tacou, Constantin, ed. 1977. Cahier Eliade. Paris: <a href="/wiki/L%27Herne" title="L'Herne">L'Herne</a>.</li> <li>Tolcea, Marcel. 2002. Eliade, ezotericul. Timișoara: Editura Mirton.</li> <li>Țurcanu, Florin. 2003. Mircea Eliade: Le prisonnier de l'histoire. Paris: La Découverte.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mircea_Eliade&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Mircea_Eliade" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westminster.edu/staff/brennie/eliade/mebio.htm">Biography of Mircea Eliade</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205215353/http://www.westminster.edu/staff/brennie/eliade/mebio.htm">Archived</a> February 5, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Petri Liukkonen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://authorscalendar.info/eliade.htm">"Mircea Eliade"</a>. Books and Writers.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200923/http://www.mircea-eliade.com/from-primitives-to-zen/index.html">Mircea Eliade, From Primitives to Zen</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031019132005/http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/~mjoseph/rennie.html">Bryan S. Rennie on Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080413053729/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1901">Joseph G. Muthuraj, The Significance of Mircea Eliade for Christian Theology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061005031228/http://www.mariromani.ro/personaj.php?id=147">Mircea Eliade presentation on the "100 Greatest Romanians" site</a> (in Romanian)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050424195356/http://www.rahr.ro/">Archaeus magazine</a> (in Romanian)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doinarusti.ro/en/despre.html#_eliade">Eliade and symbols</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/149/pdf/Guggenbuehl_Eliade_DasGupta_Gesamt2.pdf">Claudia Guggenbühl, Mircea Eliade and Surendranath Dasgupta. The History Of Their Encounter</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/n79060746">Mircea Eliade</a> at <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, with 199 library catalogue records</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.ELIADEM">Guide to the Mircea Eliade Papers 1926–1998</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/">University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0253431/">Mircea Eliade</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_of_Dr._Honigberger" title="The Secret of Dr. Honigberger">The Secret of Dr. Honigberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Forbidden_Forest" title="The Forbidden Forest">The Forbidden Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Old_Man_and_the_Bureaucrats" title="The Old Man and the Bureaucrats">The Old Man and the Bureaucrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Thousand_Head_of_Cattle" title="Twelve Thousand Head of Cattle">Twelve Thousand Head of Cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_Without_Youth_(novella)" title="Youth Without Youth (novella)">Youth Without Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism:_Archaic_Techniques_of_Ecstasy" title="Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy">Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Forge_and_the_Crucible" title="The Forge and the Crucible">The Forge and the Crucible</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_return_(Eliade)" title="Eternal return (Eliade)">Eternal return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierophany" title="Hierophany">Hierophany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antaios_(magazine)" title="Antaios (magazine)">Antaios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Religions_(journal)" title="History of Religions (journal)">History of Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr 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title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers of religion</a></div> (by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800 1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920 postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970 1990 2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14764384">Belgium</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00456444?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/d4312fd1-1562-4aef-952e-4a2d6144b09f">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/815197">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118529803.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118529803">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/026849755">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6h45hrt">SNAC</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/eliade-mircea">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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