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.mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Downwinders#Globalize" title="Talk:Downwinders">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Downwinders</b> were individuals and communities in the intermountain West between the <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Range" title="Cascade Range">Cascade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocky Mountain">Rocky Mountain</a> ranges primarily in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> but also in <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> who were exposed to <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a> from atmospheric or underground <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accidents">nuclear accidents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More generally, the term can also include those communities and individuals who are exposed to <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> and other emissions due to the regular production and maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Coal_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal ash">coal ash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">nuclear waste</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regions near <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_the_United_States#Weapons_production_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons and the United States">U.S. nuclear sites</a>, downwinders may be exposed to releases of radioactive materials into the environment that contaminate their groundwater systems, <a href="/wiki/Food_chains" class="mw-redirect" title="Food chains">food chains</a>, and the air they breathe. Some downwinders may have suffered acute exposure due to their involvement in <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">uranium mining</a> and nuclear experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several severe adverse health effects, such as an increased incidence of <a href="/wiki/Cancers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancers">cancers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_disease#Diseases" title="Thyroid disease">thyroid diseases</a>, CNS neoplasms, and possibly female reproductive cancers that could lead to <a href="/wiki/Congenital_malformations" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital malformations">congenital malformations</a> have been observed in Hanford, Washington, "downwind" communities exposed to nuclear fallout and radioactive contamination.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact of nuclear contamination on an individual is generally estimated as the result of the dose of radiation received and the duration of exposure, using the <a href="/wiki/Linear_no_threshold_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear no threshold model">linear no-threshold model</a> (LNT). Sex, age, race, culture, occupation, class, location, and simultaneous exposure to additional <a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental toxins">environmental toxins</a> are also significant, but often overlooked, factors that contribute to the health effects on a particular "downwind" community.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nuclear_testing">Nuclear testing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nuclear testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 1945 and 1980, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/U.S.S.R." class="mw-redirect" title="U.S.S.R.">U.S.S.R.</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> exploded 504 nuclear devices in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">atmospheric tests</a> at thirteen primary sites yielding the explosive equivalent of 440 megatons of <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a>. Of these atmospheric tests, 330 were conducted by the United States. Accounting for all types of nuclear tests, official counts show that the United States has conducted 1,054 nuclear weapons tests to date, involving at least 1,151 nuclear devices, most of which occurred at <a href="/wiki/Nevada_Test_Site" title="Nevada Test Site">Nevada Test Site</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Grounds" title="Pacific Proving Grounds">Pacific Proving Grounds</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>, with ten other tests taking place at various locations in the United States, including Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico. There have been an estimated 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide; the number of nuclear tests conducted by the United States alone is currently more than the sum of nuclear testing done by all other known nuclear states (the USSR, Great Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea) combined.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These nuclear tests infused vast quantities of radioactive material into the world's atmosphere, resulting in widely dispersed radiation and its subsequent deposition as global fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-Simon_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exposure">Exposure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Exposure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aboveground nuclear explosions produce a characteristic <a href="/wiki/Mushroom_cloud" title="Mushroom cloud">mushroom cloud</a>, which moves downwind as it reaches its stabilization height. Dispersion of the radioactive elements causes vertical and lateral cloud movement, spreading radioactive materials over adjacent regions. While the large particles settle nearby the site of the detonation, smaller particles and gases may be dispersed around the world. Additionally, some explosions injected radioactive material into the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>, more than 10 kilometers above ground level, meaning it may float there for years before being subsequently deposited uniformly around the earth. Global fallout is the result, which exposes everything to an elevated level of man-made background radiation. While "downwinders" refers to those who live and work closest to the explosion site and are thus most acutely affected, there is a global effect of increased health risks due to ionizing radiation in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Simon_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Health effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest concerns raised about the health effects of exposure to nuclear fallout had to do with fears of genetic alterations that may occur among the offspring of those most exposed. However, the observed inheritable effects of radiation exposure by groups with histories of acute risk are considered minimal compared with the significant increase in thyroid cancer, leukemia and certain solid tumors that have developed within a decade or more after exposure. As studies of biological samples (including bone, thyroid glands and other tissues) have been undertaken, it has become increasingly clear that specific radionuclides in fallout are implicated in fallout-related cancers and other late effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Simon_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a> contained in fallout from nuclear testing is especially damaging to <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">dividing cells</a>. For this reason, fetuses and infants are especially vulnerable to injury. Such cellular damage may later manifest as <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a> and other cancers in children. In 1958, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> reported on fetal and infant deaths caused by radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-thebulletin.org_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thebulletin.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1980, American popular weekly magazine <i><a href="/wiki/People_(magazine)" title="People (magazine)">People</a></i> reported that from about 220 cast and crew who filmed in a 1956 movie, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Conqueror_(1956_film)#Cancer_controversy" title="The Conqueror (1956 film)">The Conqueror</a></i>, on location near <a href="/wiki/St._George,_Utah" title="St. George, Utah">St. George, Utah</a>, ninety-one had come down with cancer, and 50 had died of cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-clar_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clar-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of these, forty-six had died of cancer by 1980. Among the cancer deaths were <a href="/wiki/John_Wayne" title="John Wayne">John Wayne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Armend%C3%A1riz" title="Pedro Armendáriz">Pedro Armendáriz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Hayward" title="Susan Hayward">Susan Hayward</a>, the stars of the film.<sup id="cite_ref-clar_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clar-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the lifetime odds of developing cancer for men in the U.S. population are 43 percent and the odds of dying of cancer are 23 percent (38 percent and 19 percent, respectively, for women).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This places the cancer mortality rate for the 220 primary cast and crew quite near the expected average,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it needs to be noted that this statistic does not include the Native American <a href="/wiki/Southern_Paiute_people" title="Southern Paiute people">Paiute</a> extras in the film.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_status">Current status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Current status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After adopting the <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> in 1996, the U.S. and several other nuclear states pledged to stop nuclear testing. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> has not yet ratified the treaty, although it stopped testing in 1992. The final US test series was <a href="/wiki/Operation_Julin" title="Operation Julin">Operation Julin</a>, in September 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-DOE/NV-209_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOE/NV-209-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996. India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998. North Korea carried out six announced tests, one each in 2006, 2009, 2013, two in 2016 and one in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-highlight_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-highlight-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-press_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-press-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011, the US Senate designated January 27th as a national day of remembrance for Americans who, during the Cold War, worked and lived downwind from nuclear testing sites.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For many years, Senator <a href="/wiki/Ben_Ray_Luj%C3%A1n" title="Ben Ray Luján">Ben Ray Luján</a> and other members of Congress have attempted to get compensation for those affected by the Trinity test. <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2023, after the film <i><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_(film)" title="Oppenheimer (film)">Oppenheimer</a></i> brought renewed attention to the test, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> approved the New Mexico downwinders' inclusion in the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Exposure_Compensation_Act" title="Radiation Exposure Compensation Act">Radiation Exposure Compensation Act</a> amendment. To become law, the bill would also need to be passed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specific_test_sites">Specific test sites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Specific test sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Mexico">New Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: New Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On July 16, 1945, the United States military conducted the word’s first test of an atom bomb in <a href="/wiki/Alamogordo,_New_Mexico" title="Alamogordo, New Mexico">Alamogordo, New Mexico</a>. Code-named <a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a>, this explosion also created the world’s first victims of an atom bomb: residents of New Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-thebulletin.org_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thebulletin.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Years before the test, scientists warned of the risks for civilians of atomic testing. In their memorandum of March 1940, <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> physicists <a href="/wiki/Otto_Frisch" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Frisch">Otto Frisch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> warned: “Owing to the spread of radioactive substances with the wind, the bomb could probably not be used without killing large numbers of civilians, and this may make it unsuitable as a weapon for use by this country.” At the very least, they suggested that “[I]t would be very important to have an organization which determines the exact extent of the danger area, by means of ionization measurements, so that people can be warned from entering it.” Federal officials for the most part ignored these warnings but a last minute small team to monitor some of the radiation was assembled.<sup id="cite_ref-thebulletin.org_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thebulletin.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “New Mexico residents were neither warned before the 1945 Trinity blast, informed of health hazards afterward, nor evacuated before, during, or after the test." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nevada">Nevada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nevada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_fallout_exposure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/US_fallout_exposure.png/220px-US_fallout_exposure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/US_fallout_exposure.png/330px-US_fallout_exposure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/US_fallout_exposure.png/440px-US_fallout_exposure.png 2x" data-file-width="615" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Downwind exposure produced by Nevada Test Site. This map strongly suggests that there are some state-specific differences in reporting.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1951 – 1962, the <a href="/wiki/Nevada_National_Security_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada National Security Site">Nevada Test Site</a> (NTS) was a primary site used for both surface and above-ground nuclear testing, with 100 tests at or above ground level, all of which involved releases of significant amounts of radioactive material into the atmosphere. Atmospheric testing was halted in 1958 after a testing moratorium was agreed upon with the Soviet Union. The Soviets broke the agreement in 1961, and both sides resumed testing. Two American test series followed: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Nougat" title="Operation Nougat">Operation Nougat</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Operation_Storax" title="Operation Storax">Operation Storax</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> went into effect in 1963, banning all above ground testing. Further tests were underground, which, with the exception of a few test failures, did not release fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-DOE/NV-209_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOE/NV-209-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1950s, people who lived in the vicinity of the NTS were encouraged to sit outside and watch the mushroom clouds that were created by nuclear bomb explosions. Many were given <a href="/wiki/Film_badge" class="mw-redirect" title="Film badge">radiation badges</a> to wear on their clothes, which the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> later collected to gather data about radiation levels. </p><p>In a report by the <a href="/wiki/National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a>, released in 1997, it was determined that the nearly ninety atmospheric tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) left high levels of radioactive iodine-131 (5.5 exabecquerels, Ebq) across a large area of the continental United States, especially in the years 1952, 1953, 1955, and 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The National Cancer Institute report estimates that doses received in these years are estimated to be large enough to produce 10,000 to 75,000 additional cases of thyroid cancer in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-Wald_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wald-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1999 review of the 1997 report considered that their estimates of collective doses were in "good agreement" and "should provide confidence that the NCI estimate is not grossly under or over the actual value."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NCI1997_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCI1997-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2006 report, published by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Research_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific Research Society">Scientific Research Society</a>, estimates that about 22,000 additional radiation-related cancers and 2,000 additional deaths from radiation-related leukemia are expected to occur in the United States because of external and internal radiation from both NTS and global fallout.<sup id="cite_ref-Simon_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2010 report evaluating data on thyroid cancer incidence from 1973 to 2004 also supported a relationship between exposure from fallout and increased thyroid cancer incidence. <sup id="cite_ref-Gilbert_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilbert-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_nuclear_test_exposure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Graph" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/US_nuclear_test_exposure.png/220px-US_nuclear_test_exposure.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/US_nuclear_test_exposure.png/330px-US_nuclear_test_exposure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/US_nuclear_test_exposure.png/440px-US_nuclear_test_exposure.png 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Just ten tests out of over a thousand total tests at the Nevada Test Site contributed almost 50% of all exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-DOE/NV-209_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOE/NV-209-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The threat of downwind exposure to radioactivity remaining at the Nevada Test Site from nuclear weapons tests was still an issue as late as 2007. <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">The Pentagon</a> planned to test a 700-ton <a href="/wiki/ANFO" title="ANFO">ammonium nitrate-and-fuel oil</a> "<a href="/wiki/Bunker_buster" title="Bunker buster">bunker buster</a>" weapon. The planned "<a href="/wiki/Divine_Strake" title="Divine Strake">Divine Strake</a>" test would have raised a large mushroom cloud of contaminated dust that could have blown toward population centers such as <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_Valley" title="Las Vegas Valley">Las Vegas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boise" class="mw-redirect" title="Boise">Boise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt_Lake_City" title="Salt Lake City">Salt Lake City</a>, and <a href="/wiki/St._George,_Utah" title="St. George, Utah">St. George, Utah</a>. This project was cancelled in February 2007, in large part due to political pressure inspired by the threat of downwind exposure to radioactivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hanford">Hanford</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hanford"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While many downwinders were exposed to weapons testing, millions more have been affected by radioactive fallout due to U.S. sites engaged in the production of nuclear weapons and/or nuclear power. For example, <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford</a> is a former nuclear weapons production site located in south central Washington state, where the Washington state Department of Health collaborated with the citizen-led <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100823040735/http://www.doh.wa.gov/hanford/publications/overview/overview.html">Hanford Health Information Network</a> (HHIN) to publicize significant data about the health effects of Hanford's operations. Established in 1943, Hanford released radioactive materials into the air, water and soil, releases which largely resulted from the site's routine operation, though some were also due to accidents and intentional releases. </p><p>By February 1986, mounting citizen pressure forced the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</a> to release to the public 19,000 pages of previously unavailable historical documents about Hanford's operations. These reports revealed there had been radioactive materials released into the air and Columbia River. The reactors used large amounts of water from the river for cooling, which caused materials in the river water to become radioactive as they passed through the reactor. The water and the radioactive materials it contained were released into the river after passing through the reactors, thus contaminating both groundwater systems and aquatic animals downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Hanford Thyroid Disease Study, an epidemiologic study of the relationship between estimated exposure doses to radioiodine and incidence of thyroid disease amongst Hanford's downwinders, led by the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, was inconclusive. A consolidated lawsuit brought by two thousand Hanford downwinders for personal injury against the contractors that ran Hanford has been in the court system for many years. The defense in the litigation is fully funded by taxpayer dollars due to Price Anderson indemnification agreements. The first six bellwether plaintiffs went to trial in 2005, to test the legal issues applying to the remaining plaintiffs in the suit.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2015, the Department of Energy resolved the final cases. The DOE paid more than $60 million in legal fees and $7 million in damages.<sup id="cite_ref-Distillations_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Distillations-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marshall_Islands">Marshall Islands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Marshall Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the term "downwinders" generally connotes nuclear fallout victims based in the continental U.S. near sites such as Hanford and NTS, the population of the Marshall Islands bore a large brunt of nuclear testing under the United States' <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Proving_Ground" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Proving Ground">Pacific Proving Ground</a> program. Now known officially as the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Marshall_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of the Marshall Islands">Republic of the Marshall Islands</a>, it was a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Trust_Territories" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Trust Territories">United Nations Trust Territory</a> administered by the United States from 1944 to 1979, years during which the United States tested 66 nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of these many tests, the March 1, 1954, explosion of <a href="/wiki/Castle_Bravo" title="Castle Bravo">Castle Bravo</a>, a U.S. thermonuclear device, was responsible for most of the radiation the Marshall Islanders were exposed to. The fallout-related doses of this single test are believed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2012)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> to be the highest recorded in the history of worldwide nuclear testing. Many of the Marshall Islands which were part of the Pacific Proving Grounds remain contaminated by nuclear fallout, and many of those downwinders who were living on the islands at the time of testing have suffered from a highly increased incidence of several types of cancers and birth defects.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_radiation_on_female_downwinders">Effects of radiation on female downwinders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effects of radiation on female downwinders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary long-term health hazard associated with exposure to ionizing radiation as a result of nuclear fallout is an increased risk for cancers of the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a>, other solid tumor cancers, and <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>. The relationship between radiation exposure and subsequent cancer risk is considered "the best understood, and certainly the most highly quantified, dose-response relationship for any common environmental human carcinogen", according to report by the National Cancer Institute.<sup id="cite_ref-Simon_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simon-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, men in the United States develop cancer at a rate 22% higher than that of women. However, women develop cancer from radiation at a rate from 37.5% to 52% higher than that of men. In recent years, studies conducted by both the National Research Council and the EPA have confirmed that compared to men, women are at a significantly higher risk of radiation-induced cancers, such and that women's sensitivity to radiation-induced cancers is much higher than was previously estimated. The increased radiosensitivity of certain organs in women, such as the breast, ovaries, and thyroid is likely the cause of this difference.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the EPA's 1999 Federal Guidance Report #13(FGR 13), <i>Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides</i>, the authors conclude that women have a 48 percent higher radionuclide-related cancer mortality risk than men. Further evidence of sex-based disparities in radiation-induced cancers was published in the 2006 report by the National Research Council's Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation (known as the BEIR VII report), which found that women's risk due to radiation exposure exceeded men's by 37.5 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When one considers rates of cancer incidence separately from rates of cancer fatality, the sex disparities are even greater. The BEIR VII Committee concluded that, given the same level of radiation exposure, women are 52 percent more likely than men to develop cancer, while the EPA report puts the estimate of difference as high as 58 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The differences in risk are even greater when considering organ-specific cancers, especially given that both reports identify breast, ovarian, lung, colon, and thyroid tissues as the most radiosensitive among women. For example, the FGR 13 has estimated that the ratio of thyroid cancer incidence for women as compared to men is 2.14, while the findings of BEIR VII suggest that women are even more vulnerable to radiation-induced thyroid cancer at a ratio of 4.76.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As increasing concerns are raised regarding the environmental risks related to breast, the BEIR VII report cited evidence that suggests that "radiation may interact synergistically with other risk factors for <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>", raising the possibility that endocrine disrupting chemicals like <a href="/wiki/PCBs" class="mw-redirect" title="PCBs">PCBs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dioxins_and_dioxin-like_compounds" title="Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds">dioxins</a> might combine to increase the risks associated with radiation beyond that which would be caused by either separately.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related concern is that radionuclides that may be passed through the breast milk, causing some women who are downwinders to be reluctant to breastfeed their children. While reducing the radioactive intake of their infants is an important preventative measure, it denies women the opportunity to engage a preventative measure for their own health; i.e. breastfeeding has been widely documented as a practice that can reduce women's risk of developing breast cancer. By refraining from <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>, women downwinders' risks of breast cancer incidence becomes even more elevated.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pregnancy_and_birth_outcomes">Pregnancy and birth outcomes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pregnancy and birth outcomes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence about radiation-related pregnancy and birth outcomes comes from studies of nuclear bomb and test site survivors and studies of those exposed to diagnostic and therapeutic radiation. Mounting research indicates that above certain levels of radiation a miscarriage will result. It is also clear that fetal malformations are a greater risk if a woman is exposed to high doses of nuclear-related radiation in early pregnancy, when organs are being formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If acute radiation exposure occurs in the first ten days following conception, when few cells have formed, it is likely that the embryo will fail to develop and spontaneous abortion will occur. Fetal malformations are most likely to occur if a pregnant woman receives a radiation dose >500 mSv between the 10th and 40th day of pregnancy, the period of <a href="/wiki/Organogenesis" title="Organogenesis">organogenesis</a> during which the organs are formed. After the 40th day, the effects of radiation exposure are likely to include low birth weight, delayed growth, and possible mental deficits rather than fetal malformations. Radiation doses above 4,000 mSv are likely to kill both the mother and the fetus.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgetown_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Georgetown-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been shown that radiation damage including <a href="/wiki/Genome_instability" title="Genome instability">genome instability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">carcinogenesis</a> may occur transgenerationally in both males and females.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmitz-Feuerhake_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitz-Feuerhake-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Koturbash_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koturbash-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lomaeva_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lomaeva-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Camats_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Camats-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of radiation on fetal formation are also particularly relevant as a women's health issue to the extent that female fetuses' ova are formed while the fetus is still in utero.<sup id="cite_ref-Krock_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krock-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adverse effects on a mother carrying a female fetus may therefore be multigenerational and increase both the daughter's and grandchildren's risks for ovarian cancer, infertility, and other reproductive developmental problems.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schmitz-Feuerhake_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmitz-Feuerhake-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Busby_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Busby-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Compensation">Compensation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Compensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act (RECA), providing financial assistance to individuals who suffered from radiation exposure-related diseases, including lung cancer, leukemia, multiple myeloma, lymphomas, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, as well as nonmalignant respiratory conditions such as lung fibrosis and pulmonary fibrosis. This law specifically aimed to compensate former uranium miners who fell ill during the time when the U.S. Government was the sole purchaser of uranium.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since its establishment in 1990, RECA has provided benefits exceeding $2.5 billion to over 39,000 claimants.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially, RECA had narrow definitions regarding eligible people and covered diseases, but complaints arose regarding these limitations, leading to efforts to amend the act. In 1999, recognizing the need for change in the compensation process under the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act (RECA), four bills were submitted in the U.S. Congress aimed at amending the act.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advocacy initiatives were directed towards extending coverage to include additional occupations, lower the standard of proof for uranium miners, eliminate distinctions between smokers and nonsmokers, and increase compensation for eligible individuals, which led to approved amendments to RECA in 2000, expanding coverage and modifying eligibility criteria to assist affected groups.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Downwinders eligible for compensation include those living in specified counties of Nevada, Utah, and Arizona for at least two years between January 1951 and October 1958, or during July 1962-periods when the United States conducted above ground nuclear tests without warning, and who are able to show correlations between certain diseases and their personal exposure to nuclear radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miners' compensation covers workers employed in uranium mines in five states-Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, and Utah-between January 1947 and December 1971. Uranium miners are eligible for $100,000, and onsite participants are eligible for $75,000.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navajo-related_obstacles">Navajo-related obstacles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Navajo-related obstacles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are particular obstacles to receiving needed health care and compensation faced by many widows and widowers of Navajo <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> miners, who were affected by disproportionately high incidences of fatal lung cancer caused by <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> exposure. In fact, the <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_radon" title="Health effects of radon">health effects of radon</a> were first widely acknowledged when Mormon and Native American miners who hardly smoke (the main reason for lung cancer) had high incidences of lung cancer. Modern mining practices greatly reduce the danger from radon - also present in many coal mines – by proper ventilation. One problem for Navajo widows and widowers seeking the federal benefits for which they are qualified is the requirement that they document their marriages, although many were married in the 1930s and 1940s in undocumented tribal ceremonies. Language and cultural barriers pose further obstacles to Navajo downwinders; since many elderly Navajos do not speak English, their children bear the responsibility to do the research and procure from a tribal law judge a validation certificate of their tribal marriage. Similarly, it is difficult to access the outdated medical and occupational documentation that the government required even though the government's and uranium companies' own records for Navajo miners are sparse and difficult to access.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada-Semipalatinsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada-Semipalatinsk">Nevada-Semipalatinsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand%27s_nuclear-free_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand's nuclear-free zone">New Zealand's nuclear-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_4.1" title="Project 4.1">Project 4.1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_veteran" title="Atomic veteran">Atomic veteran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Plutonium_Files" title="The Plutonium Files">The Plutonium Files</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grossman, C M, W E Morton, and R H Nussbaum. "Hypothyroidism And Spontaneous Abortions Among Hanford, Washington, Downwinders." Archives Of Environmental Health 51.3 (1996): 175-176. MEDLINE with Full Text. Web. 7 May 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMorales" class="citation web cs1">Morales, Laurel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200303000909/https://www.kpbs.org/news/2012/jan/27/nation-recognizes-nuclear-test-downwinders/">"Nation Recognizes Nuclear Test Downwinders"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kpbs.org/news/2012/jan/27/nation-recognizes-nuclear-test-downwinders/">the original</a> on 2020-03-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nation+Recognizes+Nuclear+Test+Downwinders&rft.aulast=Morales&rft.aufirst=Laurel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kpbs.org%2Fnews%2F2012%2Fjan%2F27%2Fnation-recognizes-nuclear-test-downwinders%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADownwinders" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150514080458/http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/geothermal.html">"Geothermal Energy Production Wastes"</a>. <i>epa.gov</i>. 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Bulletin Of The Atomic Scientists 47.1 (1991): 5. MAS Ultra - School Edition. Web. 7 May 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schinder, Keith, "A Valley of Death for the Navajo Uranium Miners," <i>New York Times</i>, May 3, 1993.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historytogo.utah.gov/utah_chapters/utah_today/nucleartestingandthedownwinders.html">Nuclear Testing and the Downwinders</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071022181008/http://historytogo.utah.gov/utah_chapters/utah_today/nucleartestingandthedownwinders.html">Archived</a> 2007-10-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the website of the Utah State Historical Society</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philmproductions.com">View documentary short "Downwinders: The People of Parowan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071009133415/http://www.philmproductions.com/">Archived</a> 2007-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aeonmagazine.com/world-views/kate-brown-nuclear-downwinders">Article "A people's truth"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121212193011/http://www.aeonmagazine.com/world-views/kate-brown-nuclear-downwinders/">Archived</a> 2012-12-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aeonmagazine.com/world-views/kate-brown-nuclear-downwinders/">Excerpt from Plutopia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131020230224/http://www.aeonmagazine.com/world-views/kate-brown-nuclear-downwinders/">Archived</a> 2013-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Rice, James. Downwind of the Atomic State: Atmospheric Testing and the Rise of the Risk Society. (New York University Press, 2023): <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://nyupress.org/9781479815340/downwind-of-the-atomic-state/">https://nyupress.org/9781479815340/downwind-of-the-atomic-state/</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&oldid=1242359148">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Downwinders&oldid=1242359148</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti%E2%80%93nuclear_weapons_movement" title="Category:Anti–nuclear weapons movement">Anti–nuclear weapons movement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Category:Nuclear weapons testing">Nuclear weapons testing</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_health_effects" title="Category:Radiation health effects">Radiation health effects</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Category:History of the Southwestern United States">History of the Southwestern United States</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Nevada" title="Category:History of Nevada">History of Nevada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Utah" title="Category:History of Utah">History of Utah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Washington_(state)" title="Category:History of Washington (state)">History of Washington (state)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th_century_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Category:20th century in the Marshall Islands">20th century in the Marshall Islands</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_Nevada" title="Category:Environment of Nevada">Environment of Nevada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_Utah" title="Category:Environment of Utah">Environment of Utah</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_Washington_(state)" title="Category:Environment of Washington (state)">Environment of Washington (state)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Category:Environment of the Marshall Islands">Environment of the Marshall Islands</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_limited_geographic_scope_from_July_2010" title="Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2010">Articles with limited geographic scope from July 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases" title="Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases">All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_March_2012" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2012">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2012" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2012">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2012</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 August 2024, at 13:03<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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