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href="/wiki/Istimewa:Perubahan_terbaru" title="Daftar perubahan terbaru dalam wiki. [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Perubahan terbaru</span></a></li><li id="n-Artikel-pilihan" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Artikel_pilihan/Topik"><span>Artikel pilihan</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Peristiwa_terkini" title="Temukan informasi tentang peristiwa terkini"><span>Peristiwa terkini</span></a></li><li id="n-newpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Halaman_baru"><span>Halaman baru</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Halaman_sembarang" title="Tampilkan sembarang halaman [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Halaman sembarang</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-Komunitas" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-Komunitas" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Komunitas </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-Warung-Kopi" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Warung_Kopi"><span>Warung Kopi</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Komunitas" title="Tentang proyek, apa yang dapat Anda lakukan, di mana untuk mencari sesuatu"><span>Portal komunitas</span></a></li><li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Isi" title="Tempat mencari bantuan."><span>Bantuan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-Wikipedia" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-Wikipedia" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Wikipedia </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Perihal"><span>Tentang Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-Pancapilar" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pancapilar"><span>Pancapilar</span></a></li><li id="n-Kebijakan" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Kebijakan_dan_pedoman"><span>Kebijakan</span></a></li><li id="n-Hubungi-kami" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Hubungi_kami"><span>Hubungi kami</span></a></li><li id="n-Bak-pasir" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bak_pasir"><span>Bak pasir</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-Bagikan" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-Bagikan emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Bagikan </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Halaman_Utama" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; 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[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Masuk log</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Halaman penyunting yang telah keluar log <a href="/wiki/Bantuan:Pengantar" aria-label="Pelajari lebih lanjut tentang menyunting"><span>pelajari lebih lanjut</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Kontribusi_saya" title="Daftar suntingan yang dibuat dari alamat IP ini [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Kontribusi</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Istimewa:Pembicaraan_saya" title="Pembicaraan tentang suntingan dari alamat IP ini [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Pembicaraan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.3</span> <span>Komensialisme</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Komensialisme-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suksesi_Ekologi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suksesi_Ekologi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Suksesi Ekologi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suksesi_Ekologi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referensi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referensi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Referensi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referensi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Komunitas (ekologi)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Pergi ke artikel dalam bahasa lain. Terdapat 21 bahasa" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 bahasa</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%B9_(%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9)" title="مجتمع (بيئة) – Arab" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مجتمع (بيئة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arab" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunitat_(ecologia)" title="Comunitat (ecologia) – Katalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comunitat (ecologia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Katalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Βιοκοινότητα – Yunani" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιοκοινότητα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Yunani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology) – Inggris" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Community (ecology)" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Inggris" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comunidad_(ecolog%C3%ADa)" title="Comunidad (ecología) – Spanyol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comunidad (ecología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanyol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunitate_(ekologia)" title="Komunitate (ekologia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Komunitate (ekologia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87_(%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="جامعه (بوم‌شناسی) – Persia" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه (بوم‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%94_(%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94)" title="חברה (אקולוגיה) – Ibrani" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חברה (אקולוגיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Ibrani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80)" title="समुदाय (पारिस्थितिकी) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="समुदाय (पारिस्थितिकी)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kominote_(ekoloji)" title="Kominote (ekoloji) – Kreol Haiti" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kominote (ekoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Kreol Haiti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%BE%A4%E9%9B%86" title="生物群集 – Jepang" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="生物群集" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Jepang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%EA%B5%B0%EC%A7%91" title="생물군집 – Korea" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생물군집" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korea" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komuniti_(ekologi)" title="Komuniti (ekologi) – Melayu" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Komuniti (ekologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Melayu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samfunn_(%C3%B8kologi)" title="Samfunn (økologi) – Bokmål Norwegia" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Samfunn (økologi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Bokmål Norwegia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Community (ecology)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skupnost_(ekologija)" title="Skupnost (ekologija) – Sloven" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Skupnost (ekologija)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloven" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismsamh%C3%A4lle" title="Organismsamhälle – Swedia" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Organismsamhälle" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kom%C3%BCnite" title="Komünite – Turki" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Komünite" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BA%A7n_x%C3%A3_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Quần xã sinh học – Vietnam" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quần xã sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="群落 – Tionghoa" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="群落" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Tionghoa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E6%85%8B%E7%BE%A4%E8%90%BD" title="生態群落 – Kanton" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="生態群落" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kanton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5608096#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Sunting pranala interwiki" class="wbc-editpage">Sunting pranala</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Ruang nama"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Komunitas_(ekologi)" title="Lihat halaman isi [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Halaman</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Komunitas_(ekologi)&diff=cur&oldid=17680005" title="Komunitas (ekologi)">beda</a>) | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Komunitas_(ekologi)&direction=next&oldid=17680005" title="Komunitas (ekologi)">Revisi selanjutnya →</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Komunitas_(ekologi)&diff=next&oldid=17680005" title="Komunitas (ekologi)">beda</a>)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="id" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r18844875">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang kumpulan populasi organisme. Untuk kelompok sosial manusia, lihat <a href="/wiki/Komunitas" title="Komunitas">komunitas</a>.</div> <p>Dalam <a href="/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi">ekologi</a>, <b>komunitas</b> adalah sekumpulan <a href="/wiki/Populasi_(biologi)" title="Populasi (biologi)">populasi</a> dari dua <a href="/wiki/Spesies" title="Spesies">spesies</a> berbeda atau lebih yang saling berhubungan dan menempati wilayah geografis yang sama pada waktu yang sama. Komunitas dipelajari dalam ekologi komunitas atau sinekologi, yaitu studi tentang interaksi di antara spesies dalam komunitas pada banyak skala spasial (ruang) dan temporal (waktu), termasuk distribusi, struktur, kelimpahan, demografi, dan interaksi antara populasi yang hidup berdampingan. Fokus utama ekologi komunitas adalah pada interaksi antarpopulasi sebagaimana ditentukan oleh karakteristik genotipe dan fenotipe tertentu. Interaksi ini tidak selamanya menguntungkan, salah satu jenis interaksi yang merugikan adalah <a href="/wiki/Kompetisi" title="Kompetisi">kompetisi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Untuk meminimalisir kerugian yang didapatkan, semua makhluk hidup melakukan berbagai cara adaptasi untuk mempertahankan keberlangsungan hidupnya.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interaksi">Interaksi</h2></div> <p>Kunci yang memungkinkan adanya peningkatan kualitas kehidupan dari semua organisme adalah <a href="/wiki/Interaksi" title="Interaksi">interaksi</a> antar populasi.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interaksi ini dapat disebut juga <a href="/w/index.php?title=Interaksi_interspesifik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Interaksi interspesifik (halaman belum tersedia)">interaksi interspesifik</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interaksi dapat memberikan keuntungan (+) maupun kerugian (-) kepada populasi yang terlibat.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jenis-jenis interaksi yang umum terjadi adalah <a href="/wiki/Kompetisi" title="Kompetisi">kompetisi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Predasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Predasi">predasi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herbivori&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herbivori (halaman belum tersedia)">herbivori</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Simbiosis" title="Simbiosis">simbiosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kompetisi">Kompetisi</h3></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kompetisi_interspesifik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kompetisi interspesifik (halaman belum tersedia)">Kompetisi interspesifik</a> merupakan suatu interaksi yang merugikan kedua populasi yang terlibat.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dhondt_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhondt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interaksi ini terjadi ketika 2 populasi bersaing untuk hidup di habitat dan sumber makanan yang sama.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dhondt_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhondt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contoh organisme yang terlibat adalah <a href="/wiki/Belalang" title="Belalang">belalang</a> dengan <a href="/wiki/Kerbau" title="Kerbau">kerbau</a> yang bersaing memperebutkan rumput sebagai makanan.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Umumnya, organisme yang memiliki sumber nutrisi yang sama tidak dapat hidup bersama-sama.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hal ini disebut sebagai <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eksklusi_kompetisi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eksklusi kompetisi (halaman belum tersedia)">eksklusi kompetisi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eksklusi kompetisi adalah kondisi di mana salah satu organisme akan kalah bersaing dan tidak dapat melanjutkan kehidupannya di tempat tersebut.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dhondt_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhondt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ada 1 cara adaptasi yang dilakukan untuk menghindari kompetisi, yaitu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Partisi_sumber_daya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Partisi sumber daya (halaman belum tersedia)">partisi sumber daya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dhondt_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhondt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caranya adalah dengan mengubah <a href="/wiki/Relung" title="Relung">relung</a> salah satu populasi.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apabila habitat disebut sebagai "alamat", relung adalah "profesi" dari populasi tersebut.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dhondt_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dhondt-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proses pengubahan relung yang dimaksudkan adalah mengubah teritori, misalnya dalam 1 pohon yang sama, terdapat berbagai jenis kadal berbeda yang hidup secara berdampingan.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ada sejenis kadal yang hidup di batang pohon, ada pula kadal yang hidup di dekat akar.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cara ini memungkinkan kedua jenis kadal dapat hidup berdampingan di pohon yang sama namun memiliki teritori yang berbeda.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predasi">Predasi</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg/220px-Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg/330px-Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg/440px-Macroxiphus_sp_cricket.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Larva <i>Macroxiphus sp</i> melakukan mimik terhadap semut untuk menghindari predator</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Predasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Predasi">Predasi</a> mengacu pada hubungan yang menguntungkan terhadap 1 pihak sedangkan pihak lain mengalami kerugian.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meski salah satu jenis mendapatkan kerugian dari interaksi ini, predasi menjadi salah satu alasan terjadinya <a href="/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi">evolusi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">Predator</a> terus beradaptasi dengan cara mengembangkan gigi agar dapat mengoyak daging dengan lebih baik, sedangkan mangsa beradaptasi dengan meningkatkan kemampuan bertahan seperti <a href="/wiki/Kamuflase" title="Kamuflase">kamuflase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beberapa jenis adaptasi yang dilakukan untuk bertahan hidup selain kamuflase adalah <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pewarnaan_aposematik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pewarnaan aposematik (halaman belum tersedia)">pewarnaan aposematik</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peniruan_Batesian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peniruan Batesian (halaman belum tersedia)">peniruan Batesian</a>, dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peniruan_Mullerian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peniruan Mullerian (halaman belum tersedia)">peniruan Mullerian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisme yang menggunakan teknik pewarnaan aposematik biasanya memiliki warna yang cerah.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warna cerah tidak disukai predator karena memiliki korelasi erat dengan organisme beracun.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peniruan Batesian adalah sebutan untuk organisme tidak berbahaya yang meniru tingkah laku organisme berbahaya sehingga predator enggan untuk memangsa.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peniruan Mullerian dilakukan oleh 2 jenis organisme berbahaya yang saling merepresentasikan organisme lain.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbivori">Herbivori</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Grasshopper_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Grasshopper_1.JPG/200px-Grasshopper_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Grasshopper_1.JPG/300px-Grasshopper_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Grasshopper_1.JPG/400px-Grasshopper_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Belalang mendapatkan keuntungan dengan mengonsumsi tumbuhan</figcaption></figure> <p>Populasi yang terlibat dalam interaksi ini umumnya adalah hewan <a href="/wiki/Herbivora" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivora">herbivora</a> dengan <a href="/wiki/Tumbuhan" title="Tumbuhan">tumbuhan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-herbivory_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jenis interaksi yang terjadi adalah +/- di mana hewan herbivora akan menerima keuntungan, sedangkan tumbuhan menjadi pihak yang dirugikan.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-herbivory_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hewan herbivora umumnya merupakan hewan <a href="/wiki/Invertebrata" title="Invertebrata">invertebrata</a>, seperti jangkrik dan kumbang.<sup id="cite_ref-herbivory_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meski beberapa mamalia juga termasuk hewan herbivora, seperti sapi.<sup id="cite_ref-herbivory_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seperti pada predasi, serangga herbivor juga beradaptasi dengan cara menghasilkan semacam sensor di kaki mereka untuk membedakan tanaman <a href="/wiki/Toksik" class="mw-redirect" title="Toksik">toksik</a> dan non-toksik, maupun tanaman yang bernutrisi dan kurang bernutrisi.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-herbivory_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tumbuhan, pihak yang dirugikan, juga melakukan adaptasi untuk menyelamatkan hidup mereka.<sup id="cite_ref-herbivory_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beberapa cara yang dilakukan adalah dengan menghasilkan senyawa toksik seperti <a href="/wiki/Nikotin" title="Nikotin">nikotin</a> pada <a href="/wiki/Tembakau" title="Tembakau">tembakau</a> atau membuat struktur berupa duri seperti pada tumbuhan mawar.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simbiosis">Simbiosis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r18844875"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Artikel utama: <a href="/wiki/Simbiosis" title="Simbiosis">Simbiosis</a></div> <p>Simbiosis dalam ruang lingkup ini mempelajari mengenai hubungan erat antar populasi yang menempati habitat yang sama.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simbiosis dapat dibagi menjadi 3, yaitu <a href="/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme">parasitisme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutualisme" title="Mutualisme">mutualisme</a>, dan <a href="/wiki/Komensalisme" title="Komensalisme">komensalisme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parasitisme">Parasitisme</h4></div> <p>Hubungan +/- di mana salah satu organisme, disebut <a href="/wiki/Parasit" title="Parasit">parasit</a>, mendapatkan keuntungan sedangkan organisme lain, disebut <a href="/wiki/Inang" title="Inang">inang</a>, dirugikan.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parasit yang tinggal di dalam tubuh inang disebut <a href="/w/index.php?title=Endoparasit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Endoparasit (halaman belum tersedia)">endoparasit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contoh endoparasit adalah cacing pita.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jenis lain dari parasit adalah <a href="/wiki/Ektoparasit" title="Ektoparasit">ektoparasit</a> yang hidup di permukaan tubuh inang.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mutualisme">Mutualisme</h4></div> <p>Hubungan +/+ yang menguntungkan kedua populasi yang terlibat.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interaksi antara semut <i><a href="/wiki/Myrmelachista_schumanni" title="Myrmelachista schumanni">Myrmelachista schumanni</a></i> dengan pohon <a href="/wiki/Akasia" title="Akasia">akasia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dalam interaksi ini, semut akan mengeluarkan toksin berupa <a href="/wiki/Asam_format" title="Asam format">asam format</a> yang menghambat pertumbuhan pohon lain selain pohon akasia.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sebaliknya, pohon akasia menjadi tempat tinggal bagi semut untuk melangsungkan kehidupannya.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Komensialisme">Komensialisme</h4></div> <p>Jenis interaksi +/0 yang dilakukan oleh <a href="/wiki/Penyu" title="Penyu">penyu</a> dan <a href="/wiki/Alga" title="Alga">alga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-simbiosis_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alga menerima keuntungan karena mendapatkan tempat tinggal di cangkang penyu, sedangkan penyu tidak mendapatkan keuntungan maupun kerugian dari kehadiran alga tersebut.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suksesi_Ekologi">Suksesi Ekologi</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Secondary_Succession.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Secondary_Succession.png/350px-Secondary_Succession.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Secondary_Succession.png/525px-Secondary_Succession.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Secondary_Succession.png/700px-Secondary_Succession.png 2x" data-file-width="1459" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Tahapan pada suksesi sekunder: <br /> 1. Hutan<br /> 2. Terjadinya kebakaran hutan<br /> 3. Api membakar seluruh pohon hingga ke tanah<br /> 4. Komunitas menghilang,namun tanah tidak hancur<br /> 5. Rerumputan menjadi tanaman pionir yang tumbuh di tanah pasca kebakaran<br /> 6. Semak dan pepohonan mulai muncul<br /> 7. Pepohonan mulai tumbuh<br /> 8. Spesies pohon asal kembali muncul dan menguasai lahan.</figcaption></figure> <p>Salah satu efek meletusnya gunung api adalah musnahnya kehidupan di sekitar daerah tersebut.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Namun, daerah tersebut dapat segera pulih karena adanya suksesi ekologi dengan hadirnya varietas spesies baru.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terdapat 2 jenis suksesi, yaitu <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suksesi_primer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suksesi primer (halaman belum tersedia)">suksesi primer</a> dan <a href="/w/index.php?title=Suksesi_sekunder.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Suksesi sekunder. (halaman belum tersedia)">suksesi sekunder.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suksesi primer terjadi ketika tanah pada area pasca bencana belum terbentuk.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suksesi sekunder terjadi pada daerah pasca bencana yang masih memiliki tanah yang kompak.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tahapan suksesi ekologi dapat dibedakan menjadi 4, yaitu tahapan pionir, tahap <i>Dryas</i>, tahap <i>Alder</i>, dan tahap <i>Spruce</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pada setiap tahapan akan muncul spesies baru yang menggantikan spesies terdahulunya.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meski demikian, proses suksesi ekologi membutuhkan waktu yang lama, berkisar hingga 300 tahun.<sup id="cite_ref-Campbell_1-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Referensi">Referensi</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r18833634">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Campbell-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-46"><sup><i><b>au</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_1-47"><sup><i><b>av</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#777; cursor:help;" title="Bahasa Inggris" lang="Inggris">(Inggris)</span> Reece JB, Urry LA, Cain ML, Wasserman SA, Minorsky PV, Jackson RB. 2011. BIOLOGY: Ninth Edition. San Francisco: Pearson Education.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dhondt-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dhondt_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhondt_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhondt_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhondt_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dhondt_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#777; cursor:help;" title="Bahasa Inggris" lang="Inggris">(Inggris)</span>Dhondt AA. 2012. Interspecific Competition in Birds. New York: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-herbivory-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-herbivory_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-herbivory_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-herbivory_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-herbivory_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-herbivory_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-herbivory_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#777; cursor:help;" title="Bahasa Inggris" lang="Inggris">(Inggris)</span>Schaller A. 2008. Induced Plant Resistance to Herbivory. California: Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-simbiosis-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-simbiosis_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#777; cursor:help;" title="Bahasa Inggris" lang="Inggris">(Inggris)</span>Silverstein A, Silverstein VB, Nunn LS. 2008. Symbiosis. Minnesota:Twenty-first Century Books</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r23782733">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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biologi">Sejarah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Garis_waktu_biologi_dan_kimia_organik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Garis waktu biologi dan kimia organik (halaman belum tersedia)">Garis waktu</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indeks_artikel_biologi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indeks artikel biologi (halaman belum tersedia)">Indeks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">Subdisiplin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatomi" title="Anatomi">Anatomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antropologi_biologis" title="Antropologi biologis">Antropologi biologis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiologi" title="Astrobiologi">Astrobiologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofisika" title="Biofisika">Biofisika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeografi" title="Biogeografi">Biogeografi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinformatika" title="Bioinformatika">Bioinformatika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biokimia" title="Biokimia">Biokimia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_evolusioner" title="Biologi evolusioner">Biologi evolusioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_kelautan" title="Biologi kelautan">Biologi kelautan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biologi_kimiawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biologi kimiawi (halaman belum tersedia)">Biologi kimiawi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biologi_kognitif&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biologi kognitif (halaman belum tersedia)">Biologi kognitif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_komputasi" title="Biologi komputasi">Biologi komputasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_konservasi" title="Biologi konservasi">Biologi konservasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_kuantum" title="Biologi kuantum">Biologi kuantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_manusia" title="Biologi manusia">Biologi manusia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biologi_matematikal_dan_teoretikal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biologi matematikal dan teoretikal (halaman belum tersedia)">Biologi matematikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_molekuler" title="Biologi molekuler">Biologi molekuler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_perkembangan" title="Biologi perkembangan">Biologi perkembangan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_perkembangan_evolusioner" title="Biologi perkembangan evolusioner">Biologi perkembangan evolusioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_sel" title="Biologi sel">Biologi sel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_sintetis" title="Biologi sintetis">Biologi sintetis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_sistem" title="Biologi sistem">Biologi sistem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_struktur" title="Biologi struktur">Biologi struktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomekanika" title="Biomekanika">Biomekanika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistika" title="Biostatistika">Biostatistika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botani" title="Botani">Botani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi">Ekologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiologi" title="Epidemiologi">Epidemiologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetika" title="Epigenetika">Epigenetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmakologi" title="Farmakologi">Farmakologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisiologi" title="Fisiologi">Fisiologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">Genetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genomika" title="Genomika">Genomika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histologi" title="Histologi">Histologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imunologi" title="Imunologi">Imunologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimia_organik" title="Kimia organik">Kimia organik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronobiologi" title="Kronobiologi">Kronobiologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipidologi" title="Lipidologi">Lipidologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikologi" title="Mikologi">Mikologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikrobiologi" title="Mikrobiologi">Mikrobiologi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mikrobiologi_seluler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mikrobiologi seluler (halaman belum tersedia)">Mikrobiologi seluler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanobioteknologi" title="Nanobioteknologi">Nanobioteknologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilmu_saraf" title="Ilmu saraf">Neurosains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrisi" title="Nutrisi">Nutrisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontologi" title="Paleontologi">Paleontologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitologi" title="Parasitologi">Parasitologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patologi" title="Patologi">Patologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psikologi" title="Psikologi">Psikologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosiobiologi" title="Sosiobiologi">Sosiobiologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistematika" title="Sistematika">Sistematika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toksikologi" title="Toksikologi">Toksikologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virologi" title="Virologi">Virologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoologi" title="Zoologi">Zoologi</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/140px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/210px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/280px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organisasi_biologis" title="Organisasi biologis">Hierarki kehidupan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biosfer" title="Biosfer">Biosfer</a> >  <a href="/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem">Ekosistem</a> > <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Komunitas</a> > <a href="/wiki/Populasi_(biologi)" title="Populasi (biologi)">Populasi</a> >  <a href="/wiki/Organisme" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisme">Organisme</a> > <a href="/wiki/Sistem_organ" title="Sistem organ">Sistem organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomi)" title="Organ (anatomi)">Organ</a> > <a href="/wiki/Jaringan" title="Jaringan">Jaringan</a> > <a href="/wiki/Sel_(biologi)" title="Sel (biologi)">Sel</a> > <a href="/wiki/Organel" title="Organel">Organel</a> > <a href="/wiki/Molekul" title="Molekul">Molekul</a> (<a href="/wiki/Makromolekul" title="Makromolekul">Makromolekul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biomolekul" title="Biomolekul">Biomolekul</a>) > <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">Fondasi</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi">Ekologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi">Evolusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">Genetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taksonomi_(biologi)" title="Taksonomi (biologi)">Taksonomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teori_sel" title="Teori sel">Teori sel</a></li> <li>Transformasi <a href="/wiki/Energi" title="Energi">energi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#90EE90;width:1%">Prinsip</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolusi" title="Evolusi">Evolusi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptasi" title="Adaptasi">Adaptasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_gen" title="Aliran gen">Aliran gen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bentuk_kehidupan_paling_awal_yang_diketahui" title="Bentuk kehidupan paling awal yang diketahui">Bentuk kehidupan paling awal yang diketahui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungsi_(biologi)" title="Fungsi (biologi)">Fungsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanyutan_genetik" title="Hanyutan genetik">Hanyutan genetik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makroevolusi" title="Makroevolusi">Makroevolusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikroevolusi" title="Mikroevolusi">Mikroevolusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasi" title="Mutasi">Mutasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleksi_alam" title="Seleksi alam">Seleksi alam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spesiasi" title="Spesiasi">Spesiasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ekologi" title="Ekologi">Ekologi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekologi_populasi" title="Ekologi populasi">Dinamika populasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem">Ekosistem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interaksi_biologis" title="Interaksi biologis">Interaksi biologis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keanekaragaman_hayati" title="Keanekaragaman hayati">Keanekaragaman hayati</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Komunitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relung_(ekologi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relung (ekologi)">Relung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumber_daya_(biologi)" title="Sumber daya (biologi)">Sumber daya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biologi_molekuler" title="Biologi molekuler">Biologi<br />molekuler</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biologi_perkembangan" title="Biologi perkembangan">Biologi perkembangan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigenetika" title="Epigenetika">Epigenetika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modifikasi_pascatranskripsi" title="Modifikasi pascatranskripsi">Modifikasi pascatranskripsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persinyalan_sel" title="Persinyalan sel">Persinyalan sel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulasi_gen" title="Regulasi gen">Regulasi gen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biokimia" title="Biokimia">Biokimia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asam_nukleat" title="Asam nukleat">Asam nukleat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzim" title="Enzim">Enzim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fotosintesis" title="Fotosintesis">Fotosintesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karbohidrat" title="Karbohidrat">Karbohidrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid">Lipid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolisme" title="Metabolisme">Metabolisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#90EE90"><div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Berkas:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="Portal" 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(ekologi)">Biomassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relung_(ekologi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relung (ekologi)">Relung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daur_nutrien" title="Daur nutrien">Daur nutrien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daur_biogeokimia" title="Daur biogeokimia">Daur biogeokimia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hierarki</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Makhluk_hidup" title="Makhluk hidup">Organisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populasi_(biologi)" title="Populasi (biologi)">Populasi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekologi_populasi" title="Ekologi populasi">Ekologi populasi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Komunitas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekologi_komunitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekologi komunitas">Ekologi komunitas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekosistem" title="Ekosistem">Ekosistem</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ekologi_ekosistem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ekologi ekosistem (halaman belum tersedia)">Ekologi ekosistem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioma" title="Bioma">Bioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosfer" title="Biosfer">Biosfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interaksi_biologis" title="Interaksi biologis">Interaksi biologis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jangka pendek</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemangsaan" title="Pemangsaan">Pemangsaan</a> <ul><li><a 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jaring-jaring_makanan" title="Jaring-jaring makanan">Jaring-jaring makanan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Konsep</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rantai_makanan" title="Rantai makanan">Rantai makanan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tingkatan_trofik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tingkatan trofik (halaman belum tersedia)">Tingkatan trofik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piramida_ekologi" title="Piramida ekologi">Piramida ekologi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_energi" title="Aliran energi">Aliran energi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peranan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotrof" title="Autotrof">Autotrof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrof" title="Heterotrof">Heterotrof</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pemangsa" title="Pemangsa">Pemangsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemangsa_puncak" class="mw-redirect" title="Pemangsa puncak">Pemangsa puncak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivor" title="Herbivor">Herbivor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnivor" title="Karnivor">Karnivor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivor" title="Omnivor">Omnivor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pengurai" class="mw-redirect" title="Pengurai">Pengurai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detritivor" title="Detritivor">Detritivor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peran sebagai spesies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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