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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quaternary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Quaternary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quaternary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Tectonics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cenozoic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainoso%C3%AFkum" title="Kainosoïkum – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kainosoïkum" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4nozoikum" title="Känozoikum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Känozoikum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A9" title="حقبة الحياة الحديثة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حقبة الحياة الحديثة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoicu" title="Cenozoicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cenozoicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaynozoy" title="Kaynozoy – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kaynozoy" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95" title="সিনোজোয়িক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সিনোজোয়িক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin-seng-t%C4%81i" title="Sin-seng-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sin-seng-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Кайнозой – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Кайнозой" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Кайназой – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кайназой" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Кайназой – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кайназой" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Неозой – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Неозой" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoik" title="Kenozoik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kenozoik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoeg" title="Kenozoeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kenozoeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cenozoic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cainos%C3%B6ig" title="Cainosöig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cainosöig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A6nozoikum" title="Kænozoikum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kænozoikum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4nozoikum" title="Känozoikum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Känozoikum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainosoikum" title="Kainosoikum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kainosoikum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B1%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Καινοζωικός αιώνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καινοζωικός αιώνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_cenozoica" title="Era cenozoica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Era cenozoica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoiko" title="Kenozoiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kenozoiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenozoiko" title="Zenozoiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zenozoiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="نوزیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوزیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9nozo%C3%AFque" title="Cénozoïque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cénozoïque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_R%C3%A9_Chaenas%C3%B3ch" title="An Ré Chaenasóch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Ré Chaenasóch" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_cenozoica" title="Era cenozoica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Era cenozoica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%9D%EB%8C%80" title="신생대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신생대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%A6%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Կայնոզոյի դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կայնոզոյի դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="नूतनजीवी महाकल्प – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नूतनजीवी महाकल्प" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoik" title="Kenozoik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kenozoik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BDl%C3%ADfs%C3%B6ld" title="Nýlífsöld – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýlífsöld" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoico" title="Cenozoico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cenozoico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%96%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9F" title="קנוזואיקון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קנוזואיקון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AF%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="კაინოზოური ჯგუფი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კაინოზოური ჯგუფი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Кайнозой – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кайнозой" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidgelkeugal" title="Sidgelkeugal – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Sidgelkeugal" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ep%C3%B2_senozoyik" title="Epò senozoyik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Epò senozoyik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenozoicum" title="Caenozoicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Caenozoicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainozojs" title="Kainozojs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kainozojs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84erdneiz%C3%A4it" title="Äerdneizäit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Äerdneizäit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainozojus" title="Kainozojus – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kainozojus" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainozoikum" title="Kainozoikum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kainozoikum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Кенозоик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кенозоик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senozoik" title="Senozoik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Senozoik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="သက်နှောင်းကပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သက်နှောင်းကပ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozo%C3%AFcum" title="Cenozoïcum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cenozoïcum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="नत्रजीवक उपकल्प – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नत्रजीवक उपकल्प" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="新生代 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="新生代" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozo%C3%AFc" title="Cenozoïc – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cenozoïc" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="سینوزویک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سینوزویک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F" title="កន្យសត្ត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="កន្យសត្ត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenos%C3%B2ich" title="Cenosòich – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Cenosòich" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4nozoikum" title="Känozoikum – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Känozoikum" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoik" title="Kenozoik – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kenozoik" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoico" title="Cenozoico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cenozoico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaynozoy" title="Kaynozoy – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Kaynozoy" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neozoic" title="Neozoic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Neozoic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Кайнозой – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кайнозой" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A" title="සීනොසොයික් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සීනොසොයික්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cenozoic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoik" title="Kenozoik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kenozoik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Кенозоик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кенозоик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoik" title="Kenozoik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kenozoik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9nozoikum" title="Kénozoikum – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kénozoikum" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenotsooinen_maailmankausi" title="Kenotsooinen maailmankausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kenotsooinen maailmankausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenozoikum" title="Kenozoikum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kenozoikum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Cenozoic" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9" title="Кайнозой – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Кайнозой" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="มหายุคซีโนโซอิก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มหายุคซีโนโซอิก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senozoyik" title="Senozoyik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Senozoyik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Кайнозойська ера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кайнозойська ера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_T%C3%A2n_sinh" title="Đại Tân sinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại Tân sinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Cenozoic" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="新生代 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="新生代" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="新生代 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="新生代" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E7%94%9F%E4%BB%A3" title="新生代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="新生代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q102416#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:23em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em 0.33em 0.33em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:1.25em;background:rgb(242,249,29);">Cenozoic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">66.0 – 0 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:197.66153846154px; width:22.338461538462px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:197.66153846154px; width:22.338461538462px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:198.66153846154px; width:20.338461538462px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg/250px-Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg/375px-Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg/500px-Torre_Sant%27Andrea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Rock deposits from the Cenozoic Era (<a href="/wiki/Torre_Sant%27Andrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Torre Sant'Andrea">Torre Sant'Andrea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salento" title="Salento">Salento</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Chronology</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="font-size:14px"><table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:none;margin:auto;overflow:hidden;min-width:13.400em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:32em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.94em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−70 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.80em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−65 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−60 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.24em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.10em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−55 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.96em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−50 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−45 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:18.25em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−40 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.11em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.97em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−35 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.83em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.69em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−30 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.41em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−25 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−20 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.99em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.84em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−15 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.70em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.28em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:7.5em;height:32em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#000000"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(154,217,221);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:0.000em;width:0.825em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="line-height:16px;display:block;"><b><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic"> P <br /> h <br /> a <br /> n <br /> e <br /> r <br /> o <br /> z <br /> o <br /> i <br /> c</a></b></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(103,197,202);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.118em;height:1.882em;left:0.900em;width:6.600em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.941em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(242,249,29);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:30.018em;left:0.900em;width:0.825em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-15.009em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="line-height:16px;display:block;"><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">C<br />e<br />n<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></b></span></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(249,249,127);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.077em;left:1.800em;width:5.700em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.539em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(253,154,82);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:10.514em;height:19.504em;left:1.800em;width:5.700em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-9.752em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(255,230,25);border-width:0.05em;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.177em;height:9.236em;left:1.800em;width:5.700em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.618em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:246.737em;height:0.137em;left:0.000em;width:7.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.068em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:114.950em;height:0.137em;left:0.900em;width:6.600em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.068em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#000000;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:32.000em;left:7.425em;width:0.075em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-16.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto;float:left;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:12.250em"><b>An approximate timescale of key Cenozoic events.</b><br />Vertical axis scale: <a href="/wiki/Megaannus" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannus">Millions of years ago</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Etymology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Name formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Nickname(s)</th><td class="infobox-data">Age of Mammals</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Usage information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Celestial body</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Earth</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Regional usage</th><td class="infobox-data">Global (<a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time scale(s) used</th><td class="infobox-data">ICS Time Scale</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ededed;">Definition</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Chronological unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">Era</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Stratigraphic unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Erathem" title="Erathem">Erathem</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Time span formality</th><td class="infobox-data">Formal</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent <a href="/wiki/K-Pg_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="K-Pg extinction event">K-Pg extinction event</a>.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data">El Kef Section, <a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">El Kef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a><br /><span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Cenozoic&params=36.1537_N_8.6486_E_"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">36°09′13″N</span> <span class="longitude">8°38′55″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">36.1537°N 8.6486°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">36.1537; 8.6486</span></span></span></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Lower GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">1991</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary definition</th><td class="infobox-data">N/A</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper boundary GSSP</th><td class="infobox-data">N/A</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:10em;">Upper GSSP ratified</th><td class="infobox-data">N/A</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Cenozoic Era</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>-/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">SEE</span>-nə-<span style="font-size:90%">ZOH</span>-ik, <span style="font-size:90%">SEN</span>-ə-</i></a>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">new life</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is Earth's current geological <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">era</a>, representing the last 66<span class="nowrap"> </span>million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a> (flowering plants). It is the latest of three geological eras of the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">Eon</a>, preceded by the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>. The Cenozoic started with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>, when many species, including the non-avian <a href="/wiki/Dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinosaurs">dinosaurs</a>, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_impactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicxulub impactor">Chicxulub impactor</a>. </p><p>The Cenozoic is also known as the <b>Age of Mammals</b> because the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were mammals – the <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">eutherians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Placental" class="mw-redirect" title="Placental">placentals</a>) in the Northern Hemisphere and the <a href="/wiki/Metatheria" title="Metatheria">metatherians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>, now mainly restricted to <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and to some extent <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>) in the Southern Hemisphere. The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth. The continents also moved into their current positions during this era. </p><p>The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum</a>. However, the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a> transition and the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary glaciation</a> dried and cooled Earth. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Cenozoic</i> derives from the Greek words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">kainós</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:καινός">καινός</a></span> 'new') and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">zōḗ</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ζωή">ζωή</a></span> 'life').<sup id="cite_ref-OnlineEtymologyDict_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OnlineEtymologyDict-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist <a href="/wiki/John_Phillips_(geologist)" title="John Phillips (geologist)">John Phillips</a> (1800–1874), who originally spelled it <i>Kainozoic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The era is also known as the <i>Cænozoic</i>, <i>Caenozoic</i>, or <i>Cainozoic</i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>-/</a></span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In name, the Cenozoic (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">new life</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Divisions">Divisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a>; and seven <a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epochs</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>. The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">International Commission on Stratigraphy</a> in June 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibbard-2010_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibbard-2010-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary Period">Tertiary Period</a> was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps <a href="/wiki/Palaeontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontologist">palaeontologists</a> better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleogene">Paleogene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Paleogene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago. It features three <a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epochs</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>. </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basilosaurus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Basilosaurus.jpg/220px-Basilosaurus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Basilosaurus.jpg/330px-Basilosaurus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Basilosaurus.jpg/440px-Basilosaurus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Basilosaurus" title="Basilosaurus">Basilosaurus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Paleocene_Epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleocene Epoch">Paleocene Epoch</a> lasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago. Modern placental mammals originated during this time.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Leary-2013_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Leary-2013-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The devastation of the <a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Pg_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="K–Pg extinction event">K–Pg extinction event</a> included the extinction of large <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>, which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2009_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2009-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other. <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a> was separated by the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a>, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">isthmus</a> had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as <a href="/wiki/Creodonts" class="mw-redirect" title="Creodonts">creodonts</a> (extinct carnivores, unrelated to existing <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">Carnivora</a>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eocene_Epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Eocene Epoch">Eocene Epoch</a> ranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago. In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the top of the food chains were huge birds, such as <a href="/wiki/Paracrax" title="Paracrax">Paracrax</a>. Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">ppm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a> between Australia and Antarctica formed. This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic. Mammals like <i><a href="/wiki/Andrewsarchus" title="Andrewsarchus">Andrewsarchus</a></i> were at the top of the food-chain. The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Grasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasses">grasses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The end of the Eocene was marked by the <a href="/wiki/Eocene%E2%80%93Oligocene_extinction_event" title="Eocene–Oligocene extinction event">Eocene–Oligocene extinction event</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ivany-2000_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ivany-2000-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the European face of which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Grande_Coupure" class="mw-redirect" title="Grande Coupure">Grande Coupure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Oligocene_Epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligocene Epoch">Oligocene Epoch</a> spans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago. The Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in this period too. A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neogene">Neogene</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neogene"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a> spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features two epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Miocene_Epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Miocene Epoch">Miocene Epoch</a> spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which <a href="/wiki/Grasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasses">grasses</a> spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests. <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">Kelp</a> forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>. During this time, <a href="/wiki/Perissodactyla" title="Perissodactyla">Perissodactyla</a> thrived, and evolved into many different varieties. <a href="/wiki/Apes" class="mw-redirect" title="Apes">Apes</a> evolved into 30 species. The <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a> finally closed with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, leaving only remnants as the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Seas</a>. This increased aridity. Many new plants evolved: 95% of modern <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed plants</a> families were present by the end of the Miocene.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pliocene_Epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pliocene Epoch">Pliocene Epoch</a> lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> reduced sea levels, disconnecting the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> from the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers). <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i> evolved in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, beginning the human branch. The <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> formed, and animals migrated between <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_American_interchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Great American interchange">great American interchange</a>, wreaking havoc on local ecologies. Climatic changes brought: <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savannas</a> that are still continuing to spread across the world; Indian <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoons</a>; <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a> in central <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>; and the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> desert. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the <a href="/wiki/Glaciations" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciations">glaciations</a> of the Quaternary, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quaternary">Quaternary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Quaternary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic_Eon" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanerozoic Eon">Phanerozoic Eon</a>. It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/220px-Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/330px-Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg/440px-Ice_age_fauna_of_northern_Spain_-_Mauricio_Ant%C3%B3n.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2584" data-file-height="1263" /></a><figcaption>Megafauna of Pleistocene Europe (<a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Panthera_spelaea" title="Panthera spelaea">cave lions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhino" class="mw-redirect" title="Woolly rhino">woolly rhino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reindeer" title="Reindeer">reindeer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wild_horse" title="Wild horse">horses</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked by <a href="/wiki/Ice_ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice ages">ice ages</a> as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> which resulted in the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara desert">Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namib_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Namib Desert">Namib</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kalahari_Desert" title="Kalahari Desert">Kalahari</a> deserts. Many animals evolved including <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giant_ground_sloths" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant ground sloths">giant ground sloths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dire_wolves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dire wolves">dire wolves</a>, sabre-toothed cats, and <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>. 100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such as <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a>. All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. It still retains many large animals, such as hippos.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> began 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day. All recorded history and "the <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a>" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. This is sometimes referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Sixth_Extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Extinction">Sixth Extinction</a>". It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tectonics">Tectonics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tectonics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geologically</a>, the Cenozoic is the era when the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> moved into their current positions. <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia-New Guinea</a>, having split from <a href="/wiki/Pangea" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangea">Pangea</a> during the early <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, drifted north and, eventually, collided with <a href="/wiki/South-east_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="South-east Asia">Southeast Asia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> moved into its current position over the <a href="/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> widened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago), <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> became attached to <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">isthmus of Panama</a>. </p><p>India collided with Asia <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=55–45">55 to 45</a> million years ago</span> creating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a> and creating the <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>, around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=35">35</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen-2008_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The break-up of Gondwana in <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> and Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orange_River" title="Orange River">Orange</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limpopo_River" title="Limpopo River">Limpopo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zambezi_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zambezi River">Zambezi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today. This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene%E2%80%93Eocene_Thermal_Maximum" title="Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum">Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum</a> about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=55.5">55.5</a> million years ago</span>. Around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=50">50</a> million years ago</span>, Earth entered a period of long term cooling. This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>: the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=35">35</a> million years ago</span>, permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cooling trend continued in the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>, with relatively short warmer periods. When South America became attached to North America creating the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2.8">2.8</a> million years ago</span>, the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a> currents,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> eventually leading to the glaciations of the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>, the current <a href="/wiki/Interglacial" title="Interglacial">interglacial</a> of which is the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> Epoch. Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on million years' timescale in the Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the Cenozoic.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paleotherium_magnum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Paleotherium_magnum.jpg/250px-Paleotherium_magnum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Paleotherium_magnum.jpg/330px-Paleotherium_magnum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Paleotherium_magnum.jpg/500px-Paleotherium_magnum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5265" data-file-height="3857" /></a><figcaption>Restoration of <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeotherium" title="Palaeotherium">Palaeotherium</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> relative of horses that lived in subtropical climates of Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Early in the Cenozoic, following the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous-Paleogene_Extinction_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction Event">K-Pg event</a>, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds also diversified rapidly; some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Terror_bird" class="mw-redirect" title="Terror bird">terror birds</a>", and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every available <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a> (both marine and <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial</a>), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals. The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Cenozoic, <a href="/wiki/Mammal_evolution#Expansion_of_ecological_niches_in_the_Mesozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammal evolution">mammals proliferated</a> from a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection of <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">flying</a> animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age of <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savannas</a>, the age of co-dependent <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, and the age of birds.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Grasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasses">Grasses</a> also played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them. One group that diversified significantly in the Cenozoic as well were the <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>. Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in many <a href="/wiki/Colubrids" class="mw-redirect" title="Colubrids">colubrids</a>, following the evolution of their current primary prey source, the <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>. </p><p>In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Gastornithidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastornithidae">gastornithid</a> birds, terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Crocodylian" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodylian">crocodylians</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Pristichampsus" title="Pristichampsus">Pristichampsus</a></i>, large sharks such as <a href="/wiki/Otodus" title="Otodus">Otodus</a>, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like <a href="/wiki/Uintathere" class="mw-redirect" title="Uintathere">uintatheres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesonychia" title="Mesonychia">mesonychians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pantodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantodont">pantodonts</a>. But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over. </p><p>The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including <a href="/wiki/Chalicothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalicothere">chalicotheres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Creodont">creodonts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entelodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Entelodont">entelodonts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabre-toothed_cat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabre-toothed cat">sabre-toothed cats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mastodon" title="Mastodon">mastodons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Three-toed_horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-toed horse">three-toed horses</a>, giant <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Paraceratherium" title="Paraceratherium">Paraceratherium</a></i>, the rhinoceros-like <a href="/wiki/Brontothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Brontothere">brontotheres</a>, various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-like <a href="/wiki/Pyrotheria" title="Pyrotheria">pyrotheres</a> and the dog-like marsupial relatives called <a href="/wiki/Borhyaenidae" title="Borhyaenidae">borhyaenids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">monotremes</a> and marsupials of Australia. Mammal evolution in the Cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cenozoic <a href="/wiki/Calcareous_nannofossils" title="Calcareous nannofossils">calcareous nannoplankton</a> experienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity, while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the Eocene and Neogene. <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a>, in contrast, experienced major diversification over the Eocene, especially at high latitudes, as the world's oceans cooled.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diatom diversification was particularly concentrated at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. A second major pulse of diatom diversification occurred over the course of the Middle and Late Miocene.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a> (K–T boundary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Cenozoic_Ice_Age" title="Late Cenozoic Ice Age">Late Cenozoic Ice Age</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175940/https://www.lexico.com/definition/Cenozoic">"Cenozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lexico" title="Lexico">Lexico</a> UK English Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lexico.com/definition/Cenozoic">the original</a> on 23 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cenozoic&rft.btitle=Lexico+UK+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fdefinition%2FCenozoic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Cenozoic">"Cenozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Cenozoic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FCenozoic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OnlineEtymologyDict-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OnlineEtymologyDict_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cenozoic&allowed_in_frame=0">"Cenozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cenozoic&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3DCenozoic%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1840" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, John (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hn4zr7;view=1up;seq=163">"Palæozoic series"</a>. <i>Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge</i>. Vol. 17. London, England: Charles Knight and Co. pp. <span class="nowrap">153–</span>154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pal%C3%A6ozoic+series&rft.btitle=Penny+Cyclopaedia+of+the+Society+for+the+Diffusion+of+Useful+Knowledge&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E154&rft.pub=Charles+Knight+and+Co.&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.hn4zr7%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span> From pp. 153–154: "As many systems or combinations of organic forms as are clearly traceable in the stratified crust of the globe, so many corresponding terms (as Palæozoic, Mesozoic, Kainozoic, &c.) may be made, ... "</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilmarth1925" class="citation book cs1">Wilmarth, Mary Grace (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=my7x_PBkpm4C&pg=PA8"><i>Bulletin 769: The Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey Compared With Other Classifications, accompanied by the original definitions of era, period and epoch terms</i></a>. Washington, D.C., U.S.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bulletin+769%3A+The+Geologic+Time+Classification+of+the+United+States+Geological+Survey+Compared+With+Other+Classifications%2C+accompanied+by+the+original+definitions+of+era%2C+period+and+epoch+terms&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.%2C+U.S.&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Wilmarth&rft.aufirst=Mary+Grace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmy7x_PBkpm4C%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The evolution of the spelling of "Cenozoic" is reviewed in: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarlandArmstrongCoxCraig1990" class="citation book cs1">Harland, W. Brian; Armstrong, Richard L.; Cox, Allen V.; Craig, Lorraine E.; Smith, David G.; Smith, Alan G. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xbKJV6LSeggC&pg=PA31">"The Chronostratic Scale"</a>. <i>A Geologic Time Scale 1989</i>. Cambridge, England, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521387651" title="Special:BookSources/9780521387651"><bdi>9780521387651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chronostratic+Scale&rft.btitle=A+Geologic+Time+Scale+1989&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England%2C+U.K.&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780521387651&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.aufirst=W.+Brian&rft.au=Armstrong%2C+Richard+L.&rft.au=Cox%2C+Allen+V.&rft.au=Craig%2C+Lorraine+E.&rft.au=Smith%2C+David+G.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Alan+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxbKJV6LSeggC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> Although John Phillips originally spelled it as "Kainozoic" in 1840, he spelled it "Cainozoic" a year later: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1841" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, John (1841). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/figuresanddescr00philgoog"><i>Figures and Descriptions of the Palæozoic Fossils of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset; ...</i></a> London, England, U.K.: Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/figuresanddescr00philgoog/page/n174">160</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Figures+and+Descriptions+of+the+Pal%C3%A6ozoic+Fossils+of+Cornwall%2C+Devon%2C+and+West+Somerset%3B+...&rft.place=London%2C+England%2C+U.K.&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+%26+Longmans&rft.date=1841&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffiguresanddescr00philgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Cainozoic">"Cainozoic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com Unabridged</a></i> (Online). n.d.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cainozoic&rft.btitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2FCainozoic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Cainozoic". <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (2nd ed.). 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cainozoic&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibbard-2010-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibbard-2010_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGibbardHeadWalker2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gibbard, P. L.; Head, M. J.; Walker, M. J. C. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjqs.1338">"Formal ratification of the Quaternary System/Period and the Pleistocene Series/Epoch with a base at 2.58 Ma"</a>. <i>Journal of Quaternary Science</i>. <b>25</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">96–</span>102. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JQS....25...96G">2010JQS....25...96G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjqs.1338">10.1002/jqs.1338</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Quaternary+Science&rft.atitle=Formal+ratification+of+the+Quaternary+System%2FPeriod+and+the+Pleistocene+Series%2FEpoch+with+a+base+at+2.58+Ma&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjqs.1338&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010JQS....25...96G&rft.aulast=Gibbard&rft.aufirst=P.+L.&rft.au=Head%2C+M.+J.&rft.au=Walker%2C+M.+J.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fjqs.1338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Leary-2013-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Leary-2013_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO'LearyBlochFlynnGaudin2013" class="citation journal cs1">O'Leary, Maureen A.; Bloch, Jonathan I.; Flynn, John J.; Gaudin, Timothy J.; Giallombardo, Andres; Giannini, Norberto P.; Goldberg, Suzann L.; Kraatz, Brian P.; Luo, Zhe-Xi; Meng, Jin; Ni, Michael J.; Novacek, Fernando A.; Perini, Zachary S.; Randall, Guillermo; Rougier, Eric J.; Sargis, Mary T.; Silcox, Nancy b.; Simmons, Micelle; Spaulding, Paul M.; Velazco, Marcelo; Weksler, John r.; Wible, Andrea L.; Cirranello, A. L. (8 February 2013). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2024</span> – via GeoScienceWorld.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Micropaleontology&rft.atitle=Calcareous+nannoplankton+evolution%3A+a+tale+of+two+oceans&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E299-%3C%2Fspan%3E308&rft.date=2005-10-01&rft.issn=0026-2803&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2113%2Fgsmicropal.51.4.299&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MiPal..51..299B&rft.aulast=Bown&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fmicropress%2Fmicropal%2Farticle-abstract%2F51%2F4%2F299%2F139808%2FCalcareous-nannoplankton-evolution-a-tale-of-two&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFalkowskiKatzKnollQuigg2004" class="citation journal cs1">Falkowski, Paul G.; Katz, Miriam E.; Knoll, Andrew H.; Quigg, Antonietta; Raven, John A.; Schofield, Oscar; Taylor, F. J. R. (16 July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1095964">"The Evolution of Modern Eukaryotic Phytoplankton"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>305</b> (5682): <span class="nowrap">354–</span>360. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Sci...305..354F">2004Sci...305..354F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1095964">10.1126/science.1095964</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15256663">15256663</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Modern+Eukaryotic+Phytoplankton&rft.volume=305&rft.issue=5682&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E354-%3C%2Fspan%3E360&rft.date=2004-07-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1095964&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15256663&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Sci...305..354F&rft.aulast=Falkowski&rft.aufirst=Paul+G.&rft.au=Katz%2C+Miriam+E.&rft.au=Knoll%2C+Andrew+H.&rft.au=Quigg%2C+Antonietta&rft.au=Raven%2C+John+A.&rft.au=Schofield%2C+Oscar&rft.au=Taylor%2C+F.+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1095964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFProthero2006" class="citation book cs1">Prothero, Donald R. (2006). <i>After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals</i>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34733-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-34733-6"><bdi>978-0-253-34733-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+the+Dinosaurs%3A+The+Age+of+Mammals&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-253-34733-6&rft.aulast=Prothero&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACenozoic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cenozoic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/60px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/120px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Cainozoic" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cainozoic">Cainozoic</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cenozoic" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museum.wa.gov.au/explore/dinosaur-discovery/age-mammals">Western Australian Museum – The Age of the Mammals</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghkclass.com/ghkC.html?cenozoic">Cenozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Template talk:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geological history of Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geological_history_of_Earth1258" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cenozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(present–66.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary <span class="nobold">(present–2.58 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene (present–11.7 ka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene <span class="nobold">(2.58–23.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene <span class="nobold">(23.0–66.0 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(66.0–252 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous <span class="nobold">(66.0–145 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late (66.0–100 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early (100–145 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic <span class="nobold">(145–201 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late (145–164 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Jurassic" title="Middle Jurassic">Middle (164–174 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early (174–201 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic <span class="nobold">(201–252 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Triassic" title="Late Triassic">Late (201–237 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle (237–247 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Triassic" title="Early Triassic">Early (247–252 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic Era<br /><span class="nobold">(252–539 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian <span class="nobold">(252–299 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lopingian" title="Lopingian">Lopingian (252–260 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupian" title="Guadalupian">Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisuralian" title="Cisuralian">Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous <span class="nobold">(299–359 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_(geology)" title="Mississippian (geology)">Mississippian (323–359 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian <span class="nobold">(359–419 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">Late (359–383 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Devonian" title="Middle Devonian">Middle (383–393 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Devonian" title="Early Devonian">Early (393–419 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian <span class="nobold">(419–444 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pridoli_Epoch" title="Pridoli Epoch">Pridoli (419–423 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Epoch" title="Ludlow Epoch">Ludlow (423–427 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenlock_Epoch" title="Wenlock Epoch">Wenlock (427–433 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llandovery_Epoch" title="Llandovery Epoch">Llandovery (433–444 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician <span class="nobold">(444–485 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician" title="Late Ordovician">Late (444–458 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ordovician" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Ordovician">Middle (458–470 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early (470–485 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian <span class="nobold">(485–539 Ma)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furongian" title="Furongian">Furongian (485–497 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaolingian" title="Miaolingian">Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Series_2" title="Cambrian Series 2">Series 2 (509–521 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terreneuvian" title="Terreneuvian">Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic Eon<br /><span class="nobold">(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(539 Ma–1 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonian" title="Tonian">Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" title="Mesoproterozoic">Mesoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(1–1.6 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stenian" title="Stenian">Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectasian" title="Ectasian">Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calymmian" title="Calymmian">Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:26ch"><a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic <span class="nobold">(1.6–2.5 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statherian" title="Statherian">Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosirian" title="Orosirian">Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyacian" title="Rhyacian">Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siderian" title="Siderian">Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean Eon <span class="nobold">(2.5–4 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoarchean" title="Neoarchean">Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoarchean" title="Mesoarchean">Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" title="Paleoarchean">Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean Eon <span class="nobold">(4–4.6 Ga)</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">ka</a> = kiloannum (thousand years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a> = megaannum (million years ago); <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ga</a> = gigaannum (billion years ago).<br /> <i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a>  •  <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/15px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/23px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/30px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" 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