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aria-controls="toc-Prelude-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prelude subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prelude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yellow_Turban_Rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Yellow Turban Rebellion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yellow_Turban_Rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dong_Zhuo_in_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dong_Zhuo_in_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Dong Zhuo in power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dong_Zhuo_in_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse_of_central_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse_of_central_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Collapse of central power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse_of_central_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Xu_and_Yan_provinces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xu_and_Yan_provinces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Xu and Yan provinces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xu_and_Yan_provinces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Huai_River" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Huai_River"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Huai River</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Huai_River-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emperor_Xian's_fate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emperor_Xian's_fate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Emperor Xian's fate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emperor_Xian's_fate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_China_Plain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_China_Plain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>North China Plain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_China_Plain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_of_the_Yangtze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_of_the_Yangtze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>South of the Yangtze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_of_the_Yangtze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jing_Province" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jing_Province"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Jing Province</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jing_Province-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Red_Cliffs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.7</span> <span>Battle of Red Cliffs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Red_Cliffs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years_of_the_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years_of_the_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Final years of the dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years_of_the_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_the_Three_Kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Emergence of the Three Kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_the_Three_Kingdoms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emergence of the Three Kingdoms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_the_Three_Kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Shu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Wu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Wei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Decline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Decline subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fall_of_Shu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_Shu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Fall of Shu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_Shu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_Wei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_Wei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Fall of Wei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_Wei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_of_Wu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_of_Wu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Fall of Wu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_of_Wu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Population</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_legitimacy_issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_legitimacy_issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>The legitimacy issue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_legitimacy_issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_in_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_in_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Legacy in popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_in_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Three Kingdoms</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 74 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-74" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">74 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drie_Koninkryke" title="Drie Koninkryke – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Drie Koninkryke" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AB" title="حقبة الممالك الثلاث – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حقبة الممالك الثلاث" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_Reinos" title="Tres Reinos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tres Reinos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C3%A7arl%C4%B1q_(d%C3%B6vr)" title="Üç çarlıq (dövr) – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Üç çarlıq (dövr)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam-kok" title="Sam-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sam-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D1%81_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Өс батшалыҡ дәүере – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Өс батшалыҡ дәүере" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Трохцарства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Трохцарства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Трите царства – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Трите царства" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_Regnes" title="Tres Regnes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tres Regnes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obdob%C3%AD_t%C5%99%C3%AD_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1%C3%AD" title="Období tří říší – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Období tří říší" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre_Konged%C3%B8mmer" title="Tre Kongedømmer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tre Kongedømmer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeit_der_Drei_Reiche" title="Zeit der Drei Reiche – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zeit der Drei Reiche" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolme_riigi_ajastu" title="Kolme riigi ajastu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kolme riigi ajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Τρία Βασίλεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τρία Βασίλεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_Reinos" title="Tres Reinos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tres Reinos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_Re%C4%9Dlandoj" title="Tri Reĝlandoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tri Reĝlandoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiru_Erresumak" title="Hiru Erresumak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hiru Erresumak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%87_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C" title="سه پادشاهی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سه پادشاهی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trois_Royaumes_de_Chine" title="Trois Royaumes de Chine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trois Royaumes de Chine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres_Reinos" title="Tres Reinos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tres Reinos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B" title="三國 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="三國" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2m-koet" title="Sâm-koet – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sâm-koet" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%BC%EA%B5%AD_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80_(%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD)" title="삼국 시대 (중국) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="삼국 시대 (중국)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81" title="तीन राजशाहियाँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तीन राजशाहियाँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_kraljevstva" title="Tri kraljevstva – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tri kraljevstva" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Tiga_Negara" title="Zaman Tiga Negara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zaman Tiga Negara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konungsr%C3%ADkin_%C3%BErj%C3%BA" title="Konungsríkin þrjú – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Konungsríkin þrjú" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre_Regni" title="Tre Regni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tre Regni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A9_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שלוש הממלכות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שלוש הממלכות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="სამი სამეფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სამი სამეფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Саньго – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Саньго" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AA_%C3%8Emperator%C3%AE" title="Sê Împeratorî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sê Împeratorî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tria_regna_Sinarum" title="Tria regna Sinarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Tria regna Sinarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C4%ABs_valstu_posms" title="Trīs valstu posms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Trīs valstu posms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trys_valstyb%C4%97s_(Kinija)" title="Trys valstybės (Kinija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Trys valstybės (Kinija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A1rom_kir%C3%A1lys%C3%A1g_kora_(k%C3%ADnai)" title="Három királyság kora (kínai) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Három királyság kora (kínai)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiga_Kerajaan" title="Tiga Kerajaan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tiga Kerajaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%83ng-gu%C3%B3k" title="Săng-guók – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Săng-guók" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D2%AF%D0%B5" title="Гурван улсын үе – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гурван улсын үе" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="သုံးပြည်ထောင်ခေတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သုံးပြည်ထောင်ခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drie_Koninkrijken_(China)" title="Drie Koninkrijken (China) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Drie Koninkrijken (China)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3_(%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD)" title="三国時代 (中国) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="三国時代 (中国)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_tre_rikers_tid" title="De tre rikers tid – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="De tre rikers tid" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dei_tre_konged%C3%B8ma_i_Kina" title="Dei tre kongedøma i Kina – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dei tre kongedøma i Kina" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peri%C3%B2de_dei_Tres_Reiaumes" title="Periòde dei Tres Reiaumes – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Periòde dei Tres Reiaumes" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%82" title="ਤਿੰਨ ਰਾਜਸ਼ਾਹੀਆਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਿੰਨ ਰਾਜਸ਼ਾਹੀਆਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="تن راجشاہیاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تن راجشاہیاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%80" title="សម័យសាមកុក – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សម័យសាមកុក" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_Trzech_Kr%C3%B3lestw" title="Epoka Trzech Królestw – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epoka Trzech Królestw" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%AAs_Reinos" title="Três Reinos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Três Reinos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perioada_celor_Trei_Regate" title="Perioada celor Trei Regate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Perioada celor Trei Regate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0_%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Эпоха Троецарствия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпоха Троецарствия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tre_mbret%C3%ABri" title="Tre mbretëri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Tre mbretëri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92" title="තුන් රාජධානි – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තුන් රාජධානි" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Three Kingdoms" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_kraljestva" title="Tri kraljestva – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tri kraljestva" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8E_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%95" title="سێ شانشینەکە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سێ شانشینەکە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Три краљевства – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Три краљевства" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_kraljevstva" title="Tri kraljevstva – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tri kraljevstva" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolme_kuningaskuntaa" title="Kolme kuningaskuntaa – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kolme kuningaskuntaa" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_tre_kungad%C3%B6mena" title="De tre kungadömena – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="De tre kungadömena" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatlong_Kaharian" title="Tatlong Kaharian – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tatlong Kaharian" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BE)" title="மூன்று இராச்சியங்கள் (சீனா) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மூன்று இராச்சியங்கள் (சீனா)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%8A%E0%B8%81" title="ยุคสามก๊ก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยุคสามก๊ก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9C%C3%A7_%C4%B0mparatorluk" title="Üç İmparatorluk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Üç İmparatorluk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D2%91%D0%BE" title="Період Саньґо – 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of Chinese history from 220 to 280 AD</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the time period in China. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Three Kingdoms (disambiguation)">Three Kingdoms (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Three Kingdoms period<br /><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">三國時代</span></span></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">220–280 AD</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif/320px-Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif" decoding="async" width="320" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif/480px-Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif/640px-Three_Kingdoms_timelapse.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1138" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Evolution of territory controlled by Chinese states between 190 and 280 AD</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key events</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="End of the Han dynasty">End of the Han dynasty</a> <span class="nowrap">(189–220)</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" title="Battle of Red Cliffs">Battle of Red Cliffs</a> <span class="nowrap">(208)</span></li><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiaoting" title="Battle of Xiaoting">Battle of Xiaoting</a> <span class="nowrap">(221–222)</span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Three Kingdoms</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B" class="extiw" title="wikt:三國">三國</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD" class="extiw" title="wikt:三国">三国</a></span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Sānguó</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Sānguó</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span lang="zh-Bopo">ㄙㄢ<span style="padding-left:0.5ic;"> </span>ㄍㄨㄛˊ</span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span>San<sup>1</sup>-kuo<sup>2</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Sāngwó</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[sán.kwǒ]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghainese" title="Shanghainese">Shanghainese</a><br />Romanization</th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Wu Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="wuu-Latn"><span>Sae<sup>1</sup>-koq<sup>7</sup></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Sāamgwok</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Saam1 gwok3</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[sam˥ kʷɔk̚˧]</a></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Vietnamese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><i lang="vi">Tam Quốc</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A1n-N%C3%B4m" class="mw-redirect" title="Hán-Nôm">Hán-Nôm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Vietnamese-language text"><span lang="vi-Hani">三國</span></span></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Korean name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko" style="font-size: 1rem;">삼국</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko" style="font-size: 1rem;">三國</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Korean-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ko-Latn">Samguk</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjitai" title="Kyūjitai">Kyūjitai</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">三國</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shinjitai" title="Shinjitai">Shinjitai</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">三国</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Japanese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="ja-Latn">Sangoku</span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="background:#FFEECC;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_China" title="Category:History of China">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">History of China</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage mw-no-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China"><img alt="History of China in Chinese characters and seal script" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/200px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/300px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg/400px-%22History_of_China%22_for_template_heading.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="121" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history" title="Timeline of Chinese history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasties_of_China" title="Dynasties of China">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_historiography" title="Chinese historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_China" title="Prehistory of China">Prehistoric</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #f0faff; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China" title="List of Paleolithic sites in China">Paleolithic</a></b></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China" title="List of Neolithic cultures of China">Neolithic</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 8500</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_civilization" title="Yellow River civilization">Yellow</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_civilization" title="Yangtze civilization">Yangtze</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Liao_civilization" title="Liao civilization">Liao civilization</a></b></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #eeffe8; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2070</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1600</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1250</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> BCE)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1046</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 256 BCE</span>)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Zhou" title="Western Zhou">Western Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1046–771 BCE)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(771–256 BCE)</span> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn</a> <span class="nowrap">(<span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 770</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 476 BCE</span>)</span></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a> <span class="nowrap">(475–221 BCE)</span></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(221–207 BCE)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206 BCE – 220 CE)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Chu%E2%80%93Han_Contention" title="Chu–Han Contention">Chu–Han Contention</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(206–202 BCE)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Western_Han" title="Han dynasty">Western Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(202 BCE – 9 CE)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Xin_dynasty" title="Xin dynasty">Xin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(9–23 CE)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(25–220 CE)</span></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Three Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(220–280 CE)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Wei</a></b>, <b><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a></b>, and <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Wu</a></b></dd></dl> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–420)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Western_Jin_(266–316)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(266–316)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)#Eastern_Jin_(317–420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Eastern Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(317–420)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(304–439)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and<br />Southern dynasties</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(420–589)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(581–618)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(618–907)</span> <ul><li><dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Wu_Zhou" title="Wu Zhou">Wu Zhou</a> <span class="nowrap">(690–705)</span></dd></dl></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties and<br />Ten Kingdoms</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(907–979)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1279)</span></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Northern_Song,_960–1127" title="Song dynasty">Northern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(960–1127)</span></dd> <dd><b><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty#Southern_Song,_1127–1279" title="Song dynasty">Southern Song</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1127–1279)</span></dd></dl> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(916–1125)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Xia" title="Western Xia">Western Xia</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1038–1227)</span></li> <li><br /></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1115–1234)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: #fffde9; text-align: left"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1271–1368)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1368–1644)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1644–1912)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Modern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern China">Modern</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background: #fff0f6; text-align: left"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(mainland, 1912–1949)</span></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" aria-label="Navbox"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;background: #fff0f6; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd plainlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="width:5em;">   </td><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic<br />of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:50%;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a></b> <span class="nowrap">(Taiwan,<br />1949–present)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFE4B5;border-top: 1px solid #666;border-bottom: 1px solid #666;color: #000 !important;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related articles</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#History_and_development" title="Chinese art">Art history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_China" title="Economic history of China">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_China" title="History of education in China">Education history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_China" title="Legal history of China">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_history_of_China" title="Media history of China">Media history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_China#History" title="Music of China">Music history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_music" title="Timeline of Chinese music">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_China_before_1912" title="Military history of China before 1912">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_China" title="Naval history of China">Naval history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_China" title="History of religion in China">History of religion in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in China">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_China" title="History of Islam in China">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Science and technology history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_archaeology" title="History of Chinese archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography_of_China" title="Cartography of China">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">Inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport_in_China" title="History of transport in China">Transport history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">Women's history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_China" title="Template:History of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_China" title="Template talk:History of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Three Kingdoms</b> of <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a> dominated China from 220 to 280 AD following the <a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="End of the Han dynasty">end of the Han dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheobald2000_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheobald2000-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This period was preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han dynasty">Eastern Han dynasty</a> and followed by the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Western Jin dynasty</a>. Academically, the periodisation begins with the establishment of Cao Wei in 220 and ends with the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wu_by_Jin" title="Conquest of Wu by Jin">conquest of Wu by Jin</a> in 280. The period immediately preceding the Three Kingdoms, from 184 to 220, was marked by chaotic infighting among <a href="/wiki/Warlord" title="Warlord">warlords</a> across China as Han authority collapsed. The period from 220 to 263 was marked by a comparatively stable arrangement between Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. This stability broke down with the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Shu_by_Wei" title="Conquest of Shu by Wei">conquest of Shu by Wei</a> in 263, followed by the usurpation of Cao Wei by Jin in 266 and ultimately the conquest of Wu by Jin in 280. </p><p>The Three Kingdoms period including the collapse of the Han is one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. A nationwide census taken in 280, following the reunification of the Three Kingdoms under the Jin shows a total of 2,459,840 households and 16,163,863 individuals which was only a fraction of the 10,677,960 households, and 56,486,856 individuals reported during the Han era.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the census may not have been particularly accurate due to a multitude of factors of the times, in 280, the Jin did make an attempt to account for all individuals where they could.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Technology advanced significantly during this period. Shu chancellor <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Wooden_ox" title="Wooden ox">wooden ox</a>, suggested to be an early form of the <a href="/wiki/Wheelbarrow" title="Wheelbarrow">wheelbarrow</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and improved on the <a href="/wiki/Repeating_crossbow" title="Repeating crossbow">repeating crossbow</a>. Wei mechanical engineer <a href="/wiki/Ma_Jun_(mechanical_engineer)" title="Ma Jun (mechanical engineer)">Ma Jun</a> is considered by many to be the equal of his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He invented a hydraulic-powered, mechanical puppet theatre designed for <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Wei" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Ming of Wei">Emperor Ming of Wei</a>, square-pallet <a href="/wiki/Chain_pump" title="Chain pump">chain pumps</a> for irrigation of gardens in <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>, and the ingenious design of the <a href="/wiki/South-pointing_chariot" title="South-pointing chariot">south-pointing chariot</a>, a non-magnetic directional compass operated by <a href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)" title="Differential (mechanical device)">differential</a> gears. </p><p>The authoritative historical record of the era is <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shou" title="Chen Shou">Chen Shou</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of the Three Kingdoms</a></i> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 290 AD</span>), in tandem with the <a href="/wiki/Annotations_to_Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms">later annotations</a> published in 429 by <a href="/wiki/Pei_Songzhi" title="Pei Songzhi">Pei Songzhi</a>. While comparatively short, the Three Kingdoms period has been romanticised in the culture of the <a href="/wiki/Sinosphere" title="Sinosphere">Sinosphere</a>. It has been retold and dramatised in folklore, opera, and novels, as well as film, television, and video games. The most well-known fictional adaptation of the history is <i><a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Historical_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical novel">historical novel</a> written during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> by <a href="/wiki/Luo_Guanzhong" title="Luo Guanzhong">Luo Guanzhong</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Periodization">Periodization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Periodization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Three_Kingdoms_period" title="Timeline of the Three Kingdoms period">Timeline of the Three Kingdoms period</a>.</div> <p>There is no set time period for the era. The majority view uses the years 220–280 as endpoints, beginning with the abdication of the last Han emperor and ending with the reunification of China by the first Jin emperor. Strictly speaking, the Three Kingdoms, or independent states, only existed from the proclamation of the Eastern Wu ruler to be emperor in 229 until the downfall of <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a> in 263. Interpretations of the period outside performative political acts push the beginning back into the later years of the Han, with the decline of the Han royal house. </p><p>Several other starting points for the period are given by Chinese historians: the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> in 184;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the year after the beginning of the rebellion, 185;<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhuo" title="Dong Zhuo">Dong Zhuo</a> deposing <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bian" title="Liu Bian">Emperor Shao of Han</a> and enthroning <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Emperor Xian of Han</a> in 189,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dong Zhuo sacking <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> and moving the capital to <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> in 190,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a> placing the emperor under his control in <a href="/wiki/Xuchang" title="Xuchang">Xuchang</a> in 196.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Jin unification was itself short-lived, lasting at least until the independence of the <a href="/wiki/Cheng-Han" title="Cheng-Han">Cheng-Han</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han-Zhao" title="Han-Zhao">Han-Zhao</a> states in 304, the entire period between the fall of Han and the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> unification (220–589) is sometimes periodised together as "the period of disunity", "Wei, Jin, <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern dynasties</a>" (or even "Northern and Southern dynasties" alone, though that more commonly means 420–589 between Jin and Sui), or "the <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a> period".<sup id="cite_ref-roberts_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roberts-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prelude">Prelude</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prelude"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Military history of the Three Kingdoms">Military history of the Three Kingdoms</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yellow_Turban_Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Yellow Turban Rebellion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Han_provinces.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Han_provinces.jpg/220px-Han_provinces.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Han_provinces.jpg/330px-Han_provinces.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Han_provinces.jpg/440px-Han_provinces.jpg 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Map of Chinese provinces on the eve of Three Kingdoms period, 189 AD</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg/220px-Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg/330px-Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg/440px-Yellow_Turban_Rebellion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the Yellow Turban Rebellion</figcaption></figure> <p>The power of the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> had steadily declined owing to a variety of political and economic problems after the death of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_He_of_Han" title="Emperor He of Han">Emperor He</a> in 105 AD. A series of Han emperors ascended the throne while still youths, and "de facto" imperial power often rested with the emperors' older relatives. As these relatives occasionally were loath to give up their influence, emperors would, upon reaching maturity, be forced to rely on political alliances with senior officials and <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> to achieve control of the government. Political posturing and infighting between imperial relatives and eunuch officials were a constant problem in the Chinese government at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (April 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Huan">Emperor Huan</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 146–168</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ling_of_Han" title="Emperor Ling of Han">Emperor Ling</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 168–189</span>), leading officials' dissatisfaction with the eunuchs' usurpation of power reached a peak, and many began to openly protest against them. The first and second protests met with failure, and the court eunuchs persuaded the emperor to execute many of the protesting scholars. Some local rulers seized the opportunity to exert despotic control over their lands and citizens, since many feared to speak out in the oppressive political climate. Emperors Huan and Ling's reigns were recorded as particularly dark periods of Han dynasty rule. In addition to political oppression and mismanagement, China experienced a number of natural disasters during this period, and local rebellions sprung up throughout the country. </p><p> In the third month of 184, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jiao" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Jiao">Zhang Jiao</a>, leader of the Way of Supreme Peace, a <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> movement, along with his two brothers Zhang Liang and Zhang Bao, led the movement's followers in a rebellion against the government that was called the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a>. Their movement quickly attracted followers and soon numbered several hundred thousand and received support from many parts of China. They had 36 bases throughout China, with large bases having 10,000 or more followers and minor bases having 6,000 to 7,000, similar to Han armies. Their motto was: </p><blockquote><p>"The Grey Sky<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has perished, the Yellow Sky<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> will soon rise; in this year of <i><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">jiazi</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> let there be prosperity in the world!"<br />(<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">蒼天已死，黃天當立。歲在甲子，天下大吉。</span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Emperor Ling dispatched generals <a href="/wiki/Huangfu_Song" title="Huangfu Song">Huangfu Song</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lu_Zhi_(Han_dynasty)" title="Lu Zhi (Han dynasty)">Lu Zhi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Jun_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhu Jun (Han dynasty)">Zhu Jun</a> to lead the Han armies against the rebels, and decreed that local governments had to supply soldiers to assist in their efforts. It is at this point that the historical novel <i><a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></i> begins its narrative. The Yellow Turbans were ultimately defeated and its surviving followers dispersed throughout China, but due to the turbulent situation throughout the empire, many were able to survive as bandits in mountainous areas, thus continuing their ability to contribute to the turmoil of the era. </p><p>With the widespread increase in bandits across the Chinese nation, the Han army had no way to repel each and every raiding party. In 188, Emperor Ling accepted a memorial from <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yan_(Han_dynasty_warlord)" title="Liu Yan (Han dynasty warlord)">Liu Yan</a> suggesting he grant direct administrative power over feudal provinces and direct command of regional military to local governors, as well as promoting them in rank and filling such positions with members of the Liu family or court officials. This move made <a href="/wiki/Zhou_(country_subdivision)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou (country subdivision)">provinces</a> (<i>zhou</i>) official administrative units, and although they had power to combat rebellions, the later intra-governmental chaos allowed these local governors to easily rule independently of the central government. Liu Yan was also promoted as governor of <a href="/wiki/Yi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Province">Yi Province</a> (roughly covering the <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_Basin" title="Sichuan Basin">Sichuan Basin</a>). Soon after this move, Liu Yan severed all of his region's ties to the Han imperial court, and several other areas followed suit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dong_Zhuo_in_power">Dong Zhuo in power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dong Zhuo in power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the same year, Emperor Ling died, and another struggle began between the court eunuchs for control of the imperial family. Court eunuch <a href="/wiki/Jian_Shuo" title="Jian Shuo">Jian Shuo</a> planned to kill Regent Marshal <a href="/wiki/He_Jin" title="He Jin">He Jin</a>, a relative of the imperial family, and to replace the crown prince <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bian" title="Liu Bian">Liu Bian</a> with his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Liu Xie</a>, the Prince of Chenliu (present-day <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a>), though his plan was unsuccessful. Liu Bian took the Han throne as Emperor Shao, and He Jin plotted with warlord <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shao" title="Yuan Shao">Yuan Shao</a> to assassinate the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Attendants" title="Ten Attendants">Ten Attendants</a>, a clique of twelve eunuchs led by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Rang" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Rang">Zhang Rang</a> who controlled much of the imperial court. He Jin also ordered <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhuo" title="Dong Zhuo">Dong Zhuo</a>, the frontier general in Liang Province, and <a href="/wiki/Ding_Yuan" title="Ding Yuan">Ding Yuan</a>, Inspector of Bing Province,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to bring troops to the capital to reinforce his position of authority. The eunuchs learned of He Jin's plot, and had him assassinated before Dong Zhuo reached the capital <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>. When Yuan Shao's troops reached Luoyang, they stormed the palace complex, killing the Ten Attendants and 2,000 of the eunuchs' supporters. Though this move effectively ended the century-long feud between the eunuchs and the imperial family, this event prompted the invitation of Dong Zhuo to the outskirts of Luoyang from the northwest boundary of China. </p><p>On the evening of 24 September 189, General Dong Zhuo observed that Luoyang was set ablaze—as a result of a power struggle between the eunuchs and civil service—and commanded his army forward to strike down the disorder. As the emperor had lost any remaining military or political power, Dong Zhuo seized the <i>de facto</i> control of the government located at Luoyang. On 28 September, Dong Zhuo deposed Liu Bian from the imperial Han throne in favour of Liu Xie. In the following weeks, rebellions broke out throughout all of China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–2_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–2-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In East China, in an attempt to restore the power of the Han, a <a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_Dong_Zhuo" title="Campaign against Dong Zhuo">large coalition against Dong Zhuo</a> began to rise, with leaders such as Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu, and Cao Cao. Many provincial officials were compelled to join or risk elimination. In 191, Sun Jian (Yuan Shu's subordinate) led an army against Dong Zhuo and drove him from Luoyang to Chang'an. In the following year, Dong Zhuo's former bodyguard <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu" title="Lü Bu">Lü Bu</a> assassinated Dong Zhuo. It is said that Dong Zhuo's body was thrown into the street with a lit wick in his navel, which supposedly burned with the same brilliance of the sun for a period of four days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–3_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collapse_of_central_power">Collapse of central power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Collapse of central power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 192, there was some talk among the coalition of appointing <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yu_(warlord)" title="Liu Yu (warlord)">Liu Yu</a>, an imperial relative, as emperor, and gradually its members began to fall out. Most of the warlords in the coalition, with a few exceptions, sought the increase of personal military power in the time of instability instead of seriously wishing to restore the Han dynasty's authority. The Han empire was divided between a number of regional warlords. As a result of the complete collapse of the central government and eastern alliance, the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a> fell into warfare and anarchy with many contenders vying for success or survival. <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Xian">Emperor Xian</a> fell into the hands of various warlords in Chang'an.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dong Zhuo, confident in his success, was slain by his follower <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu" title="Lü Bu">Lü Bu</a>, who plotted with minister <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yun_(Han_dynasty)" title="Wang Yun (Han dynasty)">Wang Yun</a>. Lü Bu, in turn, was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chang%27an" title="Battle of Chang'an">attacked by Dong Zhuo's former officers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Li_Jue_(Han_dynasty)" title="Li Jue (Han dynasty)">Li Jue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guo_Si" title="Guo Si">Guo Si</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Ji_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhang Ji (Han dynasty)">Zhang Ji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fan_Chou" title="Fan Chou">Fan Chou</a>. Wang Yun and his whole family were executed. Lü Bu fled to <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yang_(warlord)" title="Zhang Yang (warlord)">Zhang Yang</a>, a northern warlord, and remained with him for a time before briefly joining Yuan Shao, but it was clear that Lü Bu was far too independent to serve another. Yuan Shao operated from <a href="/wiki/Ye_(Hebei)" title="Ye (Hebei)">Ye</a> city in <a href="/wiki/Ji_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Ji Province">Ji Province</a>, extending his power north of the Yellow River. Han Fu had formerly been the Governor of Ji Province, but he came under the control of Yuan Shao and was replaced by him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between the Yellow and Huai rivers, a conflict had erupted between Yuan Shu, <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tao_Qian_(Han_dynasty)" title="Tao Qian (Han dynasty)">Tao Qian</a> (Governor of <a href="/wiki/Xu_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Xu Province">Xu Province</a>) and Lü Bu. Cao Cao forced the Yellow Turbans to surrender in 192, drove Yuan Shu to the south of the Huai River in 193, inflicted devastation upon Tao Qian in 194, received the surrender of Liu Bei (then a commander under Tao Qian) in 196, and captured and executed Lü Bu in 198. Cao was now in complete control of the southern part of the North China Plain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–4_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the northeast, <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Du" title="Gongsun Du">Gongsun Du</a> held control of the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a> and its environs, where he had established a state. He was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Kang" title="Gongsun Kang">Gongsun Kang</a> in 204. In the north across the frontier, since the fall of imperial control, the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Southern Xiongnu</a> puppet state had also collapsed, causing their tribes to disperse, while the <a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> people of the steppe began to migrate into the Chinese interior. <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a> was invaded by warlord <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Kang" title="Gongsun Kang">Gongsun Kang</a> in 204, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Daifang_Commandery" title="Daifang Commandery">Daifang Commandery</a>. In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, took the capital of Goguryeo and forced them to submit. Goguryeo was forced to move its capital further east.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2007988_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2007988-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Liang Province (present-day Gansu), <a href="/wiki/Liang_Province_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Liang Province Rebellion">rebellion had erupted in 184</a>. In the west, Liu Yan had been Governor of <a href="/wiki/Yi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Province">Yi Province</a> since his appointment in 188. He was succeeded by his son Liu Zhang in 194. Directly north of Liu Zhang's territory, Zhang Lu, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pecks_of_Rice" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Pecks of Rice">Five Pecks of Rice</a>, led the theocratic government at Hanzhong commandery on the upper Han River. Liu Biao held control over his province as the Governor of Jing Province. Sun Quan held control over the lower Yangtze.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19916–8_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19916–8-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Xu_and_Yan_provinces">Xu and Yan provinces</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Xu and Yan provinces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 194, Cao Cao went to war with <a href="/wiki/Tao_Qian_(Han_dynasty)" title="Tao Qian (Han dynasty)">Tao Qian</a> of Xu Province, because Tao's subordinate Zhang Kai had murdered Cao Cao's father <a href="/wiki/Cao_Song" title="Cao Song">Cao Song</a>. Tao Qian received the support of <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei" title="Liu Bei">Liu Bei</a> and Gongsun Zan, but even then it seemed as if Cao Cao's superior forces would overrun Xu Province entirely. Cao Cao received word that <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu" title="Lü Bu">Lü Bu</a> had seized Yan Province in his absence, and accordingly he retreated, putting a halt to hostilities with Tao Qian for the time being. Tao Qian died in the same year, leaving his province to Liu Bei. A year later, in 195, Cao Cao managed to drive Lü Bu out of Yan Province. Lü Bu fled to Xu Province and was received by Liu Bei, and an uneasy alliance began between the two. </p><p>Afterwards, Lü Bu betrayed Liu Bei and seized Xu Province, forming an alliance with Yuan Shu's remnant forces. Liu Bei, together with his followers <a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Yu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Fei" title="Zhang Fei">Zhang Fei</a>, fled to Cao Cao, who accepted him. Soon, preparations were made for an attack on Lü Bu, and the combined forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei invaded Xu Province. Lü Bu's men deserted him, Yuan Shu's forces never arrived as reinforcements, and he was bound by his own subordinates and executed on Cao Cao's order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Huai_River">Huai River</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Huai River"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_Yuan_Shu" title="Campaign against Yuan Shu">Campaign against Yuan Shu</a></div> <p>Yuan Shu, after being driven south in 193, established himself at his new capital Shouchun (present-day Anhui). He attempted to regain lost territory north of the Huai River. In 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor of his own dynasty. The move was a strategic blunder, as it drew the ire of many warlords across the land, including Yuan Shu's own subordinates who almost all abandoned him. Abandoned by almost all his allies and followers, he perished in 199.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19913–4_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19913–4-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emperor_Xian's_fate"><span id="Emperor_Xian.27s_fate"></span>Emperor Xian's fate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Emperor Xian's fate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 195, Emperor Xian fled the tyranny of Li Jue at Chang'an and made a year long hazardous journey east in search of supporters. In 196, Emperor Xian came under the protection and control of Cao Cao after he had succeeded in fleeing from the warlords of Chang'an. Establishing the imperial court at <a href="/wiki/Xuchang" title="Xuchang">Xuchang</a> in Henan, Cao Cao—who now held the <i>de facto</i> control—rigorously followed the formalities of the court and justified his actions as a loyal minister of the Han. By then, most of the smaller contenders for power had either been absorbed by larger ones or destroyed. This was an extremely important move for Cao Cao following the suggestion from his primary adviser, <a href="/wiki/Xun_Yu" title="Xun Yu">Xun Yu</a>, commenting that by supporting the authentic emperor, Cao Cao would have the formal legal authority to control the other warlords and force them to comply in order to restore the Han dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_China_Plain">North China Plain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: North China Plain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cao Cao, whose zone of control was the precursor to the state of Cao Wei, had raised an army in 189. In several strategic movements and battles, he controlled Yan Province and defeated several factions of the Yellow Turban rebels. This earned him the aid of other local militaries controlled by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Miao_(politician)" title="Zhang Miao (politician)">Zhang Miao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen_Gong" title="Chen Gong">Chen Gong</a>, who joined his cause to create his first sizeable army. He continued the effort and absorbed approximately 300,000 Yellow Turban rebels into his army as well as a number of clan-based military groups from the eastern part of Qing Province. Since 192, he developed military agricultural colonies (<i><a href="/wiki/Tuntian" title="Tuntian">tuntian</a></i>) to support his army. Although the system imposed a heavy tax on hired civilian farmers (40% to 60% of agricultural production), the farmers were more than pleased to be able to work with relative stability and professional military protection in a time of chaos. This was later said to be his second important policy for success. </p><p>In 200, <a href="/wiki/Dong_Cheng_(Han_dynasty)" title="Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)">Dong Cheng</a>, an imperial relative, received a secret edict from Emperor Xian to assassinate Cao Cao. He collaborated with Liu Bei on this effort, but Cao Cao soon found out about the plot and had Dong Cheng and his conspirators executed, with only Liu Bei surviving and fleeing to join Yuan Shao in the north. After settling the nearby provinces, including a rebellion led by former Yellow Turbans, and internal affairs with the court, Cao Cao turned his attention north to Yuan Shao, who himself had eliminated his northern rival Gongsun Zan that same year. Yuan Shao, himself of higher nobility than Cao Cao, amassed a large army and camped along the northern bank of the Yellow River. In the summer of 200, after months of preparations, the armies of Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guandu" title="Battle of Guandu">Battle of Guandu</a> (near present-day Kaifeng). Cao Cao's army was heavily outnumbered by Yuan Shao. Due to a raid in Yuan's supply train, Yuan's army fell into disorder as they fled back north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cao Cao took advantage of Yuan Shao's death in 202, which resulted in division among his sons, and advanced to the north. In 204, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ye" title="Battle of Ye">Battle of Ye</a>, Cao Cao captured the city of <a href="/wiki/Ye,_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ye, China">Ye</a>. By the end of 207, after a victorious campaign beyond the frontier against the <a href="/wiki/Wuhuan" title="Wuhuan">Wuhuan</a> culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Wolf_Mountain" title="Battle of White Wolf Mountain">Battle of White Wolf Mountain</a>, Cao Cao achieved complete dominance of the <a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>. He now controlled China's heartland, including Yuan Shao's former territory, and half of the Chinese population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914,_6_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914,_6-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_of_the_Yangtze">South of the Yangtze</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: South of the Yangtze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 193, Huang Zu led the forces of Liu Biao in a campaign against Sun Jian (Yuan Shu's subordinate general) and killed him. In 194, Sun Ce (aged 18) came into the military service under Yuan Shu. He was given the command of some troops who formerly had been commanded by his late father Sun Jian. In the south, he defeated the warlords of <a href="/wiki/Yang_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang Province">Yang Province</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yao_(warlord)" title="Liu Yao (warlord)">Liu Yao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Lang_(Cao_Wei)" title="Wang Lang (Cao Wei)">Wang Lang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yan_Baihu" title="Yan Baihu">Yan Baihu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19917–8_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19917–8-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 198, Sun Ce (aged 23) declared his independence from Yuan Shu who recently had declared himself emperor. He held control over Danyang, Wu, and <a href="/wiki/Kuaiji_Commandery" title="Kuaiji Commandery">Kuaiji</a> commanderies (from present-day <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_Bay" title="Hangzhou Bay">Hangzhou Bay</a>, and some outposts at the <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> coast), while expanding westward in a series of campaigns. By 200, he had conquered Yuzhang commandery (at present-day <a href="/wiki/Lake_Poyang" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Poyang">Lake Poyang</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jiangxi" title="Jiangxi">Jiangxi</a>) and Lujiang north of the Yangtze. In 200, Sun Ce was ambushed and assassinated by the former retainers of a defeated rival from Wu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19917–8_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19917–8-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At 18, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Quan" title="Sun Quan">Sun Quan</a> succeeded him and quickly established his authority. By 203, he was expanding westward. In 208, Sun Quan defeated Huang Zu (Liu Biao's subordinate commander) around present-day Wuhan. He now held control over the territories south of the Yangtze (below Wuhan, Poyang region, and Hangzhou Bay). His navy established local superiority over the Yangtze. Nevertheless, he would soon come under the threat of Cao Cao's larger armies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jing_Province">Jing Province</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Jing Province"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During Dong Zhuo's reign over the Han government, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Biao" title="Liu Biao">Liu Biao</a> had been appointed as the governor of Jing Province. His territory was located around his capital Xiangyang and the territory to the south around the Han and Yangtze River. Beyond his eastern border was the territory of Sun Quan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 200, during the time of the campaign around Guandu between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao, Liu Bei's forces had been defeated by a detachment of Cao Cao's army, forcing Liu Bei to flee and seek refuge with Liu Biao in <a href="/wiki/Jing_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jing Province">Jing Province</a>. In this exile, Liu Bei maintained his followers who had accompanied him and made new connections within Liu Biao's entourage. It was during this time that Liu Bei also met Zhuge Liang.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199121_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199121-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the autumn of 208, Liu Biao died and was succeeded by his youngest son <a href="/wiki/Liu_Cong_(Han_dynasty)" title="Liu Cong (Han dynasty)">Liu Cong</a> over the eldest son <a href="/wiki/Liu_Qi_(Liu_Biao%27s_son)" title="Liu Qi (Liu Biao's son)">Liu Qi</a> through political manoeuvring. Liu Bei had become the head of the opposition to a surrender when Cao Cao's army marched southward to Jing. After the advice of his supporters, Liu Cong surrendered to Cao Cao. Cao Cao took control of the province and began appointing scholars and officials from Liu Biao's court to the local government. Meanwhile, Liu Qi had joined Liu Bei to establish a line of defence at the Yangtze River against the surrender to Cao Cao, but they suffered defeat at the hands of Cao Cao. In the aftermath, they retreated and sought support from Sun Quan. Guan Yu (Liu Bei's subordinate lieutenant) had managed to retrieve most of Jing Province's fleet from the Han River. Cao Cao occupied the naval base at Jiangling on the Yangtze River. He would now begin proceeding eastwards towards Sun Quan with his armies and new fleet, while sending messengers to demand Sun Quan's surrender.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918–9,_21_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918–9,_21-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Red_Cliffs">Battle of Red Cliffs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Battle of Red Cliffs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" title="Battle of Red Cliffs">Battle of Red Cliffs</a></div> <p>In 208, Cao Cao marched south with his army hoping to quickly unify the empire. Liu Cong surrendered Jing Province, and Cao Cao was able to capture a sizeable fleet at Jiangling. <a href="/wiki/Sun_Quan" title="Sun Quan">Sun Quan</a> continued to resist; his advisor <a href="/wiki/Lu_Su" title="Lu Su">Lu Su</a> secured an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei" title="Liu Bei">Liu Bei</a>, himself a recent refugee from the north, and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Yu" title="Zhou Yu">Zhou Yu</a> was placed in command of Sun Quan's navy, along with a veteran general who served the Sun family, <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Pu" title="Cheng Pu">Cheng Pu</a>. Liu Biao's second son, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Qi_(Liu_Biao%27s_son)" title="Liu Qi (Liu Biao's son)">Liu Qi</a>, joined the alliance with his troops, and the combined armies of 50,000 met Cao Cao's fleet and 200,000-man force at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" title="Battle of Red Cliffs">Red Cliffs</a> that winter. After an initial skirmish, an attack was set in motion beginning with a plan to set fire to Cao Cao's immobilised fleet through the feigned surrender of Sun Quan's general <a href="/wiki/Huang_Gai" title="Huang Gai">Huang Gai</a>. Cao Cao was defeated decisively and forced to retreat in disarray back to the north. The allied victory at Red Cliffs ensured the survival of Liu Bei and Sun Quan, and provided the basis for the states of Shu and Wu. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years_of_the_dynasty">Final years of the dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Final years of the dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jian%27an_Commanderies.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Jian%27an_Commanderies.png/220px-Jian%27an_Commanderies.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Jian%27an_Commanderies.png/330px-Jian%27an_Commanderies.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Jian%27an_Commanderies.png/440px-Jian%27an_Commanderies.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Provinces and commanderies in the penultimate year of the Han dynasty (219 AD)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 209, Zhou Yu captured Jiangling, establishing the south's complete dominance over the Yangtze River. Meanwhile, Liu Bei and his principal adviser Zhuge Liang captured the <a href="/wiki/Xiang_River" title="Xiang River">Xiang River</a> basin commanderies, establishing control over the southern territories of Jing province. Sun Quan was forced to cede the territory around Jiangling to Liu Bei, because he could not establish a proper authority over it after Zhou Yu's death in 210.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19919–10_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19919–10-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 211, Cao Cao defeated a warlord coalition in the Wei valley, ending in the Battle of Huayin, capturing the territory around Chang'an. In 211, Liu Bei accepted an invitation from Liu Zhang to come to <a href="/wiki/Yi_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Province">Yi Province</a> for aiding the latter against a threat from the north, namely Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. Liu Bei met people within Liu Zhang's court who wished that he would replace Liu Zhang as the ruler of Yi Province. A year after his arrival, Liu Bei came into conflict with Liu Zhang and turned against him. In the summer of 214, Liu Bei received the surrender of Liu Zhang, capturing Yi Province, and established his regime at Chengdu. In 215, Cao Cao captured Hanzhong after attacking and receiving the surrender of Zhang Lu. He had launched the attack from Chang'an through the Qinling Mountain passes to Hanzhong. The conquest threatened Liu Bei's territory located directly to the south. Cao Cao progressively acquired additional titles and power under the puppet Emperor Xian. He became the Chancellor in 208, the Duke of Wei in 214, and the King of Wei in 217. He also compelled Sun Quan to accept suzerainty to Wei, but it had no real effect in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199110–11,_21–22_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199110–11,_21–22-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei%27s_takeover_of_Yi_Province" title="Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province">Liu Bei had captured Yi Province</a> from Liu Zhang in 214, Sun Quan—who had been engaged with Cao Cao in the southeast at the region between the Huai and Yangtze rivers during the intervening years—turned his attention to the middle Yangtze. Cao Cao and Sun Quan had gained no success in breaking each other's positions. Liu Fu, an administrator under Cao Cao, had established agricultural garrisons at Hefei and Shouchun to defend Cao's territory near the Huai river. Sun Quan resented the fact that Liu Bei, a weaker ally, had gained so much territory west of him and demanded a larger share of the Xiang River basin. In 215, Lü Meng (Sun Quan's officer) was sent to capture Jing province's southern commanderies, but Guan Yu (Liu Bei's general) launched a counterattack. Later that year, Liu Bei and Sun Quan reached a settlement that the Xiang River would serve as the border between their territories. In the south, Sun Quan had sent He Qin, Lu Xun, and others to expand and conquer territory in what are now southern <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199110_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199110-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 219, Liu Bei seized <a href="/wiki/Hanzhong" title="Hanzhong">Hanzhong</a> by defeating and killing General Xiahou Yuan, who served Cao Cao. Cao Cao sent reinforcements in an unsuccessful attempt to reclaim the territory. Liu Bei had now secured his territory against the north and declared himself the King of Hanzhong. In the east, Sun Quan attempted to capture Hefei from Cao Cao, but he did not succeed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199111_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199111-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Lu Su had been chief commander for Sun Quan in Jing Province, their policy was to maintain the alliance with Liu Bei while Cao Cao was still a threat. This changed when Sun Quan appointed Lü Meng when Lu Su died in 217. In 219, Guan Yu sailed from Jiangling up the Han River <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fancheng" title="Battle of Fancheng">towards the city of Fan</a> (near Xianyang), but was unable to capture it. In the autumn of 219, Lü Meng launched a <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Meng%27s_invasion_of_Jing_Province" title="Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province">surprise attack</a> by sailing up the Yangtze towards Jiangling, resulting in its capture. Guan Yu was unable to hold his position as most of his army surrendered. He was captured and executed on Sun Quan's order. Cao Cao regained the Han valley, while Sun Quan captured all the territory east of the Yangtze Gorges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199111–12_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199111–12-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_the_Three_Kingdoms">Emergence of the Three Kingdoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Emergence of the Three Kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg/220px-%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg/330px-%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg/440px-%E9%BE%9F%E5%BD%A2%E9%93%9C%E7%A0%9A%E6%BB%B4_%E5%90%B4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Bronze turtle holding a cup, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a></figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of 220, Cao Cao died and was succeeded by his son Cao Pi. On 11 December, Emperor Xian abdicated and Cao Pi ascended the imperial throne by proclaiming his <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">heavenly mandate</a> as the Emperor of Wei. On 15 May 221, Liu Bei responded by proclaiming himself as the Emperor of Han. His state would become generally known as Shu Han. Sun Quan continued to recognise his <i>de jure</i> suzerainty to Wei and was enfeoffed as the King of Wu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of 221, Shu invaded Wu in response for Guan Yu's killing and the loss of Jing Province by Wu. In the spring of 222, Liu Bei arrived at the scene to personally take command of the invasion. Sun Quan dispatched Lu Xun to command over the defence of Wu against the invasion by Shu. Against the advice of his subordinates, Lu Xun waited until Liu Bei was committed along the Yangtze below the Yangtze Gorges. Finally, in the sixth month of 222, <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun_(Three_Kingdoms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lu Xun (Three Kingdoms)">Lu Xun</a> launched a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiaoting" title="Battle of Xiaoting">series of fire attacks</a> against the flank of Liu Bei's extended position which caused disorder in the Shu army and Liu Bei's retreat to <a href="/wiki/Baidicheng" title="Baidicheng">Baidi</a> (near present-day <a href="/wiki/Fengjie" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengjie">Fengjie</a>) Afterwards in 222, Sun Quan renounced his suzerainty to Wei and declared the independence of Wu. In 223, Liu Bei perished at Baidi. Zhuge Liang now acted as a regent for the 17-year-old Liu Shan, and held control of the Shu government. Shu and Wu resumed their diplomatic relations by re-establishing peace and alliance in the winter of 223. On 23 June 229, Sun Quan proclaimed himself as the Emperor of Wu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112–13,_16,_20–22_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112–13,_16,_20–22-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shu controlled the upper Han valley and the territory west of the Yangtze Gorges. The Qinling Mountains divided Shu and Wei. Wei held control over the Wei and Huai valley, where agricultural garrisons were established at Shouchun and Hefei to defend Huai. Military sorties by Wu against Hefei and Shouchun would consistently end in failure, thereby confirming Wei's hold over Huai. Wu controlled all of the Yangtze valley. The territory between the Huai and Yangtze was a desolate area, where a largely-static frontier between Wei and Wu had formed at the lower Han valley.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199113_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199113-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg/220px-Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg/330px-Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg/440px-Map_of_China_During_the_Period_of_the_Three_Kingdoms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1578" data-file-height="1183" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Three Kingdoms</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shu">Shu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Shu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign" title="Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign">Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Northern_Expeditions" title="Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions">Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Yiling.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Battle_of_Yiling.png/220px-Battle_of_Yiling.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Battle_of_Yiling.png/330px-Battle_of_Yiling.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Battle_of_Yiling.png/440px-Battle_of_Yiling.png 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption>Map showing Battle of Yiling between Shu Han and Wu kingdoms.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 223, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shan" title="Liu Shan">Liu Shan</a> rose to the throne of <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a> following his father's defeat and death. From 224 to 225, during his southward campaigns, Zhuge Liang conquered the southern territories up to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Dian" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Dian">Lake Dian</a> in Yunnan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199122_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199122-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 227, Zhuge Liang transferred his main Shu armies to <a href="/wiki/Hanzhong" title="Hanzhong">Hanzhong</a>, and opened up the battle for the northwest with Wei. The next year, he ordered <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Yun" title="Zhao Yun">Zhao Yun</a> to attack from Ji Gorge as a diversion while Zhuge himself led the main force to Mount Qi. The vanguard <a href="/wiki/Ma_Su" title="Ma Su">Ma Su</a> suffered a tactical defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jieting" title="Battle of Jieting">Jieting</a> and the Shu army was forced to withdraw. In the next six years Zhuge Liang attempted several more offensives, but supply problems limited the capacity for success. In 234, he led his last great northern offensive, reaching the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuzhang_Plains" title="Battle of Wuzhang Plains">Battle of Wuzhang Plains</a> south of the <a href="/wiki/Wei_River" title="Wei River">Wei River</a>. Due to the death of Zhuge Liang in 234, the Shu army was forced once again to withdraw, but were pursued by Wei. The Shu forces began to withdraw; <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi" title="Sima Yi">Sima Yi</a> deduced Zhuge Liang's demise and ordered an attack. Shu struck back almost immediately, causing Sima Yi to second guess and allow Shu to withdraw successfully. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wu">Wu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png/220px-Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png/330px-Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png/440px-Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign.png 2x" data-file-width="795" data-file-height="1117" /></a><figcaption>Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign</figcaption></figure> <p>Sun Quan turned to the aborigines of the southeast, whom the Chinese collectively called the <a href="/wiki/Baiyue" title="Baiyue">Shanyue</a>. A collection of successes against the rebellious tribesmen culminated in the victory of 224. In that year, <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Ke" title="Zhuge Ke">Zhuge Ke</a> ended a three-year siege of Danyang with the surrender of 100,000 Shanyue. Of these, 40,000 were drafted as auxiliaries into the Wu army. Meanwhile, Shu was also experiencing troubles with the indigenous tribes of their south. The southwestern <a href="/wiki/Nanman" title="Nanman">Nanman</a> peoples rose in revolt against Shu authority, captured and looted cities in Yi Province. Zhuge Liang, recognising the importance of stability in the south, ordered the advance of the Shu armies in three columns against the Nanman. He fought a number of engagements against the chieftain <a href="/wiki/Meng_Huo" title="Meng Huo">Meng Huo</a>, at the end of which Meng Huo submitted. A tribesman was allowed to reside at the Shu capital <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> as an official and the Nanman formed their own battalions within the Shu army. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png/220px-Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png/330px-Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png/440px-Zhuge_Liang_1st_and_2nd_Northern_Expeditions.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>Zhuge Liang's first and second northern expeditions against Cao Wei</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png/220px-Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png/330px-Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png/440px-Zhuge_Liang_3rd_Northern_Expedition.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Zhuge Liang's third northern expedition against Cao Wei</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png/220px-Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png/330px-Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png/440px-Zhuge_Liang_4th_and_5th_Northern_Expeditions.png 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="899" /></a><figcaption>Zhuge Liang's fourth and fifth northern expeditions against Cao Wei</figcaption></figure> <p>In the times of <a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang" title="Zhuge Liang">Zhuge Liang</a>'s northern offensives, the state of Wu had always been on the defensive against invasions from the north. The area around <a href="/wiki/Hefei" title="Hefei">Hefei</a> was the scene of many bitter battles and under constant pressure from Wei after the Battle of Red Cliffs. Warfare had grown so intense that many of the residents chose to migrate and resettle south of the Yangtze. After Zhuge Liang's death, attacks on the southern <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> region intensified but nonetheless, Wei could not break through the line of the river defences erected by Wu, which included the Ruxu fortress. </p><p>Sun Quan's long reign is regarded as a time of plenty for his southern state. Migrations from the north and the settlement of the Shanyue increased manpower for agriculture, especially along the lower reaches of the Yangtze and in <a href="/wiki/Kuaiji_Commandery" title="Kuaiji Commandery">Kuaiji Commandery</a> along the southern shore of <a href="/wiki/Hangzhou_Bay" title="Hangzhou Bay">Hangzhou Bay</a>. River transport blossomed, with the construction of the Zhedong and Jiangnan canals. Trade with Shu flourished, with a huge influx of Shu cotton and the development of <a href="/wiki/Celadon" title="Celadon">celadon</a> and metal industries. Sea journeys were made to Liaodong and the island of Yizhou (modern <a href="/wiki/Ryukyus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ryukyus">Ryukyus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>). In the south, Wu merchants reached Linyi (southern <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Funan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Funan Kingdom">Funan Kingdom</a>. As the economy prospered, so too did the arts and culture. In the Yangtze delta, the first Buddhist influences reached the south from Luoyang. </p><p>The Eastern Wu era was a formative period in <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese history">Vietnamese history</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Jiaozhou_(region)" title="Jiaozhou (region)">Jiaozhou</a> (modern Vietnam and <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>) prefect, <a href="/wiki/Shi_Xie" title="Shi Xie">Shi Xie</a>, ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord for forty years and was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese emperors.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shi_Xie" title="Shi Xie">Shi Xie</a> pledged loyalty to Eastern Wu. Originally satisfied with Eastern Wu's rule, the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_people" title="Vietnamese people">Vietnamese</a> opposed <a href="/wiki/Shi_Hui_(Three_Kingdoms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi Hui (Three Kingdoms)">Shi Hui</a>'s rebellion against Eastern Wu and attacked him for it. However, when the Wu general <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dai" title="Lü Dai">Lü Dai</a> betrayed Shi Hui and executed the entire Shi family, the Vietnamese became greatly upset. In 248, the people of <a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Jiaozhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jiuzhen" title="Jiuzhen">Jiuzhen</a> commanderies rebelled. Eastern Wu sent <a href="/wiki/Lu_Yin_(Three_Kingdoms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lu Yin (Three Kingdoms)">Lu Yin</a> to deal with the rebels. He managed to pacify the rebels with a combination of threats and persuasion. However the rebels regrouped under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Lady_Tri%E1%BB%87u" title="Lady Triệu">Lady Triệu</a> in Jiuzhen and renewed the rebellion with a march on Jiaozhi. After several months of warfare she was defeated and committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor198370_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor198370-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wei">Wei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Wei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a></div> <p>In 226, Cao Pi died at the age of 40, and was succeeded by his eldest son Cao Rui (aged 22) Minister Chen Qun, General Cao Zhen, General Cao Xiu, and General Sima Yi<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were appointed as regents, even though Cao Rui was able to manage the government in practice. Eventually the former three died, leaving only Sima Yi as the senior minister and military commander. In 226, Sima Yi successfully defended Xiangyang against an offensive from Wu; this battle was the first time he had command in the field. In 227, Sima Yi was appointed to a post at Chang'an where he managed the military affairs along the Han River.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199131–32_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199131–32-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 238, Sima Yi was dispatched to command a <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi%27s_Liaodong_campaign" title="Sima Yi's Liaodong campaign">military campaign against Gongsun Yuan</a> of the self-proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Yan_Kingdom_(Three_Kingdoms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan Kingdom (Three Kingdoms)">Yan Kingdom</a> in Liaodong, resulting in Sima Yi's capture of his capital Xiangping and massacre of his government. Between 244 and 245, General <a href="/wiki/Guanqiu_Jian" title="Guanqiu Jian">Guanqiu Jian</a> was dispatched to <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo%E2%80%93Wei_War" title="Goguryeo–Wei War">invade Goguryeo</a> and severely devastated that state. The northeastern frontier of Wei was now secured from any possible threats.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The invasions, a retaliation against a Goguryeo raid in 242, destroyed the Goguryeo capital of <a href="/wiki/Hwando" title="Hwando">Hwando</a>, sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of Korea that formed much of Goguryeo's economy. Although the king evaded capture and eventually settled in a new capital, Goguryeo was reduced to such insignificance that for half a century there was no mention of the state in Chinese historical texts.<sup id="cite_ref-byington93_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-byington93-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg/150px-Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg/225px-Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg/300px-Portrait_full-length_Cao_Zhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="1822" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhi" title="Cao Zhi">Cao Zhi</a> as depicted in <i>Goddess of Luo River</i> (detail) by <a href="/wiki/Gu_Kaizhi" title="Gu Kaizhi">Gu Kaizhi</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 238, Cao Rui perished at age 35. He was succeeded by his adopted son Cao Fang (aged 7), who was a close member of the imperial family. Cao Rui had appointed Cao Shuang and Sima Yi to be Cao Fang's regents, even though he had contemplated to establish a regency council dominated by imperial family members. Cao Shuang held the principal control over the court. Meanwhile, Sima Yi was received the honorific title of Grand Tutor, but had virtually no influence at the court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline">Decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:China_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_5.jpg/220px-China_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_5.jpg/330px-China_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/China_5.jpg/440px-China_5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>Three Kingdoms in 262, on the eve of the conquest of Shu, Wei and Wu</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_Shu">Fall of Shu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fall of Shu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Shu_by_Wei" title="Conquest of Shu by Wei">Conquest of Shu by Wei</a></div> <p>After Zhuge Liang's death, his position as <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chancellor (China)">chancellor</a> fell to <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Wan" title="Jiang Wan">Jiang Wan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fei_Yi" title="Fei Yi">Fei Yi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dong_Yun" title="Dong Yun">Dong Yun</a>, in that order. But after 258, Shu politics became increasingly controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuch</a> faction, led by <a href="/wiki/Huang_Hao" title="Huang Hao">Huang Hao</a>, and corruption rose. Despite the energetic efforts of <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Wei" title="Jiang Wei">Jiang Wei</a>, Zhuge Liang's protégé, Shu was unable to secure any decisive achievement. In 263, Wei launched a three-pronged attack and the Shu army was forced into general retreat from Hanzhong. Jiang Wei hurriedly held a position at Jiange but he was outflanked by the Wei commander <a href="/wiki/Deng_Ai" title="Deng Ai">Deng Ai</a>, who force-marched his army from Yinping through territory formerly considered impassable. By the winter of the year, the capital <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a> fell due to the strategic invasion of Wei by Deng Ai who invaded Chengdu personally. The emperor <a href="/wiki/Liu_Shan" title="Liu Shan">Liu Shan</a> thus surrendered. The state of Shu had come to an end after 43 years. Liu Shan was reinstated to the Wei capital of Luoyang and was given the new title of the "Duke of Anle". Directly translated, it meant the "Duke of Safety and Happiness" and was a trivial position with no actual power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_Wei">Fall of Wei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Fall of Wei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the late 230s, tensions began to become visible between the imperial Cao clan and the Sima clan. Following the death of <a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhen" title="Cao Zhen">Cao Zhen</a>, factionalism was evident between <a href="/wiki/Cao_Shuang" title="Cao Shuang">Cao Shuang</a> and the Grand Tutor <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi" title="Sima Yi">Sima Yi</a>. In deliberations, Cao Shuang placed his own supporters in important posts and excluded Sima Yi, whom he regarded as a dangerous threat. The power of the Sima clan, one of the great landowning families of the Han dynasty, was bolstered by Sima Yi's military victories. Additionally, Sima Yi was an extremely capable strategist and politician. In 238 he <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi%27s_Liaodong_campaign" title="Sima Yi's Liaodong campaign">crushed</a> <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Yuan" title="Gongsun Yuan">Gongsun Yuan</a>'s self-proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Yan_Kingdom_(Three_Kingdoms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan Kingdom (Three Kingdoms)">Yan Kingdom</a> and brought the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong" class="mw-redirect" title="Liaodong">Liaodong</a> region directly under Wei control. Ultimately, he outmanoeuvred Cao Shuang in power play. Taking advantage of an excursion by the imperial clansmen to the <a href="/wiki/Incident_at_Gaoping_Tombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Incident at Gaoping Tombs">Gaoping Tombs</a>, Sima Yi carried out a putsch in Luoyang, forcing Cao Shuang's faction from authority. Many protested against the overwhelming power of the Sima family; notable among these were the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a>. One of the sages, <a href="/wiki/Xi_Kang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xi Kang">Xi Kang</a>, was executed as part of the purges after Cao Shuang's downfall. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cao_Huan" title="Cao Huan">Cao Huan</a> succeeded to the throne in 260 after <a href="/wiki/Cao_Mao" title="Cao Mao">Cao Mao</a> was killed in a failed coup against <a href="/wiki/Sima_Zhao" title="Sima Zhao">Sima Zhao</a>. Soon after, Sima Zhao died and his title as Duke of Jìn was inherited by his son <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sima Yan">Sima Yan</a>. Sima Yan immediately began plotting to become emperor but faced stiff opposition. Following advice from his advisors, Cao Huan decided the best course of action would be to abdicate, unlike his predecessor Cao Mao. Sima Yan seized the throne in 266 after forcing Cao Huan's abdication, effectively overthrowing the Wei dynasty and establishing the successor <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265%E2%80%93420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265–420)">Jin dynasty</a>. This situation was similar to the deposal of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Emperor Xian of Han</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cao_Pi" title="Cao Pi">Cao Pi</a> 40 years earlier. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_of_Wu">Fall of Wu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Fall of Wu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wu_by_Jin" title="Conquest of Wu by Jin">Conquest of Wu by Jin</a></div> <p>Following Sun Quan's death and the ascension of the young <a href="/wiki/Sun_Liang" title="Sun Liang">Sun Liang</a> to the throne in 252, the state of Wu went into steady decline. Successful Wei suppression of rebellions in the southern <a href="/wiki/Huai_River" title="Huai River">Huai River</a> region by <a href="/wiki/Sima_Zhao" title="Sima Zhao">Sima Zhao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sima_Shi" title="Sima Shi">Sima Shi</a> reduced any opportunity of Wu influence. The fall of Shu signalled a change in Wei politics. After Liu Shan surrendered to Wei, <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sima Yan">Sima Yan</a> (grandson of Sima Yi), overthrew the Wei emperor and proclaimed his own dynasty of Jin in 266, ending 46 years of Cao dominion in the north. After Jin's rise, emperor <a href="/wiki/Sun_Xiu" title="Sun Xiu">Sun Xiu</a> of Wu died, and his ministers gave the throne to <a href="/wiki/Sun_Hao" title="Sun Hao">Sun Hao</a>. Sun Hao was a promising young man, but upon ascension he became a tyrant, killing or exiling all who dared oppose him in the court. In 269 <a href="/wiki/Yang_Hu" title="Yang Hu">Yang Hu</a>, a Jin commander in the south, started preparing for the invasion of Wu by ordering the construction of a fleet and the training of marines in Sichuan under <a href="/wiki/Wang_Jun_(Jin_dynasty)" title="Wang Jun (Jin dynasty)">Wang Jun</a>. Four years later, <a href="/wiki/Lu_Kang_(Three_Kingdoms)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lu Kang (Three Kingdoms)">Lu Kang</a>, the last great general of Wu, died leaving no competent successor. The planned Jin offensive finally came at the end of 279. Sima Yan launched five simultaneous offensives along the Yangtze from Jianye (present-day <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>) to Jiangling while the Sichuan fleet sailed downriver to Jing Province. Under the strain of such an enormous attack, the Wu forces collapsed and Jianye fell in the third month of 280. Sun Hao surrendered and was given a fiefdom on which to live out his days. This marked the end of the Three Kingdoms era, and the beginning of a break in the forthcoming 300 years of disunity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Three_Kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Three Kingdoms">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Three+Kingdoms%22">"Three Kingdoms"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Three+Kingdoms%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Three+Kingdoms%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Three+Kingdoms%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Three+Kingdoms%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Three+Kingdoms%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population">Population</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Population"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pottery_courtyard,_3_kingdoms,_Wu,_Hubei,_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Pottery_courtyard%2C_3_kingdoms%2C_Wu%2C_Hubei%2C_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG/250px-Pottery_courtyard%2C_3_kingdoms%2C_Wu%2C_Hubei%2C_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Pottery_courtyard%2C_3_kingdoms%2C_Wu%2C_Hubei%2C_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG/375px-Pottery_courtyard%2C_3_kingdoms%2C_Wu%2C_Hubei%2C_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Pottery_courtyard%2C_3_kingdoms%2C_Wu%2C_Hubei%2C_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG/500px-Pottery_courtyard%2C_3_kingdoms%2C_Wu%2C_Hubei%2C_1967._NationalMusemBeijing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption>Pottery dwelling around a large courtyard, a <i><a href="/wiki/Siheyuan" title="Siheyuan">siheyuan</a></i>. Unearthed in 1967 in a tomb of <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> built during the kingdom of Eastern Wu, <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_China" title="National Museum of China">National Museum of China</a>, Beijing</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Yellow Turban Rebellion, serious famine followed in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plain_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plain (China)">Central Plains</a> of China. After his coming to power, Dong Zhuo gave full swing to his army to loot and plunder the population, and abduct women into forced marriages, servants or consorts. When the Guandong Coalition was starting the campaign against Dong Zhuo, he embarked upon a scorched earth campaign, proclaiming that "all the population of <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> be forced to move to Chang'an, all the palaces, temples, official residences and homes be burnt, no one should stay within that area of 200 <i><a href="/wiki/Li_(unit)" title="Li (unit)">li</a></i>". Considering the hardships of that time this amounted to a death sentence for many, and cries of discontent rose as the population of Luoyang decreased sharply. When Cao Cao attacked <a href="/wiki/Xu_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Xu Province">Xu Province</a>, it was said that "hundreds of thousands of men and women were buried alive, even dogs and chickens did not survive. The <a href="/wiki/Si_River" title="Si River">Si River</a> was blocked. From then on, these five towns never recovered."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> When <a href="/wiki/Li_Jue_(Han_dynasty)" title="Li Jue (Han dynasty)">Li Jue</a> and his army were advancing towards the <a href="/wiki/Guanzhong" title="Guanzhong">Guanzhong</a> area, "there remained hundreds of thousands of people, but Li Jue allowed his army to plunder the cities and the people, thus making the people have nothing but eat each other to death."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The following table shows the severe decrease of population during that period. From the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin dynasty, despite the length of about 125 years, the peak population only equalled 35.3% of the peak population during the Eastern Han dynasty. From the Western Jin dynasty to the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui dynasty</a>, the population never recovered. High militarisation of the population was common. For example, the population of Shu was 900,000, but the military numbered over 100,000. The <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of the Three Kingdoms</a></i> contains population figures for the Three Kingdoms. As with many Chinese historical population figures, these numbers are likely to be less than the actual populations, since census and tax records went hand in hand, and tax evaders were often not on records. </p><p>During the Three Kingdoms period, a number of statuses intermediate between freedom and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">slavery</a> developed, but none of them are thought to have exceeded 1 per cent of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Three Kingdoms Period Populations<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Households </th> <th>Population </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Eastern <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, 156 </td> <td align="right">10,679,600 </td> <td align="right">56,486,856 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a>, 221 </td> <td align="right">200,000 </td> <td align="right">900,000 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Shu Han, 263 </td> <td align="right">280,000 </td> <td align="right">1,082,000 </td> <td>At Shu's demise, the population contained 102,000 armed soldiers and 40,000 various officials. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a>, 238 </td> <td align="right">520,000 </td> <td align="right">2,567,000 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Eastern Wu, 280 </td> <td align="right">530,000 </td> <td align="right">2,535,000 </td> <td>At Wu's demise, the population had 32,000 officials, 230,000 soldiers, and 5,000 imperial concubines. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a>, 260 </td> <td align="right">663,423 </td> <td align="right">4,432,881 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin dynasty">Western Jin dynasty</a>, 280 </td> <td align="right">2,495,804 </td> <td align="right">16,163,863 </td> <td>After reuniting China, the Jin dynasty's population was greatest around this time. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>While it is clear that warfare undoubtedly took many lives during this period, the census figures do not support the idea that tens of millions were wiped out solely from warfare. Other factors such as mass <a href="/wiki/List_of_famines_in_China" title="List of famines in China">famines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Infectious_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious diseases">infectious diseases</a>, due to the collapse of sustaining governance and migrations out of China must be taken into account.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late Eastern Han dynasty, due to natural disasters and social unrest, the economy was badly depressed, leading to the massive waste of farmland. Some local landlords and aristocracy established their own strongholds to defend themselves and developed agriculture, which gradually evolved into a self-sufficient manorial system. The system of strongholds and manors also had effects on the economical mode of following dynasties. In addition, because of the collapse of the imperial court, those worn copper coins were not melted and reminted and many privately minted coins appeared. In the Three Kingdoms period, newly minted coins never made their way into currency. Due to the collapse of the coinage, Cao Wei officially declared silk cloth and grains as the main currencies in 221.<sup id="cite_ref-ANU_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ANU-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In economic terms the division of the Three Kingdoms reflected a reality that long endured. Even during the Northern <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, 700 years after the Three Kingdoms period, it was possible to think of China as being composed of three great regional markets. (The status of the northwest was slightly ambivalent, as it had links with the northern region and Sichuan). These geographical divisions are underscored by the fact that the main communication routes between the three main regions were all human-made: the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> linking north and south, the hauling-way through the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges" title="Three Gorges">Three Gorges</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> linking southern China with Sichuan and the <a href="/wiki/Gallery_road" title="Gallery road">gallery roads</a> joining Sichuan with the northwest. The break into three separate entities was quite natural and even anticipated by such political foresight as that of Zhuge Liang. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a>, the founder of the Wei kingdom and his four sons were <a href="/wiki/Poetry_of_Cao_Cao" title="Poetry of Cao Cao">influential poets</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Cao_Zhi" title="Cao Zhi">Cao Zhi</a> (192–232) and <a href="/wiki/Cao_Pi" title="Cao Pi">Cao Pi</a> (187–226).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cao Pi wrote the earliest work of literary criticism, the <i>Essay on Literature</i>. Cao Zhi, together with <a href="/wiki/Xu_Gan" title="Xu Gan">Xu Gan</a>, sponsored a resurgence of the <a href="/wiki/Jian%27an_poetry" title="Jian'an poetry">Jian'an style</a> of lyric poetry. Cao Zhi is considered by most modern critics to be the most important Chinese writer between <a href="/wiki/Qu_Yuan" title="Qu Yuan">Qu Yuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tao_Yuanming" title="Tao Yuanming">Tao Yuanming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010174_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010174-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG/220px-A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG/330px-A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG/440px-A_Fragment_of_Biography_of_Bu_Zhi_History_Books_of_Three_Kingdoms_02_2012-12.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>A fragment of the biography of <a href="/wiki/Bu_Zhi" title="Bu Zhi">Bu Zhi</a> from the <i>Records of the Three Kingdoms</i>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang manuscripts</a></figcaption></figure><p>The standard history of the period is the <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Records of the Three Kingdoms">Records of the Three Kingdoms</a></i>, compiled by the <a href="/wiki/Western_Jin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Jin">Western Jin</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Chen_Shou" title="Chen Shou">Chen Shou</a> in the third century AD. The work synthesises the histories of the rival states of Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms period into a single compiled text. An expanded version of the <i>Records of the Three Kingdoms</i> was published by the <a href="/wiki/Liu_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Liu Song">Liu Song</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Pei_Songzhi" title="Pei Songzhi">Pei Songzhi</a> in 429, whose <i><a href="/wiki/Annotations_to_Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms">Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms</a></i> supplemented the original with sizeable excerpts of texts unused by Chen Shou and provided commentaries. The resulting work nearly doubled the size of the original <i>Records</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell1999149_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell1999149-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the composite work of Chen and Pei are canonised as <a href="/wiki/Official_history" title="Official history">official history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to the <i>Records of the Three Kingdoms</i>, the years 189 to 220 are also covered by the previous standard history <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Later_Han" title="Book of the Later Han">Book of the Later Han</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)" title="Fan Ye (historian)">Fan Ye</a> (a contemporary of Pei Songzhi), which mainly draws from documents of the Han court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2020xi_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2020xi-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the later years, biographies of the Jin dynasty progenitors <a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi" title="Sima Yi">Sima Yi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sima_Shi" title="Sima Shi">Sima Shi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sima_Zhao" title="Sima Zhao">Sima Zhao</a> are only found in the following standard history <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jin" title="Book of Jin">Book of Jin</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Fang_Xuanling" title="Fang Xuanling">Fang Xuanling</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_legitimacy_issue">The legitimacy issue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The legitimacy issue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditional Chinese political thought is concerned with the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>", from which a ruler derives legitimacy to rule <a href="/wiki/All_under_heaven" class="mw-redirect" title="All under heaven">all under heaven</a>. In the Three Kingdoms period, Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu all laid claim to the Mandate by virtue of their founders declaring themselves as emperors. Later historians would disagree on which of the Three Kingdoms (primarily between Wei and Shu) should be considered the sole legitimate successor to the Han dynasty. </p><p>Chen Shou, the compiler of the <i>Records of the Three Kingdoms</i>, hailed from Shu Han and became an official of the Western Jin dynasty when he was working on the <i>Records</i>. As Western Jin succeeded Cao Wei, Chen was careful in his compilation to imply Cao Wei was the legitimate state. Despite the description of events being mostly balanced and fair,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246_note_14_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246_note_14-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chen Shou legitimised Wei by placing the Wei annals first, using the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">era names</a> from Wei's calendar, and reserving regal nomenclature for the leaders of Wei. Specifically, emperors of Cao Wei are referred to by their imperial <a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">posthumous names</a> (e.g. Cao Pi is referred to as the "Civil Emperor" 文帝), while the Shu and Wu emperors are mere "rulers" (e.g. Liu Bei is referred to as the "First Ruler" 先主 and Sun Quan as "Ruler of Wu" 吳主).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chen Shou, as a subject of Jin, could not write in a way that implies Jin as illegitimate by denying Cao Wei's claim to the mandate, despite what sympathies he might have had toward his home state of Shu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell199971_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell199971-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chen Shou's treatment of the legitimacy issue was generally accepted through to the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Song">Northern Song</a> dynasty. Despite maintaining that none of the three states truly held the Mandate of Heaven since they all failed to unify China, Song historian <a href="/wiki/Sima_Guang" title="Sima Guang">Sima Guang</a> used Wei's era names and thus affirmed the legitimacy of Wei's succession to Han in his <a href="/wiki/Universal_history_(genre)" title="Universal history (genre)">universal history</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sima Guang explained that his choice was merely out of convenience, and he was "not honouring one and treating another with contempt, nor making distinction between orthodox and intercalary positions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the influential <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">Neo-Confucian</a> moralist <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> criticised Sima Guang's choice, taking the position that Shu Han was the true successor to the Han dynasty since Liu Bei was related to the imperial Liu clan by blood, and thus used Shu's calendar in his rewrite of Sima Guang's work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian_Gangmu" title="Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu">Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMansvelt_Beck1986374–375_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMansvelt_Beck1986374–375-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This position, first argued by <a href="/wiki/Xi_Zuochi" title="Xi Zuochi">Xi Zuochi</a> in the fourth century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201253_note_41_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201253_note_41-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found support in Zhu Xi's time since the Song dynasty found itself in a similar situation as Shu Han, as it was forced out of north China by the <a href="/wiki/Jurchens" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurchens">Jurchens</a> in 1127 and became known as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Song" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Song">Southern Song</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006295–296_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006295–296-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The revisionist private histories of the time emphasised "<a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">humane</a> governence" (仁政) as a mark of legitimate dynastic succession, and saw Liu Bei as an idealised Confucian monarch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006302_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006302-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pro-Shu bias then found its way into popular forms of entertainment such as <i><a href="/wiki/Sanguozhi_Pinghua" title="Sanguozhi Pinghua">Sanguozhi Pinghua</a></i>, a <i><a href="/wiki/Pinghua_(storytelling)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinghua (storytelling)">pinghua</a></i> tale, and <i><a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">zaju</a></i> performances, and was eventually codified in the 14th century historical novel <i><a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_in_popular_culture">Legacy in popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Legacy in popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_media_adaptations_of_Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="List of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms">List of media adaptations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></div> <p>Numerous people and affairs from the period later became Chinese legends. The most complete and influential example is the historical novel <i><a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a></i>, written by <a href="/wiki/Luo_Guanzhong" title="Luo Guanzhong">Luo Guanzhong</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. Possibly due to the popularity of <i>Romance of the Three Kingdoms</i>, the Three Kingdoms era is one of the most well-known non-modern Chinese eras in terms of iconic characters, deeds and exploits. This is reflected in the way that fictional accounts of the Three Kingdoms, mostly based on the novel, play a significant role in East Asian popular culture. Books, television dramas, films, cartoons, anime, games, and music on the topic are still regularly produced in mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japanese video game developer <a href="/wiki/Koei" title="Koei">Koei</a> (later merged with <a href="/wiki/Tecmo" title="Tecmo">Tecmo</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Koei_Tecmo" title="Koei Tecmo">Koei Tecmo</a>) introduced multiple generations of young gamers in the West to the Three Kingdoms period through its retelling of the history across its long and successful franchises of <a href="/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms_(video_game_series)" title="Romance of the Three Kingdoms (video game series)">Romance of the Three Kingdoms</a> strategy games and <a href="/wiki/Dynasty_Warriors" title="Dynasty Warriors">Dynasty Warriors</a> action games. The games evoked a fascination with the period among many Western players, similar to the interest stoked among East Asians by local pop culture and media, albeit to a lesser extent in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conflicts_at_the_end_of_the_Han_dynasty" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_End_of_Han" title="Template:Campaignbox End of Han"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_End_of_Han" title="Template talk:Campaignbox End of Han"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_End_of_Han" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox End of Han"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Conflicts_at_the_end_of_the_Han_dynasty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Conflicts at the <a href="/wiki/End_of_the_Han_dynasty" title="End of the Han dynasty"><span class="wrap">end of the Han dynasty</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turbans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Province_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Liang Province Rebellion">Liang Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre of the Eunuchs">Eunuch massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_Dong_Zhuo" title="Campaign against Dong Zhuo">Campaign against Dong Zhuo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xingyang_(190)" title="Battle of Xingyang (190)">Xingyang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yangcheng" title="Battle of Yangcheng">Yangcheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jieqiao" title="Battle of Jieqiao">Jieqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiangyang_(191)" title="Battle of Xiangyang (191)">Xiangyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chang%27an" title="Battle of Chang'an">Chang'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fengqiu" title="Battle of Fengqiu">Fengqiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao%27s_invasion_of_Xu_Province" title="Cao Cao's invasion of Xu Province">Xu Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yan_Province" title="Battle of Yan Province">Yan Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Ce%27s_conquests_in_Jiangdong" title="Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong">Jiangdong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_between_Cao_Cao_and_Zhang_Xiu" title="War between Cao Cao and Zhang Xiu">Cao Cao vs. Zhang Xiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiapi" title="Battle of Xiapi">Xiapi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yijing" title="Battle of Yijing">Yijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_against_Yuan_Shu" title="Campaign against Yuan Shu">Yuan Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guandu" title="Battle of Guandu">Guandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bowang" title="Battle of Bowang">Bowang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiakou" title="Battle of Xiakou">Xiakou</a></li> <li>Northern China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liyang" title="Battle of Liyang">Liyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ye" title="Battle of Ye">Ye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanpi" title="Battle of Nanpi">Nanpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Wolf_Mountain" title="Battle of White Wolf Mountain">White Wolf Mtn.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jiangxia" title="Battle of Jiangxia">Jiangxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Red_Cliffs" title="Battle of Red Cliffs">Red Cliffs</a></li> <li>Northwest China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tong_Pass_(211)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Tong Pass (211)">Tong Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jicheng" title="Siege of Jicheng">Jicheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lucheng" title="Battle of Lucheng">Lucheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Qi_Mountains" title="Battle of Qi Mountains">Qi Mtns.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Yangping" title="Battle of Yangping">Yangping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Bei%27s_takeover_of_Yi_Province" title="Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province">Yi Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ruxu_(213)" title="Battle of Ruxu (213)">Ruxu (213)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiaoyao_Ford" title="Battle of Xiaoyao Ford">Xiaoyao Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Liu_territorial_dispute" title="Sun–Liu territorial dispute">Jing Province (215)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ba" title="Battle of Ba">Ba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ruxu_(217)" title="Battle of Ruxu (217)">Ruxu (217)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanzhong_Campaign" title="Hanzhong Campaign">Hanzhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fancheng" title="Battle of Fancheng">Fancheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Meng%27s_invasion_of_Jing_Province" title="Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province">Jing Province (219)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Three_Kingdoms" title="Template:Campaignbox Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></i> →</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Three_Kingdoms" title="Template:Campaignbox Three Kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Three_Kingdoms" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Three Kingdoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Three_Kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Three Kingdoms"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Military history of the Three Kingdoms">Wars</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Three Kingdoms</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>← <i><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_End_of_Han" title="Template:Campaignbox End of Han">End of Han dynasty</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiaoting" title="Battle of Xiaoting">Xiaoting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Pi%27s_invasions_of_Eastern_Wu" title="Cao Pi's invasions of Eastern Wu">Invasion of Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Southern_Campaign" title="Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign">Southern Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xincheng_Rebellion" title="Xincheng Rebellion">Xincheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuge_Liang%27s_Northern_Expeditions" title="Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions">Northern Expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiting" title="Battle of Shiting">Shiting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziwu_Campaign" title="Ziwu Campaign">Ziwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hefei_(231)" title="Battle of Hefei (231)">Hefei (231)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hefei_(233)" title="Battle of Hefei (233)">Hefei (233)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hefei_(234)" title="Battle of Hefei (234)">Hefei (234)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sima_Yi%27s_Liaodong_campaign" title="Sima Yi's Liaodong campaign">Liaodong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fancheng_(241)" title="Battle of Fancheng (241)">Fancheng (241)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebei_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebei Campaign">Quebei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xingshi" title="Battle of Xingshi">Xingshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo%E2%80%93Wei_War" title="Goguryeo–Wei War">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_at_Gaoping_Tombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Incident at Gaoping Tombs">Gaoping Tombs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Wei%27s_Northern_Expeditions" title="Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions">Jiang's Expeditions</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Didao" title="Battle of Didao">Didao</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Rebellions_in_Shouchun" title="Three Rebellions in Shouchun">Shouchun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dongxing" title="Battle of Dongxing">Dongxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hefei_(253)" title="Battle of Hefei (253)">Hefei (253)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sima_Zhao%27s_regicide_of_Cao_Mao" title="Sima Zhao's regicide of Cao Mao">Cao Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Province_Campaign" title="Jiao Province Campaign">Jiao Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Shu_by_Wei" title="Conquest of Shu by Wei">Fall of Shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhong_Hui%27s_Rebellion" title="Zhong Hui's Rebellion">Zhong Hui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Yong%27an" title="Siege of Yong'an">Yong'an</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tufa_Shujineng%27s_Rebellion" title="Tufa Shujineng's Rebellion">Tufa Shujineng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xiling" title="Battle of Xiling">Xiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wu_by_Jin" title="Conquest of Wu by Jin">Fall of Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Game of the Three Kingdoms">Game of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_people_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms">Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties_poetry" title="Six Dynasties poetry">Six Dynasties poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_by_death_toll" title="List of wars by death toll">List of wars by death toll</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Referring to the Han dynasty government; the word 蒼, here glossed as <i>grey</i>, is specifically the colour of an old person's hair, alluding to the decrepit state of the Han</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Referring to the Yellow Turban Rebellion</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Jiazi</i> is the first step of the sexagenary cycle, signifying a new beginning</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i> – <i>Record of Emperor Xiaoling</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a></i> -<i>Guanghe Year 6</i> record that Zhang Jiao declared himself Yellow Emperor and took their movement's name from a headscarf worn by followers [yellow signifying the Yellow Emperor and imperial authority].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The area between present-day <a href="/wiki/Baoding" title="Baoding">Baoding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiyuan" title="Taiyuan">Taiyuan</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Earlier, in 217, Sima Yi had become a member of the heir apparent Cao Pi's entourage. He steadily rose in position during Cao Pi's reign. (Crespigny 1991,31)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheobald2000-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheobald2000_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTheobald2000">Theobald (2000)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dreyer, Edward L. 2009. “Military Aspects of the War of the Eight Princes, 300–307.” In <i>Military Culture in Imperial China</i>, edited by Nicola Di Cosmo. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 112–142. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03109-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03109-8">978-0-674-03109-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hans Bielenstein. Chinese historical demography A.D. 2-1982. Östasiatiska museet. p 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreverton2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Terry_Breverton" title="Terry Breverton">Breverton, Terry</a> (2013). <i>Breverton's Encyclopedia of Inventions</i> (Unabridged ed.). Quercus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-623-65234-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-623-65234-0"><bdi>978-1-623-65234-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breverton%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Inventions&rft.edition=Unabridged&rft.pub=Quercus&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-623-65234-0&rft.aulast=Breverton&rft.aufirst=Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYan2007" class="citation book cs1">Yan, Hong-Sen (2007). <i>Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery</i>. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-402-06460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-402-06460-9"><bdi>978-1-402-06460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+Designs+of+Lost+Ancient+Chinese+Machinery&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-402-06460-9&rft.aulast=Yan&rft.aufirst=Hong-Sen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo1999" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Guo Jian (郭建) (1999). <bdi lang="zh">千秋興亡</bdi> [<i>Rise and Fall over Thousands of Autumns</i>] (in Chinese). Changchun Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8D%83%E7%A7%8B%E8%88%88%E4%BA%A1&rft.pub=Changchun+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Jian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJiang2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jiang Lang (姜狼) (2011). <bdi lang="zh">184–280：三國原來這樣</bdi> [<i>184–280: It Turns Out the Three Kingdoms Were Like This</i>] (in Chinese). Beijing: Xiandai chubanshe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=184%E2%80%93280%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%8E%9F%E4%BE%86%E9%80%99%E6%A8%A3&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Xiandai+chubanshe&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Jiang&rft.aufirst=Lang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHan1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Han Guopan (韓國磐) (1983). <bdi lang="zh">魏晉南北朝史綱</bdi> [<i>Historical Highlights of the Six Dynasties</i>] (in Chinese). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E5%8F%B2%E7%B6%B1&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Renmin+chubanshe&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Guopan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhang Binsheng (張儐生) (1982). <bdi lang="zh">魏晉南北朝政治史</bdi> [<i>Administrative History of the Six Dynasties</i>] (in Chinese). Taipei: Chinese Culture University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8F%B2&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pub=Chinese+Culture+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Binsheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gao Min (高敏), ed. (1998). <bdi lang="zh">中國經濟通史魏晉南北朝經濟卷</bdi> [<i>The Complete Economic History of China: Economy of the Six Dynasties</i>] (in Chinese). Hong Kong: Economics Daily Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E9%80%9A%E5%8F%B2+%E9%AD%8F%E6%99%89%E5%8D%97%E5%8C%97%E6%9C%9D%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E5%8D%B7&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Economics+Daily+Press&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuo1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Luo Kun (羅琨); et al. (1998). <bdi lang="zh">中國軍事通史三國軍事史</bdi> [<i>The Complete Military History of China: Three Kingdoms Military History</i>] (in Chinese). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chinaknowledge&rft.atitle=The+Yellow+Turban+Uprising&rft.date=2011-06-28&rft.aulast=Theobald&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaknowledge.de%2FHistory%2FTerms%2Fhuangjin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–2-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–2_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–3-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19911–3_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 1–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">守尸吏暝以為大炷，置卓臍中以為灯，光明達旦，如是積日。 According to the Annal of Heroes, the light from his corpse could be compared to that of the sun!</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–3-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–3_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–4-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19912–4_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 2–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2007988-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2007988_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny2007">de Crespigny 2007</a>, p. 988.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19916–8-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19916–8_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 6–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19913–4-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19913–4_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19914_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199121-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199121_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918–9,_21-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19918–9,_21_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 8–9, 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19919–10-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny19919–10_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112–13,_16,_20–22-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199112–13,_16,_20–22_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 12–13, 16, 20–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199113-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199113_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199122-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199122_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, Keith Weller (1 April 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rCl_02LnNVIC&pg=PA70">"The Birth of Vietnam"</a>. University of California Press – via Google Books.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor198370-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor198370_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1983">Taylor 1983</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199131–32-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199131–32_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny199132_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny1991">de Crespigny 1991</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-byington93-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-byington93_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Byington, Mark E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111005153543/http://english.historyfoundation.or.kr/Data/Jnah/J4_1_S4.pdf">"Control or Conquer? Koguryǒ's Relations with States and Peoples in Manchuria"</a>, <i>Journal of Northeast Asian History</i> volume 4, number 1 (June 2007):93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2006" class="citation book cs1">Williams, R. Owen (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_SeZrcBqt-YC&pg=PA156"><i>Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition [Two Volumes]</i></a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-01524-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-01524-3"><bdi>978-0-313-01524-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Antislavery+and+Abolition+%5BTwo+Volumes%5D&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2006-11&rft.isbn=978-0-313-01524-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=R.+Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_SeZrcBqt-YC%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">From Zou Jiwan (<span lang="zh">鄒紀萬</span>), <i>Zhongguo Tongshi – Weijin Nanbeichao Shi</i> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">中國通史·魏晉南北朝史</span></span>, (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3114327/china-has-been-plagued-and-shaped-epidemics-it">"China has been plagued, and shaped, by epidemics – it has also overcome them"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post" title="South China Morning Post">South China Morning Post</a></i>. 21 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.atitle=China+has+been+plagued%2C+and+shaped%2C+by+epidemics+%E2%80%93+it+has+also+overcome+them&rft.date=2021-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scmp.com%2Fmagazines%2Fpost-magazine%2Fshort-reads%2Farticle%2F3114327%2Fchina-has-been-plagued-and-shaped-epidemics-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazanec2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mazanec, Thomas J. (1 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online.ucpress.edu/SLA/article/4/3/353/110917/Review-The-Halberd-at-Red-Cliff-Jian-an-and-the">"Review: The Halberd at Red Cliff: Jian'an and the Three Kingdoms, by Xiaofei Tian"</a>. <i>Studies in Late Antiquity</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 353–359. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fsla.2020.4.3.353">10.1525/sla.2020.4.3.353</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2470-6469">2470-6469</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225333779">225333779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Review%3A+The+Halberd+at+Red+Cliff%3A+Jian%27an+and+the+Three+Kingdoms%2C+by+Xiaofei+Tian&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-359&rft.date=2020-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225333779%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2470-6469&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fsla.2020.4.3.353&rft.aulast=Mazanec&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.ucpress.edu%2FSLA%2Farticle%2F4%2F3%2F353%2F110917%2FReview-The-Halberd-at-Red-Cliff-Jian-an-and-the&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANU-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ANU_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Crespigny2003" class="citation web cs1">de Crespigny, Rafe (November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185548/https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/3KWJin.html">"The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A history of China in the Third Century CE"</a>. Australian National University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/html/1885/42048/3KWJin.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Three+Kingdoms+and+Western+Jin%3A+A+history+of+China+in+the+Third+Century+CE&rft.pub=Australian+National+University&rft.date=2003-11&rft.aulast=de+Crespigny&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.anu.edu.au%2Fhtml%2F1885%2F42048%2F3KWJin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton_Watson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Burton_Watson" title="Burton Watson">Burton Watson</a> (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chineselyricism00burt/page/38"><i>Chinese Lyricism:: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century</i></a></span>. Columbia University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chineselyricism00burt/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-03464-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-03464-4"><bdi>0-231-03464-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Lyricism%3A%3A+Shih+Poetry+from+the+Second+to+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-231-03464-4&rft.au=Burton+Watson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchineselyricism00burt%2Fpage%2F38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010174-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges2010174_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnechtges2010">Knechtges (2010)</a>, p. 174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell1999149-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell1999149_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCutterCrowell1999">Cutter & Crowell 1999</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006294_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaren2006">McLaren 2006</a>, p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2020xi-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2020xi_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny2020">de Crespigny 2020</a>, p. xi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246_note_14-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246_note_14_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaren2012">McLaren 2012</a>, p. 46 note 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell199971-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECutterCrowell199971_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCutterCrowell1999">Cutter & Crowell 1999</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Crespigny2018353_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Crespigny2018">de Crespigny 2018</a>, p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMansvelt_Beck1986374–375-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMansvelt_Beck1986374–375_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMansvelt_Beck1986">Mansvelt Beck 1986</a>, pp. 374–375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201253_note_41-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201253_note_41_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaren2012">McLaren 2012</a>, p. 53 note 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006295–296-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006295–296_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaren2006">McLaren 2006</a>, pp. 295–296.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006302-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren2006302_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaren2006">McLaren 2006</a>, p. 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcLaren201246_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcLaren2012">McLaren 2012</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craig J. Reynolds. Seditious Histories: Contesting Thai and Southeast Asian Pasts, Washington: University of Washington Press, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcgamesn.com/total-war-three-kingdoms/romance-of-the-three-kingdoms">"How Creative Assembly and Koei Tecmo bring the Romance of the Three Kingdoms to life"</a>. 19 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Creative+Assembly+and+Koei+Tecmo+bring+the+Romance+of+the+Three+Kingdoms+to+life&rft.date=2020-02-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcgamesn.com%2Ftotal-war-three-kingdoms%2Fromance-of-the-three-kingdoms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBielenstein1947" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bielenstein" title="Hans Bielenstein">Bielenstein, Hans</a> (1947), "The census of China during the period 2–742 A.D.", <i>Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities</i>, <b>19</b>: 125–163</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Museum+of+Far+Eastern+Antiquities&rft.atitle=The+census+of+China+during+the+period+2%E2%80%93742+A.D.&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=125-163&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Bielenstein&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutterCrowell1999" class="citation book cs1">Cutter, Robert Joe; Crowell, William Gordon (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45843016"><i>Empresses and consorts : selections from Chen Shou's Records of the Three States with Pei Songzhi's commentary</i></a>. Honolulu: University of Hawaiì Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-32007-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-585-32007-1"><bdi>0-585-32007-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45843016">45843016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empresses+and+consorts+%3A+selections+from+Chen+Shou%27s+Records+of+the+Three+States+with+Pei+Songzhi%27s+commentary&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%C3%AC+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45843016&rft.isbn=0-585-32007-1&rft.aulast=Cutter&rft.aufirst=Robert+Joe&rft.au=Crowell%2C+William+Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F45843016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Crespigny1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rafe_de_Crespigny" title="Rafe de Crespigny">de Crespigny, Rafe</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eastasianhistory.org/sites/default/files/article-content/01/EAH01_01.pdf">"The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD ~ I"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>East Asian History</i>. <b>1</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=East+Asian+History&rft.atitle=The+Three+Kingdoms+and+Western+Jin%3A+A+History+of+China+in+the+Third+Century+AD+~+I&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=de+Crespigny&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eastasianhistory.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Farticle-content%2F01%2FEAH01_01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Crespigny2007" class="citation cs2">de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), <i>A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms</i>, Brill</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Later+Han+to+the+Three+Kingdoms&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=de+Crespigny&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Crespigny2018" class="citation book cs1">de Crespigny, Rafe (2018) [1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/148674"><i>Generals of the South: the foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu</i></a> (Internet ed.). Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generals+of+the+South%3A+the+foundation+and+early+history+of+the+Three+Kingdoms+state+of+Wu&rft.edition=Internet&rft.pub=Faculty+of+Asian+Studies%2C+The+Australian+National+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=de+Crespigny&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenresearch-repository.anu.edu.au%2Fhandle%2F1885%2F148674&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Crespigny2020" class="citation book cs1">de Crespigny, Rafe (2020) [1996]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1885/212581"><i>To Establish Peace: being the Chronicle of the Later Han dynasty for the years 189 to 200 AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 63 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang</i></a> (Internet ed.). Australia Centre on China in the World, The Australian National University. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1885%2F212581">1885/212581</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7315-2537-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7315-2537-9"><bdi>978-0-7315-2537-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Establish+Peace%3A+being+the+Chronicle+of+the+Later+Han+dynasty+for+the+years+189+to+200+AD+as+recorded+in+Chapters+59+to+63+of+the+Zizhi+tongjian+of+Sima+Guang&rft.edition=Internet&rft.pub=Australia+Centre+on+China+in+the+World%2C+The+Australian+National+University&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1885%2F212581&rft.isbn=978-0-7315-2537-9&rft.aulast=de+Crespigny&rft.aufirst=Rafe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F1885%2F212581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Jianxiong" title="Ge Jianxiong">Ge Jianxiong</a>, 中国人口史 (<i>History of the Population of China</i>) vol <b>1</b>. Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/7-309-03520-8" title="Special:BookSources/7-309-03520-8">7-309-03520-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnechtges2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Knechtges, David R. (2010). "From the Eastern Han Through the Western Jin (AD 25-317)". In Kang-yi Sun Chang; Stephen Owen (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qY32-zfTU9AC"><i>The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature</i></a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521855587" title="Special:BookSources/9780521855587"><bdi>9780521855587</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+the+Eastern+Han+Through+the+Western+Jin+%28AD+25-317%29&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Chinese+Literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=116-198&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780521855587&rft.aulast=Knechtges&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqY32-zfTU9AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansvelt_Beck1986" class="citation cs2">Mansvelt Beck, B. J. (1986), Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-china/fall-of-han/CFB7AEDDD40ACD9BB0A76CFE4ADA3318">"The fall of Han"</a>, <i>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220</i>, The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 317–376, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521243278.007">10.1017/chol9780521243278.007</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8"><bdi>978-0-521-24327-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+1%3A+The+Ch%27in+and+Han+Empires%2C+221+BC%E2%80%93AD+220&rft.atitle=The+fall+of+Han&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=317-376&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521243278.007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24327-8&rft.aulast=Mansvelt+Beck&rft.aufirst=B.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-history-of-china%2Ffall-of-han%2FCFB7AEDDD40ACD9BB0A76CFE4ADA3318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLaren2006" class="citation journal cs1">McLaren, Anne E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20182040">"History Repackaged in the Age of Print: The "Sanguozhi" and "Sanguo yanyi"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London</i>. <b>69</b> (2): 293–313. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X06000139">10.1017/S0041977X06000139</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0041-977X">0041-977X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20182040">20182040</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154489082">154489082</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies%2C+University+of+London&rft.atitle=History+Repackaged+in+the+Age+of+Print%3A+The+%22Sanguozhi%22+and+%22Sanguo+yanyi%22&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=293-313&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0041-977X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154489082%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20182040%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0041977X06000139&rft.aulast=McLaren&rft.aufirst=Anne+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20182040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLaren2012" class="citation journal cs1">McLaren, Anne E. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179/mon.2012.60.1.003">"Writing History, Writing Fiction: The Remaking of Cao Cao in Song Historiography"</a>. <i>Monumenta Serica</i>. <b>60</b> (1): 45–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fmon.2012.60.1.003">10.1179/mon.2012.60.1.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0254-9948">0254-9948</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193917398">193917398</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Serica&rft.atitle=Writing+History%2C+Writing+Fiction%3A+The+Remaking+of+Cao+Cao+in+Song+Historiography&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-69&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A193917398%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0254-9948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2Fmon.2012.60.1.003&rft.aulast=McLaren&rft.aufirst=Anne+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1179%2Fmon.2012.60.1.003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSan2014" class="citation cs2">San, Tan Koon (2014), <i>Dynastic China: An Elemental History</i>, The Other Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9839541885" title="Special:BookSources/978-9839541885"><bdi>978-9839541885</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynastic+China%3A+An+Elemental+History&rft.pub=The+Other+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9839541885&rft.aulast=San&rft.aufirst=Tan+Koon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1983" class="citation cs2">Taylor, Jay (1983), <i>The Birth of the Vietnamese</i>, University of California Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+the+Vietnamese&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheobald2000" class="citation cs2">Theobald, Ulrich (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/sanguo.html">"Chinese History – Three Kingdoms 三國 (220–280)"</a>, <i>Chinaknowledge</i><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinaknowledge&rft.atitle=Chinese+History+%E2%80%93+Three+Kingdoms+%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B+%28220%E2%80%93280%29&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Theobald&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaknowledge.de%2FHistory%2FDivision%2Fsanguo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Sima, Guang (1952). <i>The Chronicle of the Three Kingdoms (220–265) Chapters 69–78 from the Tz*U Chih T'ung Chien</i>. translated by <a href="/wiki/Achilles_Fang" title="Achilles Fang">Achilles Fang</a>, Glen William Baxter and Bernard S. Solomon. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chronicle+of+the+Three+Kingdoms+%28220%E2%80%93265%29+Chapters+69%E2%80%9378+from+the+Tz%2AU+Chih+T%27ung+Chien&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Sima&rft.aufirst=Guang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThree+Kingdoms" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hill, John E. 2004. <i>The Peoples of the West from the Weilue</i> 魏略 <i>by Yu Huan</i> 魚豢<i>: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">University of Washington, Draft annotated English translation</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Three_Kingdoms" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040823090252/http://eprints.anu.edu.au/archive/00002632/01/">Online Three Kingdoms publications</a> of Dr. Rafe de Crespigny, <a href="/wiki/Australian_National_University" title="Australian National University">Australian National University</a> (archived 23 August 2004)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Dynasties in Chinese history</a> </b><br />220–280 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Three_Kingdoms_(220–280)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Three_Kingdoms" title="Template:Three Kingdoms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Three_Kingdoms" title="Template talk:Three Kingdoms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Three_Kingdoms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Three Kingdoms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Three_Kingdoms_(220–280)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Three Kingdoms</a> (220–280)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cao_Wei" title="Cao Wei">Cao Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Wu" title="Eastern Wu">Eastern Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row 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.navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/21px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/42px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" 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