CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Imre Lakatos - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"303ec3a3-6967-4e64-9b4d-bbcc0f8f2cfe","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Imre_Lakatos","wgTitle":"Imre Lakatos","wgCurRevisionId":1258557903,"wgRevisionId":1258557903,"wgArticleId":38455,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2016","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024","CS1 maint: others","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from April 2022","Pages using infobox philosopher with unknown parameters","Articles with hCards","Articles containing Hungarian-language text","Pages with Hungarian IPA","Articles containing Latin-language text","Webarchive template wayback links","1922 births", "1974 deaths","20th-century Hungarian male writers","20th-century Hungarian philosophers","Academics of the London School of Economics","Critical rationalists","Hungarian communists","Hungarian defectors","Hungarian Jews","20th-century Hungarian mathematicians","Hungarian philosophers","Hungarian refugees","Jewish philosophers","Jewish refugees","Moscow State University alumni","Philosophers of mathematics","Philosophers of science","Stateless people","University of Debrecen alumni","Hungarian expatriates in the Soviet Union","Hungarian emigrants to the United Kingdom"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Imre_Lakatos","wgRelevantArticleId":38455,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true, "wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q296249","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready", "ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1766"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1177"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="942"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Imre Lakatos - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Imre_Lakatos rootpage-Imre_Lakatos skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Imre+Lakatos" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Imre+Lakatos" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Imre+Lakatos" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Imre+Lakatos" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Philosophical work</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophical_work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophical work subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Philosophy of mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cauchy_and_uniform_convergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cauchy_and_uniform_convergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Cauchy and uniform convergence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cauchy_and_uniform_convergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_programmes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_programmes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Research programmes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_programmes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pseudoscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pseudoscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Pseudoscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pseudoscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Darwin's_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Darwin's_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Darwin's theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Darwin's_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rational_reconstructions_of_the_history_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rational_reconstructions_of_the_history_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Rational reconstructions of the history of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rational_reconstructions_of_the_history_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feyerabend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feyerabend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Feyerabend</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feyerabend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Archives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Imre Lakatos</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3" title="إمري لاكاتوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إمري لاكاتوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mre_Lakatos" title="İmre Lakatos – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İmre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%88" title="Имре Лакатош – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Имре Лакатош" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8A%CE%BC%CF%81%CE%B5_%CE%9B%CE%AC%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ίμρε Λάκατος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ίμρε Λάκατος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos_(filozofo)" title="Imre Lakatos (filozofo) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Imre Lakatos (filozofo)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B4" title="ایمره لاکاتوش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایمره لاکاتوش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EC%BB%A4%ED%86%A0%EC%8B%9C_%EC%9E%84%EB%A0%88" title="러커토시 임레 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러커토시 임레" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B4%D6%80%D5%A5_%D4%BC%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD" title="Իմրե Լակատոս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իմրե Լակատոս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8" title="इम्रे लक़तोस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इम्रे लक़तोस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A9" title="אימרה לקטוש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אימרה לקטוש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81" title="Имре Лакатос – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Имре Лакатос" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakatos_Imre_(filoz%C3%B3fus)" title="Lakatos Imre (filozófus) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lakatos Imre (filozófus)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%89_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3" title="امرى لاكاتوس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="امرى لاكاتوس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AB%E3%83%88%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A0%E3%83%AC" title="ラカトシュ・イムレ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラカトシュ・イムレ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87_%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B8" title="ਇਮਰੇ ਲਕਾਤੋਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਮਰੇ ਲਕਾਤੋਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%92_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3" title="ایمرے کلاتوس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایمرے کلاتوس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81,_%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Лакатос, Имре – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лакатос, Имре" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakato%C5%A1" title="Imre Lakatoš – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Imre Lakatoš" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B5_%D0%9B%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%88" title="Імре Лакатош – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Імре Лакатош" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Imre Lakatos" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%89%98%E4%BB%80%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E5%A7%86%E9%9B%B7" title="拉卡托什·伊姆雷 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="拉卡托什·伊姆雷" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E5%A7%86%E9%9B%B7%C2%B7%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%89%98%E6%96%AF" title="伊姆雷·拉卡托斯 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伊姆雷·拉卡托斯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%8D%A1%E6%89%98%E4%BB%80%C2%B7%E4%BC%8A%E5%A7%86%E9%9B%B7" title="拉卡托什·伊姆雷 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="拉卡托什·伊姆雷" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q296249#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Imre_Lakatos" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Imre_Lakatos" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Imre_Lakatos" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&oldid=1258557903" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Imre_Lakatos&id=1258557903&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FImre_Lakatos"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FImre_Lakatos"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Imre_Lakatos&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Imre_Lakatos" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q296249" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other people with the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Lakatos_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakatos (disambiguation)">Lakatos (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">The native form of this <a href="/wiki/Personal_name" title="Personal name">personal name</a> is <i>Lakatos Imre</i>. This article uses <a href="/wiki/Personal_name#Western_name_order" title="Personal name">Western name order</a> when mentioning individuals.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Imre Lakatos</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Professor_Imre_Lakatos,_c1960s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg/220px-Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg/330px-Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg/440px-Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="883" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Lakatos, c. 1960s</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1922-11-09</span>)</span>9 November 1922<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Debrecen" title="Debrecen">Debrecen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920%E2%80%931946)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)">Hungary</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">2 February 1974<span style="display:none">(1974-02-02)</span> (aged 51)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">London, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Debrecen" title="University of Debrecen">University of Debrecen</a> (PhD, 1948)<br /><a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> (PhD, 1961)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a><sup id="cite_ref-Reck_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reck-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Historical_turn" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical turn">Historical turn</a><sup id="cite_ref-Reck_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reck-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_quasi-empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical quasi-empiricism">Mathematical quasi-empiricism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Historiographical_internalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiographical internalism">Historiographical internalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.483184"><i>Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery</i></a> (1961)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/R._B._Braithwaite" title="R. B. Braithwaite">R. B. Braithwaite</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sofya_Yanovskaya" title="Sofya Yanovskaya">Sofya Yanovskaya</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Gillies" title="Donald A. Gillies">Donald A. Gillies</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Latsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiro Latsis">Spiro Latsis</a><br /><a href="/wiki/John_Worrall_(philosopher)" title="John Worrall (philosopher)">John Worrall</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">politics</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Method of proofs and refutations, methodology of scientific research programmes, methodology of historiographical research programmes,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> positive vs. negative heuristics, progressive vs. degenerative research programmes, <a href="/wiki/Rational_reconstruction" title="Rational reconstruction">rational reconstruction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_quasi-empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical quasi-empiricism">mathematical quasi-empiricism</a>, criticism of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">formalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophisticated_falsificationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophisticated falsificationism">sophisticated falsificationism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Research_program" title="Research program">Research program</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Imre Lakatos</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>: <i lang="hu">Lakatos Imre</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="hu-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hungarian" title="Help:IPA/Hungarian">[ˈlɒkɒtoʃ<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈimrɛ]</a></span>; 9 November 1922 – 2 February 1974) was a <a href="/wiki/Hungarians" title="Hungarians">Hungarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a>, known for his thesis of the fallibility of mathematics and its "methodology of proofs and refutations" in its pre-axiomatic stages of development, and also for introducing the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Research_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Research programme">research programme</a>" in his methodology of scientific research programmes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lakatos was born Imre (Avrum) Lipsitz to a <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Debrecen" title="Debrecen">Debrecen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1920%E2%80%931946)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)">Hungary</a>, in 1922. He received a degree in mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Debrecen" title="University of Debrecen">University of Debrecen</a> in 1944. In March 1944 the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Margarethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Margarethe">Germans invaded Hungary</a>, and Lakatos along with Éva Révész, his then-girlfriend and subsequent wife, formed soon after that event a <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> resistance group. In May of that year, the group was joined by Éva Izsák, a 19-year-old Jewish antifascist activist. Lakatos, considering that there was a risk that she would be captured and forced to betray them, decided that her duty to the group was to commit suicide. Subsequently, a member of the group took her to Debrecen and gave her <a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">cyanide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the occupation, Lakatos avoided <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> persecution of Jews by changing his surname to Molnár.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His mother and grandmother were murdered in <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a>. He changed his surname once again to <i>Lakatos</i> (Locksmith) in honor of <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9za_Lakatos" title="Géza Lakatos">Géza Lakatos</a>. </p><p>After the war, from 1947, he worked as a senior official in the Hungarian ministry of education. He also continued his education with a PhD at Debrecen University awarded in 1948 and also attended <a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a>'s weekly Wednesday afternoon private seminars. He also studied at the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_State_University" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a> under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Sofya_Yanovskaya" title="Sofya Yanovskaya">Sofya Yanovskaya</a> in 1949. When he returned, however, he found himself on the losing side of internal arguments within the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Working_People%27s_Party" title="Hungarian Working People's Party">Hungarian communist party</a> and was imprisoned on charges of <a href="/wiki/Marxist_revisionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist revisionism">revisionism</a> from 1950 to 1953. More of Lakatos's activities in Hungary after World War II have recently become known. In fact, Lakatos was a hardline <a href="/wiki/Stalinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalinist">Stalinist</a> and, despite his young age, had an important role between 1945 and 1950 (his own arrest and jailing) in building up the Communist rule, especially in cultural life and the academia, in Hungary.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his release, Lakatos returned to academic life, doing mathematical research and translating <a href="/wiki/George_P%C3%B3lya" title="George Pólya">George Pólya</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Solve_It" title="How to Solve It">How to Solve It</a></i> into Hungarian. Still nominally a communist, his political views had shifted markedly, and he was involved with at least one dissident student group in the lead-up to the <a href="/wiki/1956_Hungarian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1956 Hungarian Revolution">1956 Hungarian Revolution</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> invaded Hungary in November 1956, Lakatos fled to <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> and later reached England. He lived there for the rest of his life however he never achieved a British citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received a PhD in philosophy in 1961 from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>; his <a href="/wiki/Doctoral_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctoral thesis">doctoral thesis</a> was entitled <i>Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery</i>, and his doctoral advisor was <a href="/wiki/R._B._Braithwaite" title="R. B. Braithwaite">R. B. Braithwaite</a>. The book <i><a href="/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations" title="Proofs and Refutations">Proofs and Refutations: The Logic of Mathematical Discovery</a></i>, published after his death, is based on this work. </p><p>In 1960, he was appointed to a position in the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> (LSE), where he wrote on the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>. The LSE philosophy of science department at that time included <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Agassi" title="Joseph Agassi">Joseph Agassi</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Oulton_Wisdom" title="John Oulton Wisdom">J. O. Wisdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was Agassi who first introduced Lakatos to Popper under the rubric of his applying a <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilist</a> methodology of <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjectures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Refutation">refutations</a> to mathematics in his Cambridge PhD thesis. </p><p>With co-editor <a href="/wiki/Alan_Musgrave" title="Alan Musgrave">Alan Musgrave</a>, he edited the often cited <i>Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge</i>, the <i>Proceedings</i> of the International Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science, London, 1965. Published in 1970, the 1965 Colloquium included well-known speakers delivering papers in response to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i>. </p><p>In January 1971, he became editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/British_Journal_for_the_Philosophy_of_Science" title="British Journal for the Philosophy of Science">British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</a></i>, which J. O. Wisdom had built up before departing in 1965, and he continued as editor until his death in 1974,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after which it was then edited jointly for many years by his LSE colleagues <a href="/wiki/John_W._N._Watkins" title="John W. N. Watkins">John W. N. Watkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Worrall_(philosopher)" title="John Worrall (philosopher)">John Worrall</a>, Lakatos's ex-research assistant. </p><p>Lakatos and his colleague <a href="/wiki/Spiro_Latsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiro Latsis">Spiro Latsis</a> organized an international conference in Greece in 1975, and went ahead despite his death. It was devoted entirely to historical case studies in Lakatos's methodology of research programmes in physical sciences and economics. These case studies in such as Einstein's relativity programme, <a href="/wiki/Augustin-Jean_Fresnel" title="Augustin-Jean Fresnel">Fresnel</a>'s wave theory of light and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a>, were published by Cambridge University Press in two separate volumes in 1976, one devoted to physical sciences and Lakatos's general programme for rewriting the history of science, with a concluding critique by his great friend <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a>, and the other devoted to economics.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He remained at LSE until his sudden death in 1974 of a heart attack<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the age of 51. The <a href="/wiki/Lakatos_Award" title="Lakatos Award">Lakatos Award</a> was set up by the school in his memory. His last lectures along with some correspondance were published in <a href="/wiki/Against_Method" title="Against Method">Against Method</a>. His last lectures along with parts of his correspondence with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> have been published in <i>For and Against Method</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophical_work">Philosophical work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophical work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations" title="Proofs and Refutations">Proofs and Refutations</a></div> <p>Lakatos's philosophy of mathematics was inspired by both <a href="/wiki/Georg_Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Hegel">Hegel</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>'s theory of knowledge, and by the work of mathematician <a href="/wiki/George_P%C3%B3lya" title="George Pólya">George Pólya</a>. </p><p>The 1976 book <i>Proofs and Refutations</i> is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis <i>Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery</i>. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as <i>Proofs and Refutations</i> in four parts in 1963–64 in the <i>British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</i>. It is largely taken up by a fictional <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a> set in a mathematics class. The students are attempting to prove the formula for the <a href="/wiki/Euler_characteristic" title="Euler characteristic">Euler characteristic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Algebraic_topology" title="Algebraic topology">algebraic topology</a>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorem</a> about the properties of <a href="/wiki/Polyhedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyhedra">polyhedra</a>, namely that for all polyhedra the number of their vertices <i>V</i> minus the number of their edges <i>E</i> plus the number of their faces <i>F</i> is 2 (<span class="nowrap"><i>V</i> − <i>E</i> + <i>F</i> = 2</span>). The dialogue is meant to represent the actual series of attempted proofs that mathematicians historically offered for the <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjecture</a>, only to be repeatedly refuted by <a href="/wiki/Counterexample" title="Counterexample">counterexamples</a>. Often the students paraphrase famous mathematicians such as <a href="/wiki/Cauchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cauchy">Cauchy</a>, as noted in Lakatos's extensive footnotes. </p><p>Lakatos termed the polyhedral counterexamples to Euler's formula <i>monsters</i> and distinguished three ways of handling these objects: Firstly, <i>monster-barring</i>, by which means the theorem in question could not be applied to such objects. Secondly, <i>monster-adjustment</i>, whereby by making a re-appraisal of the <i>monster</i> it could be <i>made</i> to obey the proposed theorem. Thirdly, <i>exception handling</i>, a further distinct process. These distinct strategies have been taken up in qualitative physics, where the terminology of <i>monsters</i> has been applied to apparent counterexamples, and the techniques of <i>monster-barring</i> and <i>monster-adjustment</i> recognized as approaches to the refinement of the analysis of a physical issue.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What Lakatos tried to establish was that no theorem of <a href="/wiki/Informal_mathematics" title="Informal mathematics">informal mathematics</a> is final or perfect. This means that we should not think that a theorem is ultimately true, only that no <a href="/wiki/Counterexample" title="Counterexample">counterexample</a> has yet been found. Once a counterexample is found, we adjust the theorem, possibly extending the domain of its validity. This is a continuous way our knowledge accumulates, through the logic and process of proofs and refutations. (If axioms are given for a branch of mathematics, however, Lakatos claimed that proofs from those <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> were <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautological</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">logically true</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lakatos proposed an account of mathematical knowledge based on the idea of <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristics</a>. In <i>Proofs and Refutations</i> the concept of "heuristic" was not well developed, although Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. He thought that mathematical "<a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiments</a>" are a valid way to discover mathematical conjectures and proofs, and sometimes called his philosophy "quasi-<a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>". </p><p>However, he also conceived of the mathematical community as carrying on a kind of dialectic to decide which <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_proof" title="Mathematical proof">mathematical proofs</a> are <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">valid</a> and which are not. Therefore, he fundamentally disagreed with the "<a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">formalist</a>" conception of proof that prevailed in <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>, which defines proof simply in terms of <i>formal</i> validity. </p><p>On its first publication as an article in the <i>British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</i> in 1963–64, <i>Proofs and Refutations</i> became highly influential on new work in the philosophy of mathematics, although few agreed with Lakatos's strong disapproval of formal proof. Before his death he had been planning to return to the philosophy of mathematics and apply his theory of research programmes to it. Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar use <a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (1893)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to answer one of the major problems perceived by critics, namely that the pattern of mathematical research depicted in <i>Proofs and Refutations</i> does not faithfully represent most of the actual activity of contemporary mathematicians.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cauchy_and_uniform_convergence">Cauchy and uniform convergence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cauchy and uniform convergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 1966 text <i>Cauchy and the continuum</i>, Lakatos re-examines the history of the calculus, with special regard to <a href="/wiki/Augustin-Louis_Cauchy" title="Augustin-Louis Cauchy">Augustin-Louis Cauchy</a> and the concept of uniform convergence, in the light of <a href="/wiki/Non-standard_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-standard analysis">non-standard analysis</a>. Lakatos is concerned that historians of mathematics should not judge the evolution of mathematics in terms of currently fashionable theories. As an illustration, he examines Cauchy's proof that the sum of a series of continuous functions is itself continuous. Lakatos is critical of those who would see Cauchy's proof, with its failure to make explicit a suitable convergence hypothesis, merely as an inadequate approach to Weierstrassian analysis. Lakatos sees in such an approach a failure to realize that Cauchy's concept of the continuum differed from currently dominant views. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_programmes">Research programmes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Research programmes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lakatos's second major contribution to the philosophy of science was his model of the "research programme",<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he formulated in an attempt to resolve the perceived conflict between <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper's</a> <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsificationism</a> and the revolutionary structure of science described by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Kuhn</a>. Popper's standard of falsificationism was widely taken to imply that a theory should be abandoned as soon as any evidence appears to challenge it, while Kuhn's descriptions of scientific activity were taken to imply that science is most fruitful during periods in which popular, or "normal", theories are supported despite known anomalies. Lakatos's model of the research programme aims to combine Popper's adherence to empirical validity with Kuhn's appreciation for conventional consistency. </p><p>A Lakatosian research programme<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is based on a <i>hard core</i> of theoretical assumptions that cannot be abandoned or altered without abandoning the programme altogether. More modest and specific theories that are formulated in order to explain evidence that threatens the "hard core" are termed <i>auxiliary hypotheses</i>. Auxiliary hypotheses are considered expendable by the adherents of the research programme—they may be altered or abandoned as empirical discoveries require in order to "protect" the "hard core". Whereas Popper was generally read as hostile toward such <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ad hoc</i></span> theoretical amendments, Lakatos argued that they can be <i>progressive</i>, i.e. productive, when they enhance the programme's explanatory and/or predictive power, and that they are at least permissible until some better system of theories is devised and the research programme is replaced entirely. The difference between a <i>progressive</i> and a <i>degenerative</i> research programme lies, for Lakatos, in whether the recent changes to its auxiliary hypotheses have achieved this greater explanatory/predictive power or whether they have been made simply out of the necessity of offering some response in the face of new and troublesome evidence. A degenerative research programme indicates that a new and more progressive system of theories should be sought to replace the currently prevailing one, but until such a system of theories can be conceived of and agreed upon, abandonment of the current one would only further weaken our explanatory power and was therefore unacceptable for Lakatos. Lakatos's primary example of a research programme that had been successful in its time and then progressively replaced is that founded by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, with his three <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">laws of motion</a> forming the "hard core". </p><p>The Lakatosian research programme deliberately provides a framework within which research can be conducted on the basis of "first principles" (the "hard core"), which are shared by those involved in the research programme and accepted for the purpose of that research without further proof or debate. In this regard, it is similar to Kuhn's notion of a paradigm. Lakatos sought to replace Kuhn's paradigm, guided by an irrational "psychology of discovery", with a research programme no less coherent or consistent, yet guided by Popper's objectively valid <a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">logic of discovery</a>. </p><p>Lakatos was following <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a>'s idea that one can always protect a cherished theory (or part of one) from hostile evidence by redirecting the criticism toward other theories or parts thereof. (See <i><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Duhem%E2%80%93Quine_thesis" title="Duhem–Quine thesis">Duhem–Quine thesis</a>). This aspect of falsification had been acknowledged by Popper. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a>'s theory, falsificationism, proposed that scientists put forward theories and that nature "shouts NO" in the form of an inconsistent observation. According to Popper, it is irrational for scientists to maintain their theories in the face of nature's rejection, as Kuhn had described them doing. For Lakatos, however, "It is not that we propose a theory and Nature may shout NO; rather, we propose a maze of theories, and nature may shout INCONSISTENT".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continued adherence to a programme's "hard core", augmented with adaptable auxiliary hypotheses, reflects Lakatos's less strict standard of falsificationism. </p><p>Lakatos saw himself as merely extending Popper's ideas, which changed over time and were interpreted by many in conflicting ways. In his 1968 article "Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes",<sup id="cite_ref-La68_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-La68-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lakatos contrasted <i>Popper0</i>, the "naive falsificationist" who demanded unconditional rejection of any theory in the face of any anomaly (an interpretation Lakatos saw as erroneous but that he nevertheless referred to often); <i>Popper1</i>, the more nuanced and conservatively interpreted philosopher; and <i>Popper2</i>, the "sophisticated methodological falsificationist" that Lakatos claims is the logical extension of the correctly interpreted ideas of <i>Popper1</i> (and who is therefore essentially Lakatos himself). It is, therefore, very difficult to determine which ideas and arguments concerning the research programme should be credited to whom. </p><p>While Lakatos dubbed his theory "sophisticated methodological falsificationism", it is not "methodological" in the strict sense of asserting universal methodological rules by which all scientific research must abide. Rather, it is methodological only in that theories are only abandoned according to a methodical progression from worse theories to better theories—a stipulation overlooked by what Lakatos terms "dogmatic falsificationism". Methodological assertions in the strict sense, pertaining to which methods are valid and which are invalid, are, themselves, contained within the research programmes that choose to adhere to them, and should be judged according to whether the research programmes that adhere to them prove progressive or degenerative. Lakatos divided these "methodological rules" within a research programme into its "negative heuristics", i.e., what research methods and approaches to avoid, and its "positive heuristics", i.e., what research methods and approaches to prefer. While the "negative heuristic" protects the hard core, the "positive heuristic" directs the modification of the hard core and auxiliary hypotheses in a general direction.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lakatos claimed that not all changes of the auxiliary hypotheses of a research programme (which he calls "problem shifts") are equally productive or acceptable. He took the view that these "problem shifts" should be evaluated not just by their ability to defend the "hard core" by explaining apparent anomalies, but also by their ability to produce new facts, in the form of predictions or additional explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adjustments that accomplish nothing more than the maintenance of the "hard core" mark the research programme as degenerative. </p><p>Lakatos's model provides for the possibility of a research programme that is not only continued in the presence of troublesome anomalies but that remains progressive despite them. For Lakatos, it is essentially necessary to continue on with a theory that we basically know cannot be completely true, and it is even possible to make scientific progress in doing so, as long as we remain receptive to a better research programme that may eventually be conceived of. In this sense, it is, for Lakatos, an acknowledged misnomer to refer to "falsification" or "refutation", when it is not the truth or falsity of a theory that is solely determining whether we consider it "falsified", but also the availability of a <i>less false</i> theory. A theory cannot be rightfully "falsified", according to Lakatos, until it is superseded by a better (i.e. more progressive) research programme. This is what he says is happening in the historical periods Kuhn describes as revolutions and what makes them rational as opposed to mere leaps of faith or periods of deranged social psychology, as Kuhn argued. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pseudoscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">demarcation</a> criterion of <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a> proposed by Lakatos, a theory is pseudoscientific if it fails to make any novel predictions of previously unknown phenomena or its predictions were mostly falsified, in contrast with scientific theories, which predict novel fact(s).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Progressive scientific theories are those that have their novel facts confirmed, and degenerate scientific theories, which can degenerate so much that they become pseudo-science, are those whose predictions of novel facts are refuted. As he put it: </p> <dl><dd>"A given fact is explained scientifically only if a new fact is predicted with it ... The idea of growth and the concept of empirical character are soldered into one." See pages 34–35 of <i>The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes</i>, 1978.</dd></dl> <p>Lakatos's own key examples of pseudoscience were <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic system">Ptolemaic</a> astronomy, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Velikovsky" title="Immanuel Velikovsky">Immanuel Velikovsky</a>'s planetary cosmogony, <a href="/wiki/Freud" class="mw-redirect" title="Freud">Freudian</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>, 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Marxism"><i>Soviet</i> Marxism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenko's biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>'s quantum mechanics post-1924, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Darwin's_theory"><span id="Darwin.27s_theory"></span>Darwin's theory</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Darwin's theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his 1973 Scientific Method Lecture 1<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the London School of Economics, he also claimed that "nobody to date has yet found a demarcation criterion according to which Darwin can be described as scientific". </p><p>Almost 20 years after Lakatos's 1973 challenge to the scientificity of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>, in her 1991 <i>The Ant and the Peacock</i>, LSE lecturer and ex-colleague of Lakatos, <a href="/wiki/Helena_Cronin" title="Helena Cronin">Helena Cronin</a>, attempted to establish that Darwinian theory was empirically scientific in respect of at least being supported by evidence of likeness in the diversity of life forms in the world, explained by descent with modification. She wrote that </p> <blockquote> <p>our usual idea of corroboration as requiring the successful prediction of novel facts ... Darwinian theory was not strong on temporally novel predictions. ... however familiar the evidence and whatever role it played in the construction of the theory, it still confirms the theory.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rational_reconstructions_of_the_history_of_science">Rational reconstructions of the history of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Rational reconstructions of the history of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his 1970 article "History of Science and Its Rational Reconstructions"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lakatos proposed a dialectical historiographical meta-method for evaluating different theories of scientific method, namely by means of their comparative success in explaining the actual <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolutions</a> on the one hand, whilst on the other providing a historiographical framework for rationally reconstructing the history of science as anything more than merely inconsequential rambling. The article started with his now renowned dictum "Philosophy of science without history of science is empty; history of science without philosophy of science is blind". </p><p>However, neither Lakatos himself nor his collaborators ever completed the first part of this dictum by showing that in any scientific revolution the great majority of the relevant scientific community converted just when Lakatos's criterion – one programme successfully predicting some novel facts whilst its competitor degenerated – was satisfied. Indeed, for the historical case studies in his 1968 article "Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes"<sup id="cite_ref-La68_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-La68-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he had openly admitted as much, commenting: "In this paper it is not my purpose to go on seriously to the second stage of comparing <a href="/wiki/Rational_reconstruction" title="Rational reconstruction">rational reconstructions</a> with actual history for any lack of historicity." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feyerabend">Feyerabend</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Feyerabend"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a> argued that Lakatos's methodology was not a methodology at all, but merely "words that <i>sound</i> like the elements of a methodology".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that Lakatos's methodology was no different in practice from <a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">epistemological anarchism</a>, Feyerabend's own position. He wrote in <i><a href="/wiki/Science_in_a_Free_Society" title="Science in a Free Society">Science in a Free Society</a></i> (after Lakatos's death) that: </p> <blockquote> <p>Lakatos realized and admitted that the existing standards of rationality, standards of logic included, were too restrictive and would have hindered science had they been applied with determination. He therefore permitted the scientist to violate them (he admits that science is not "rational" in the sense of <i>these</i> standards). However, he demanded that research programmes show certain features <i>in the long run</i> — they must be progressive... I have argued that this demand no longer restricts scientific practice. Any development agrees with it.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <p>Lakatos and Feyerabend planned to produce a joint work in which Lakatos would develop a rationalist description of science, and Feyerabend would attack it. The correspondence between Lakatos and Feyerabend, where the two discussed the project, has since been reproduced, with commentary, by Matteo Motterlini.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor" title="Scientific community metaphor">Scientific community metaphor</a>, an approach to programming influenced by Lakatos's work on research programmes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_and_Eastern_Bloc_defectors" title="List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors">List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakatos_Award" title="Lakatos Award">Lakatos Award</a> set up in memory of him</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Tarasov-Rodionov" title="Alexander Tarasov-Rodionov">Alexander Tarasov-Rodionov</a>, author of "Shokolad" which was formative of Lakatos's early political thinking</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Reck-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reck_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reck_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Reck (ed.), <i>The Historical Turn in Analytic Philosophy</i>, Springer, 2016: ch. 4.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kostas Gavroglu, Yorgos Goudaroulis, P. Nicolacopoulos (eds.), <i>Imre Lakatos and Theories of Scientific Change</i>, Springer, 2012, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLakatos,_Imre1970" class="citation journal cs1">Lakatos, Imre (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/495757">"History of Science and Its Rational Reconstructions"</a>. <i>PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association</i>. <b>1970</b>: 91–136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fpsaprocbienmeetp.1970.495757">10.1086/psaprocbienmeetp.1970.495757</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/495757">495757</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145197122">145197122</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PSA%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Biennial+Meeting+of+the+Philosophy+of+Science+Association&rft.atitle=History+of+Science+and+Its+Rational+Reconstructions&rft.volume=1970&rft.pages=91-136&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145197122%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F495757%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fpsaprocbienmeetp.1970.495757&rft.au=Lakatos%2C+Imre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F495757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. Gavroglu, Y. Goudaroulis, P. Nicolacopoulos (eds.), <i>Imre Lakatos and Theories of Scientific Change</i>, Springer, 2012, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrás_Máté2006" class="citation journal cs1">András Máté (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://real.mtak.hu/58108/1/Arpad_Szabo_and_imre_lakatos_or_the_relation_between_history_and_philosophy_of_mathematics._Mate_Andras_u.pdf">"Árpád Szabó and Imre Lakatos, Or the relation between history and philosophy of mathematics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>14</b> (3): 282–301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc.2006.14.3.282">10.1162/posc.2006.14.3.282</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53941387">53941387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=%C3%81rp%C3%A1d+Szab%C3%B3+and+Imre+Lakatos%2C+Or+the+relation+between+history+and+philosophy+of+mathematics&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=282-301&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fposc.2006.14.3.282&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53941387%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Andr%C3%A1s+M%C3%A1t%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freal.mtak.hu%2F58108%2F1%2FArpad_Szabo_and_imre_lakatos_or_the_relation_between_history_and_philosophy_of_mathematics._Mate_Andras_u.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cgvKG_3Ck7Y">Philosophy of Science: Popper and Lakatos</a>, lecture on the philosophy of science of Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos, delivered to master's students at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sussex" title="University of Sussex">University of Sussex</a> in November 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SEP_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lakatos/">"Imre Lakatos"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imre+Lakatos&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2021&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flakatos%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrendan_Larvor2013" class="citation book cs1">Brendan Larvor (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X80rBgAAQBAJ&q=tibor"><i>Lakatos: An Introduction</i></a>. Routledge. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134765140" title="Special:BookSources/9781134765140"><bdi>9781134765140</bdi></a>. <q>He assumed the name 'Molnár Tibor' during the time in the resistance group</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lakatos%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781134765140&rft.au=Brendan+Larvor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX80rBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtibor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bandy 2010.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">György Kampis, L. Kvasz, Michael Stöltzner (eds.), <i>Appraising Lakatos: Mathematics, Methodology, and the Man</i>, Springer, 2013, p. 296.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheffler2007" class="citation cs2">Scheffler, Israel (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q_UI5cC3QlsC&pg=PA42"><i>Gallery of Scholars: A Philosopher's Recollections</i></a>, Philosophy and education, vol. 13, Springer, p. 42, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402027109" title="Special:BookSources/9781402027109"><bdi>9781402027109</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gallery+of+Scholars%3A+A+Philosopher%27s+Recollections&rft.series=Philosophy+and+education&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781402027109&rft.aulast=Scheffler&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq_UI5cC3QlsC%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Lakatos's 5 Jan 1971 letter to Paul Feyerabend pp. 233–234 in Motterlini's 1999 <i>For and Against Method</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These were respectively <i>Method and Appraisal in the Physical Sciences: The Critical Background to Modern Science 1800–1905</i> by Colin Howson (ed.) and <i>Method and Appraisal in Economics</i> by Spiro J. Latsis (ed.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_A._Gillies1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Gillies" title="Donald A. Gillies">Donald A. Gillies</a> (September 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/687992">"Review. Matteo Motterlini (ed). Imre Lakatos. Paul K. Feyerabend. <i>Sull'orlo della scienza: pro e contro il metodo</i>. (On the threshold of Science: for and against method)"</a>. <i>The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>47</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/687992">687992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Review.+Matteo+Motterlini+%28ed%29.+Imre+Lakatos.+Paul+K.+Feyerabend.+Sull%27orlo+della+scienza%3A+pro+e+contro+il+metodo.+%28On+the+threshold+of+Science%3A+for+and+against+method%29&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1996-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F687992%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Donald+A.+Gillies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F687992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeyerabendLakatos1999" class="citation book cs1">Feyerabend, Paul; Lakatos, Imre (1999). "For and Against Method: Including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence". In Motterlini, Matteo (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7208/9780226467030/html"><i>For and Against Method</i></a>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7208%2F9780226467030">10.7208/9780226467030</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226467030" title="Special:BookSources/9780226467030"><bdi>9780226467030</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=For+and+Against+Method%3A+Including+Lakatos%27s+Lectures+on+Scientific+Method+and+the+Lakatos-Feyerabend+Correspondence&rft.btitle=For+and+Against+Method&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7208%2F9780226467030&rft.isbn=9780226467030&rft.aulast=Feyerabend&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Lakatos%2C+Imre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.7208%2F9780226467030%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://harveycohen.net/dragons/Lakatosian_Monsters.htm">"Lakatosian Monsters"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lakatosian+Monsters&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fharveycohen.net%2Fdragons%2FLakatosian_Monsters.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for instance, Lakatos's <i>A renaissance of empiricism in the recent philosophy of mathematics</i>, section 2, in which he defines a Euclidean system to be one consisting of all logical deductions from an initial set of axioms and writes that "a Euclidean system may be claimed to be true".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Poincaré, H. (1893). "Sur la Généralisation d'un Théorème d'Euler relatif aux Polyèdres", <i>Comptes Redus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences</i>, <b>117</b> p. 144, as cited in Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar (1976), <i>Proofs and Refutations</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-21078-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-21078-X">0-521-21078-X</a>, pp. 106–126, note that Poincaré's formal proof (1899) "Complèment à l'Analysis Situs", <i>Rediconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo</i>, <b>13</b>, pp. 285–343, <a href="/wiki/Rewriting" title="Rewriting">rewrites</a> Euler's conjecture into a <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a> of vector algebra.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lakatos, Imre. (1970). "Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes". In: Lakatos, Musgrave eds. (1970), pp. 91–195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce J. Caldwell (1991) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://public.econ.duke.edu/~bjc18/docs/MSRP%20in%20Economics.pdf">The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Criticisms and Conjectures</a>" in G. K. Shaw ed. (1991) <i>Economics, Culture, and Education: Essays in Honor of Mark Blaug</i>. Aldershot: Elgar, 1991 pp. 95–107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lakatos, Musgrave eds. (1970), p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-La68-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-La68_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-La68_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lakatos, Imre. (1968). "Criticism and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes". <i>Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society</i> <b>69</b>(1):149–186 (1968).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Great readings in clinical science: essential selections for mental health professionals</i>. Lilienfeld, Scott O., 1960–, O'Donohue, William T. Boston: Pearson. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780205698035" title="Special:BookSources/9780205698035"><bdi>9780205698035</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/720560483">720560483</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+readings+in+clinical+science%3A+essential+selections+for+mental+health+professionals&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F720560483&rft.isbn=9780205698035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theoretical progressiveness is if the new theory has more empirical content than the old. Empirical progressiveness is if some of this content is corroborated. (Lakatos ed., 1970, p. 118).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See/hear Lakatos's 1973 Open University BBC Radio talk <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/science-and-pseudoscience-overview-and-transcript"><i>Science and Pseudoscience</i> </a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lakatos notably only condemned specifically <i>Soviet</i> Marxism as pseudoscientific, as opposed to Marxism in general. In fact, at the very end of his last LSE lectures on Scientific Method in 1973, he finished by posing the question of whether <a href="/wiki/Trotsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Trotsky">Trotsky</a>'s theoretical development of Marxism was scientific, and commented that "Nobody has ever undertaken a critical history of Marxism with the aid of better methodological and historiographical instruments. Nobody has ever tried to find an answer to questions like: were Trotsky's unorthodox predictions simply patching up a badly degenerating programme, or did they represent a creative development of Marx's programme? To answer similar questions, we would really need a detailed analysis which takes years of work. So I simply do not know the answer, even if I am very interested in it." [Motterlini 1999, p. 109] However, in his 1976 <i>On the Critique of Scientific Reason</i> Feyerabend claimed that <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>'s development of Marxism in his auxiliary theory of colonial exploitation had been "Lakatos-scientific" because it was "accompanied by a wealth of novel predictions (the arrival and structure of monopolies being one of them)". And he continued by claiming that both Rosa Luxemburg's and Trotsky's developments of Marxism were close to what Lakatos regarded as scientific: "And whoever has read Rosa Luxemburg's reply to Bernstein's criticism of Marx or Trotsky's account of why the Russian Revolution took place in a backward country (cf. also Lenin [1968], vol. 19, pp. 99ff.) will see that Marxists are pretty close to what Lakatos would like any upstanding rationalist to do ..." [See footnote 9 of p. 315 of Howson (ed.) 1976].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Published in <i>For and Against Method: Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend</i> by Matteo Motterlini (ed.), University of Chicago Press, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cronin, H., <i>The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1993. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y0wTY3z3nggC&q=%22For+darwinian+theory%2C+the+evidence%22">31–32</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Feyerabend" class="citation web cs1">Paul Feyerabend. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407233827/http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43842">"How to Defend Society Against Science"</a>. <i>The Galilean Library</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43842">the original</a> on 7 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Galilean+Library&rft.atitle=How+to+Defend+Society+Against+Science&rft.au=Paul+Feyerabend&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galilean-library.org%2Fmanuscript.php%3Fpostid%3D43842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Feyerabend (1978). <i>Science in a Free Society</i>. London: NLB. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86091-008-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-86091-008-3">0-86091-008-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Motterlini, M. (1999). <i>For and Against Method</i>. Chicago: UCP. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226467757" title="Special:BookSources/9780226467757">9780226467757</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Oxford <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Dictionary of National Biography</a></li> <li>Cronin, Helena (1991) <i>The Ant and the Peacock</i> Cambridge University Press</li> <li>Howson, Colin, Ed. <i>Method and Appraisal in the Physical Sciences: The Critical Background to Modern Science 1800–1905</i> Cambridge University Press 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-21110-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-21110-7">0-521-21110-7</a></li> <li>Kampis, Kvaz & Stoltzner (eds.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uo-p0HveuXEC&pg=PP1"><i>Appraising Lakatos: Mathematics, Methodology and the Man</i></a>, Vienna Circle Institute Library, Kluwer 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0226-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0226-2">1-4020-0226-2</a></li> <li>Lakatos, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Musgrave" title="Alan Musgrave">Musgrave</a> ed. (1970). <i>Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-07826-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-07826-1">0-521-07826-1</a></li> <li>Lakatos (1976). <i>Proofs and Refutations</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29038-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29038-4">0-521-29038-4</a></li> <li>Lakatos (1978). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RRniFBI8Gi4C">The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1</a></i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>Lakatos (1978). <i>Mathematics, Science and Epistemology: Philosophical Papers Volume 2</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521217695" title="Special:BookSources/0521217695">0521217695</a></li> <li>Lakatos, I.: Cauchy and the continuum: the significance of nonstandard analysis for the history and philosophy of mathematics. Math. Intelligencer 1 (1978), no. 3, 151–161 (paper originally presented in 1966).</li> <li>Lakatos, I., and Feyerabend P., <i>For and against Method: including Lakatos's Lectures on Scientific Method and the Lakatos-Feyerabend Correspondence</i>, ed. by Matteo Motterlini, Chicago University Press, (451 pp), 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-46774-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-46774-0">0-226-46774-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Latsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiro Latsis">Latsis, Spiro J.</a> Ed. <i>Method and Appraisal in Economics</i> Cambridge University Press 1976 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-21076-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-21076-3">0-521-21076-3</a></li> <li><cite id="refpopper72">Popper, K R, (1972), <i>Objective knowledge: an evolutionary approach</i>, Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1972 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8oPAQAAIAAJ">bibliographic summary, no text</a>).</cite></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Maxwell" title="Nicholas Maxwell">Maxwell, Nicholas</a> (2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ucl-press/browse-books/karl-popper-science-and-enlightenment">Karl Popper, Science and Enlightenment</a>, UCL Press, London. Free online.</li> <li>Zahar, Elie (1973) "Why Einstein's programme superseded Lorentz's", <i>British Journal for the Philosophy of Science</i></li> <li>Zahar, Elie (1988) <i>Einstein's Revolution: A Study in Heuristic</i>, Open Court 1988</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alex Bandy (2010). <i>Chocolate and Chess. Unlocking Lakatos</i>. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8819-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8819-5">978-963-05-8819-5</a></li> <li>Reuben Hersh (2006). <i>18 Unconventional Essays on the Nature of Mathematics</i>. Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-29831-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-29831-3">978-0-387-29831-3</a></li> <li>Brendan Larvor (1998). <i>Lakatos: An Introduction</i>. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14276-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14276-8">0-415-14276-8</a></li> <li>Jancis Long (1998). "Lakatos in Hungary", <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i> <b>28</b>, pp. 244–311.</li> <li>John Kadvany (2001). <i>Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason</i>. Durham and London: Duke University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-2659-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8223-2659-0">0-8223-2659-0</a>; author's web site: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnkadvany.com">johnkadvany.com</a>.</li> <li>Teun Koetsier (1991). <i>Lakatos' Philosophy of Mathematics: A Historical Approach. Amsterdam etc.: North Holland. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-88944-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-444-88944-2">0-444-88944-2</a></i></li> <li>Szabó, Árpád <i>The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics</i> (Tr Ungar) Reidel & Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1978 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-05-1416-8" title="Special:BookSources/963-05-1416-8">963-05-1416-8</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Imre_Lakatos" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMusgravePigden" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Musgrave, Alan; Pigden, Charles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lakatos/">"Imre Lakatos"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imre+Lakatos&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Musgrave&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Pigden%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flakatos%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/science-and-pseudoscience-overview-and-transcript"><i>Science and Pseudoscience</i></a> (Transcript and audio recording) – Lakatos's 1973 <a href="/wiki/Open_University" title="Open University">Open University</a> <a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio" title="BBC Radio">BBC Radio</a> talk on the subject</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/philosophy/lakatos">Lakatos's profile page</a> at the London School of Economics (with audio recordings and references to further resources)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Lakatos.html">"Imre Lakatos"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imre+Lakatos&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FLakatos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImre+Lakatos" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_on_science/toc/posc14.3.html">Lakatos's Hungarian intellectual background</a> The Autumn 2006 MIT Press journal <i>Perspectives on Science</i> devoted to articles on this topic, with article abstracts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100615224323/http://lakatos.ru/">Official Russian page</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archives">Archives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Archives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.lse.ac.uk/TreeBrowse.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&field=RefNo&key=LAKATOS">Imre Lakatos's papers</a> are held at the London School of Economics. His personal <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080105202458/http://www.lse.ac.uk/library/whinthli/Lakatos.htm">library</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived January 5, 2008) is also held at the School.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296249#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296249#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q296249#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121469658">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/108401548">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/13464/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJj4y46r7Ymcq6kCmBxMT3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118568817">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50039434">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb130917985">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb130917985">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00446677">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Lakatos, Imre"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV010646">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=mzk2005300504&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX946618">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/59759">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068407580">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Lakatos, Imre, 1922-1974"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000036393&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=83049">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201841493">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/97mps2ct162hx1z">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810646506705606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007264283405171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058512902306706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00598529?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=146090">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:lakatos.imre">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/109395">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500023389">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/898733">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118568817.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118568817">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028597214">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6dh1tv7">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&oldid=1258557903">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&oldid=1258557903</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1922_births" title="Category:1922 births">1922 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1974_deaths" title="Category:1974 deaths">1974 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_Hungarian_male_writers" title="Category:20th-century Hungarian male writers">20th-century Hungarian male writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_Hungarian_philosophers" title="Category:20th-century Hungarian philosophers">20th-century Hungarian philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academics_of_the_London_School_of_Economics" title="Category:Academics of the London School of Economics">Academics of the London School of Economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critical_rationalists" title="Category:Critical rationalists">Critical rationalists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_communists" title="Category:Hungarian communists">Hungarian communists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_defectors" title="Category:Hungarian defectors">Hungarian defectors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_Jews" title="Category:Hungarian Jews">Hungarian Jews</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_Hungarian_mathematicians" title="Category:20th-century Hungarian mathematicians">20th-century Hungarian mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_philosophers" title="Category:Hungarian philosophers">Hungarian philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_refugees" title="Category:Hungarian refugees">Hungarian refugees</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_philosophers" title="Category:Jewish philosophers">Jewish philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_refugees" title="Category:Jewish refugees">Jewish refugees</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Moscow_State_University_alumni" title="Category:Moscow State University alumni">Moscow State University alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mathematics" title="Category:Philosophers of mathematics">Philosophers of mathematics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_science" title="Category:Philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Stateless_people" title="Category:Stateless people">Stateless people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:University_of_Debrecen_alumni" title="Category:University of Debrecen alumni">University of Debrecen alumni</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_expatriates_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Hungarian expatriates in the Soviet Union">Hungarian expatriates in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hungarian_emigrants_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Hungarian emigrants to the United Kingdom">Hungarian emigrants to the United Kingdom</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2016" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2016">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_April_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from April 2022">Use dmy dates from April 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_infobox_philosopher_with_unknown_parameters" title="Category:Pages using infobox philosopher with unknown parameters">Pages using infobox philosopher with unknown parameters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Hungarian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Hungarian-language text">Articles containing Hungarian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Hungarian_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Hungarian IPA">Pages with Hungarian IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 November 2024, at 10:25<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imre_Lakatos&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-x5dt4","wgBackendResponseTime":226,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.099","walltime":"1.365","ppvisitednodes":{"value":7526,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":105908,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":10347,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":108975,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1192.777 1 -total"," 19.67% 234.655 1 Template:Infobox_philosopher"," 19.66% 234.495 1 Template:Reflist"," 12.67% 151.173 1 Template:Langx"," 11.84% 141.176 1 Template:Philosophy_of_science"," 11.77% 140.340 2 Template:Navbox"," 7.98% 95.184 3 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.04% 83.989 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.72% 80.118 16 Template:ISBN"," 6.28% 74.859 1 Template:Authority_control"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.723","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18004138,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-cc877b49b-skfhh","timestamp":"20241127132913","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Imre Lakatos","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imre_Lakatos","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q296249","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q296249","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:51:15Z","dateModified":"2024-11-20T10:25:29Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c0\/Professor_Imre_Lakatos%2C_c1960s.jpg","headline":"Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science (1922-1974)"}</script> </body> </html>