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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Modern developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crop_choice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crop_choice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Crop choice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Crop_choice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Crop choice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Crop_choice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Row_crops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Row_crops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Row crops</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Row_crops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legumes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legumes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Legumes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legumes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grasses_and_cereals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grasses_and_cereals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Grasses and cereals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grasses_and_cereals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Green_manure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Green_manure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Green manure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Green_manure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Planning_a_rotation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planning_a_rotation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Planning a rotation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planning_a_rotation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Implementation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Implementation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Relationship to other systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incorporation_of_livestock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incorporation_of_livestock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Incorporation of livestock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incorporation_of_livestock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polyculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polyculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Polyculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polyculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Organic farming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Benefits</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Benefits subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soil_organic_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil_organic_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Soil organic matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil_organic_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_sequestration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_sequestration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Carbon sequestration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_sequestration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nitrogen_fixing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrogen_fixing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Nitrogen fixing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrogen_fixing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogen_and_pest_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogen_and_pest_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pathogen and pest control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogen_and_pest_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weed_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weed_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Weed management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weed_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reducing_soil_erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reducing_soil_erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Reducing soil erosion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reducing_soil_erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Biodiversity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farm_productivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farm_productivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Farm productivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farm_productivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Risk_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Risk_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Risk management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Risk_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Challenges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Crop rotation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%8D%E1%8B%8D%E1%8B%8D%E1%8C%A0_%E1%88%B0%E1%89%A5%E1%88%8D" title="ልውውጠ ሰብል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ልውውጠ ሰብል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="دورة زراعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دورة زراعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_a_redol%C3%ADn" title="Cultura a redolín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cultura a redolín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Севазварот – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Севазварот" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Сеитбообращение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сеитбообращение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaci%C3%B3_de_conreus" title="Rotació de conreus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rotació de conreus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D1%81%C4%83%C3%A7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80%C4%83%D0%BD%C4%83%D1%88" title="Пусăçаврăнăш – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пусăçаврăнăш" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osevn%C3%AD_postup" title="Osevní postup – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Osevní postup" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vekseldrift" title="Vekseldrift – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vekseldrift" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruchtfolge" title="Fruchtfolge – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fruchtfolge" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BClvikord" title="Külvikord – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Külvikord" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%88%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AC" title="Αμειψισπορά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αμειψισπορά" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaci%C3%B3n_de_cultivos" title="Rotación de cultivos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rotación de cultivos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultivciklo" title="Kultivciklo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kultivciklo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labore-txandaketa" title="Labore-txandaketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Labore-txandaketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8_%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="تناوب کشت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تناوب کشت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_culturale" title="Rotation culturale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rotation culturale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uain%C3%ADocht_barr" title="Uainíocht barr – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Uainíocht barr" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotaci%C3%B3n_de_cultivos" title="Rotación de cultivos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Rotación de cultivos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A4%EC%9E%91" title="윤작 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="윤작" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="सस्य आवर्तन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सस्य आवर्तन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mgbanwe_nke_ihe_%E1%BB%8Dk%E1%BB%A5k%E1%BB%A5" title="Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Mgbanwe nke ihe ọkụkụ" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotasi_tanaman" title="Rotasi tanaman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rotasi tanaman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotazione_delle_colture" title="Rotazione delle colture – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rotazione delle colture" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%96%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D" title="מחזור זרעים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחזור זרעים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9A%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="თესლბრუნვა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თესლბრუნვა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%A8%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BC_%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8B" 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data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vruchtwisseling" title="Vruchtwisseling – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vruchtwisseling" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BC%AA%E4%BD%9C" title="輪作 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="輪作" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vekselbruk" title="Vekselbruk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vekselbruk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Crop rotation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolobarjenje" title="Kolobarjenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kolobarjenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plodored" title="Plodored – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Plodored" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" 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lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பயிர்ச்சுழற்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="การปลูกพืชหมุนเวียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การปลูกพืชหมุนเวียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekim_n%C3%B6beti" title="Ekim nöbeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ekim nöbeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Crop+rotation%22">"Crop rotation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Crop+rotation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Crop+rotation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Crop+rotation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Crop+rotation%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Crop+rotation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Agricultural practice of changing crops</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plodozmian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plodozmian.jpg/330px-Plodozmian.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plodozmian.jpg/495px-Plodozmian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plodozmian.jpg/660px-Plodozmian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1983" data-file-height="1231" /></a><figcaption>Effects of crop rotation and <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a> at the Swojec Experimental Farm, <a href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw_University_of_Environmental_and_Life_Sciences" title="Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences">Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences</a>. 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Noto_Emoji_Oreo_1f33e.svg/24px-Noto_Emoji_Oreo_1f33e.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Noto_Emoji_Oreo_1f33e.svg/32px-Noto_Emoji_Oreo_1f33e.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Agriculture" title="Portal:Agriculture">Agriculture portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Agriculture" title="Template:Agriculture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Agriculture" title="Template talk:Agriculture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Agriculture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Agriculture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Crop rotation</b> is the practice of growing a series of different types of <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> in the same area across a sequence of growing <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasons</a>. This practice reduces the reliance of crops on one set of nutrients, pest and weed pressure, along with the probability of developing resistant pests and weeds. </p><p>Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a row, known as <a href="/wiki/Monocropping" title="Monocropping">monocropping</a>, gradually depletes the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> of certain <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> and selects for both a highly competitive pest and weed community. Without balancing nutrient use and diversifying pest and weed communities, the productivity of monocultures is highly dependent on external inputs that may be harmful to the soil's fertility. Conversely, a well-designed crop rotation can reduce the need for <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">synthetic fertilizers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a> by better using <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> from a diverse set of crops. Additionally, crop rotations can improve <a href="/wiki/Soil_structure" title="Soil structure">soil structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">organic matter</a>, which reduces erosion and increases farm system resilience. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG/220px-Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG/330px-Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG/440px-Robinia_pseudoacacia_root_nodules.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">Legumes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clover" title="Clover">clover</a> have long been used in crop rotations. They have bacteria in their root nodules which take nitrogen from the air and fix it into the soil as <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a> that crops can use.</figcaption></figure> <p>Farmers have long recognized that suitable rotations such as planting spring crops for <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> in place of grains for human consumption make it possible to restore or to maintain productive soils. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_Eastern" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Near Eastern">Ancient Near Eastern</a> farmers practiced crop rotation in 6000 BC, alternately planting <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cereals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereals">cereals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two-field_systems">Two-field systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Two-field systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year, while the other half lay <a href="/wiki/Fallow" title="Fallow">fallow</a>. Then, in the next year, the two fields were reversed. In <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> both the two- and three-field systems had been used since the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three-field_systems">Three-field systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Three-field systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three-field_system" title="Three-field system">Three-field system</a></div> <p>From the 9th century to the 11th century, farmers in Europe transitioned from a two-field system to a <a href="/wiki/Three-field_system" title="Three-field system">three-field system</a>. This system persisted until the 20th century. Available land was divided into three sections. One section was planted in the autumn with <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a> or winter <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, followed by spring <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oats</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>; the second section grew crops such as one of the <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">legumes</a>, namely peas, lentils, or beans; and the third field was left fallow. The three fields were rotated in this manner so that every three years, one of the fields would rest and lie fallow. Under the two-field system, only half the land was planted in any year. Under the new three-field rotation system, two thirds of the land was planted, potentially yielding a larger harvest. But the additional crops had a more significant effect than mere quantitative productivity. Since the spring crops were mostly legumes, which <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">fix nitrogen</a> needed for plants to make <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a>, they increased the overall nutrition of the people of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Lienhard_2023_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lienhard_2023-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Four-field_rotations">Four-field rotations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Four-field rotations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_four-course_system" title="Norfolk four-course system">Norfolk four-course system</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Convertible_husbandry" title="Convertible husbandry">Convertible husbandry</a></div> <p>Farmers in the region of <a href="/wiki/Waasland" title="Waasland">Waasland</a> (in present-day northern Belgium) pioneered a four-field rotation in the early 16th century, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> agriculturist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Townshend,_2nd_Viscount_Townshend" title="Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend">Charles Townshend</a> (1674–1738) popularised this system in the 18th century. The sequence of four crops (<a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clover" title="Clover">clover</a>), included a <a href="/wiki/Fodder_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Fodder crop">fodder crop</a> and a grazing crop, allowing <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> to be bred year-round. The four-field crop rotation became a key development in the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_developments">Modern developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Modern developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a> (1860s–1943) studied crop-rotation methods in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, teaching <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">southern</a> farmers to rotate soil-depleting crops like cotton with soil-enriching crops like <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">peas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a> of the mid-20th century, crop rotation gave way in the developed world to the practice of supplementing the chemical inputs to the soil through <a href="/wiki/Topdressing" class="mw-redirect" title="Topdressing">topdressing</a> with <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, adding (for example) <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> and restoring <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">soil pH</a> with <a href="/wiki/Lime_(mineral)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lime (mineral)">lime</a>. Such practices aimed to increase yields, to prepare soil for specialist crops, and to reduce waste and inefficiency by simplifying <a href="/wiki/Planting" class="mw-redirect" title="Planting">planting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvesting" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvesting">harvesting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crop_choice">Crop choice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Crop choice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A preliminary assessment of crop interrelationships can be found in how each crop:<sup id="cite_ref-NRCS_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCS-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Contributes to <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter (SOM)</a> content.</li> <li>Provides for <a href="/wiki/Pest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Pest management">pest management</a>.</li> <li>Manages deficient or excess nutrients.</li> <li>How it contributes to or controls for <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>.</li> <li>Interbreeds with other crops to produce hybrid offspring.</li> <li>Impacts surrounding food webs and field ecosystems.</li></ol> <p>Crop choice is often related to the goal the farmer is looking to achieve with the rotation, which could be <a href="/wiki/Weed_control" title="Weed control">weed management</a>, increasing available <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> in the soil, controlling for erosion, or increasing soil structure and biomass, to name a few.<sup id="cite_ref-dufourNCAT_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dufourNCAT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When discussing crop rotations, crops are classified in different ways depending on what quality is being assessed: by family, by nutrient needs/benefits, and/or by profitability (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Cover_crop" title="Cover crop">cover crop</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-baldwinCEFS_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baldwinCEFS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, giving adequate attention to plant family is essential to mitigating pests and pathogens. However, many farmers have success managing rotations by planning sequencing and cover crops around desirable cash crops.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following is a simplified classification based on crop quality and purpose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Row_crops">Row crops</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Row crops"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many crops which are critical for the market, like <a href="/wiki/Vegetable" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, are row crops (that is, grown in tight rows).<sup id="cite_ref-baldwinCEFS_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baldwinCEFS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While often the most profitable for farmers, these crops are more taxing on the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-baldwinCEFS_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baldwinCEFS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Row crops typically have low biomass and shallow roots: this means the plant contributes low residue to the surrounding soil and has limited effects on structure.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With much of the soil around the plant exposed to disruption by rainfall and traffic, fields with row crops experience faster break down of organic matter by microbes, leaving fewer nutrients for future plants.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In short, while these crops may be profitable for the farm, they are nutrient depleting. Crop rotation practices exist to strike a balance between short-term profitability and long-term productivity.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legumes">Legumes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Legumes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A great advantage of crop rotation comes from the interrelationship of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen-fixing</a> crops with nitrogen-demanding crops. Legumes, like alfalfa and clover, collect available nitrogen from the atmosphere and store it in nodules on their root structure.<sup id="cite_ref-lamb2010_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb2010-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the plant is harvested, the biomass of uncollected roots breaks down, making the stored nitrogen available to future crops.<sup id="cite_ref-RHS_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RHS-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grasses_and_cereals">Grasses and cereals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grasses and cereals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cereal and grasses are frequent cover crops because of the many advantages they supply to <a href="/wiki/Soil_quality" title="Soil quality">soil quality</a> and structure. The dense and far-reaching root systems give ample structure to surrounding soil and provide significant biomass for <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>. </p><p>Grasses and cereals are key in weed management as they compete with undesired plants for soil space and nutrients. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Green_manure">Green manure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Green manure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Green_manure" title="Green manure">Green manure</a> is a crop that is mixed into the soil. Both nitrogen-fixing legumes and nutrient scavengers, like grasses, can be used as green manure.<sup id="cite_ref-lamb2010_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb2010-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Green manure of legumes is an excellent source of nitrogen, especially for organic systems, however, legume biomass does not contribute to lasting <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a> like grasses do.<sup id="cite_ref-lamb2010_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lamb2010-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planning_a_rotation">Planning a rotation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Planning a rotation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are numerous factors that must be taken into consideration when planning a crop rotation. Planning an effective rotation requires weighing fixed and fluctuating production circumstances: market, farm size, labor supply, climate, soil type, growing practices, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-bailey1907_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bailey1907-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, a crop rotation must consider in what condition one crop will leave the soil for the succeeding crop and how one crop can be seeded with another crop.<sup id="cite_ref-bailey1907_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bailey1907-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a nitrogen-fixing crop, like a legume, should always precede a nitrogen depleting one; similarly, a low residue crop (i.e. a crop with low biomass) should be offset with a high biomass cover crop, like a mixture of grasses and legumes.<sup id="cite_ref-NRCS_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCS-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is no limit to the number of crops that can be used in a rotation, or the amount of time a rotation takes to complete.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decisions about rotations are made years prior, seasons prior, or even at the last minute when an opportunity to increase profits or soil quality presents itself.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_other_systems">Relationship to other systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Relationship to other systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crop rotation systems may be enriched by other practices such as the addition of livestock and manure,<sup id="cite_ref-NCATweb_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCATweb-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by growing more than one crop at a time in a field. A <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a> is a crop grown by itself in a field. A <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a> involves two or more crops growing in the same place at the same time. Crop rotations can be applied to both monocultures and polycultures, resulting in multiple ways of increasing agricultural biodiversity (table).<sup id="cite_ref-WSU_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSU-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;" class="wikitable"> <caption>Diversity of crops in space and time;<br />monocultures, polycultures, and rotations<sup id="cite_ref-WSU_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WSU-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3" colspan="3"> </th> <th colspan="3">Diversity in time </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Low </th> <th colspan="2">Higher </th></tr> <tr> <th>Cyclic </th> <th>Dynamic </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Diversity<br />in space </th> <th>Low </th> <th>Monoculture,<br />one species in a field </th> <td>Continuous<br /><a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monoculture</a>,<br />monocropping </td> <td>Rotation of<br />monocultures </td> <td>Sequence of<br />monocultures </td></tr> <tr> <th>Higher </th> <th>Polyculture,<br />two or more species<br />intermingled in a field </th> <td>Continuous<br /><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a> </td> <td>Rotation of<br />polycultures </td> <td>Sequence of<br />polycultures </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incorporation_of_livestock">Incorporation of livestock</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Incorporation of livestock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Introducing <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> makes the most efficient use of critical <a href="/wiki/Sod" title="Sod">sod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cover_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Cover crops">cover crops</a>; livestock (through <a href="/wiki/Manure" title="Manure">manure</a>) are able to distribute the nutrients in these crops throughout the soil rather than removing nutrients from the farm through the sale of hay.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mixed farming or the practice of crop cultivation with the incorporation of livestock can help manage crops in a rotation and cycle nutrients. Crop residues provide animal feed, while the animals provide manure for replenishing crop nutrients and draft power. These processes promote internal nutrient cycling and minimize the need for synthetic fertilizers and large-scale machinery. As an additional benefit, the cattle, sheep and/or goat provide milk and can act as a cash crop in the times of economic hardship.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polyculture">Polyculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Polyculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a> systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">intercropping</a> or <a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">companion planting</a>, offer more diversity and complexity within the same season or rotation. An example is the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a>, the inter-planting of corn with pole beans and vining squash or pumpkins. In this system, the beans provide nitrogen; the corn provides support for the beans and a "screen" against squash vine borer; the vining squash provides a weed suppressive canopy and a discouragement for corn-hungry raccoons.<sup id="cite_ref-dufourNCAT_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dufourNCAT-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Double-cropping is common where two crops, typically of different species, are grown sequentially in the same growing season, or where one crop (e.g. vegetable) is grown continuously with a cover crop (e.g. wheat).<sup id="cite_ref-NRCS_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NRCS-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is advantageous for small farms, which often cannot afford to leave cover crops to replenish the soil for extended periods of time, as larger farms can. When multiple cropping is implemented on small farms, these systems can maximize benefits of crop rotation on available land resources.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_farming">Organic farming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Organic farming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crop rotation is a required practice, in the United States, for farms seeking <a href="/wiki/Organic_certification" title="Organic certification">organic certification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CFR_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CFR-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The “Crop Rotation Practice Standard” for the <a href="/wiki/National_Organic_Program" title="National Organic Program">National Organic Program</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">U.S. Code of Federal Regulations</a>, section §205.205, states that </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Farmers are required to implement a crop rotation that maintains or builds soil organic matter, works to control pests, manages and conserves nutrients, and protects against erosion. Producers of perennial crops that aren’t rotated may utilize other practices, such as cover crops, to maintain <a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">soil health</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In addition to lowering the need for inputs (by controlling for pests and weeds and increasing available nutrients), crop rotation helps organic growers increase the amount of biodiversity their farms.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biodiversity is also a requirement of organic certification, however, there are no rules in place to regulate or reinforce this standard.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects,<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and beneficial microorganisms in the soil<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-Saleem-et-al-2019_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saleem-et-al-2019-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter.<sup id="cite_ref-mader2000_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mader2000-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Multiple_cropping" title="Multiple cropping">multiple cropping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intercropping" title="Intercropping">intercropping</a> benefit from many of the same principals as crop rotation, they do not satisfy the requirement under the <a href="/wiki/National_Organic_Program" title="National Organic Program">NOP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benefits">Benefits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Agronomists describe the benefits to yield in rotated crops as "The Rotation Effect". There are many benefits of rotation systems. The factors related to the increase are broadly due to alleviation of the negative factors of monoculture cropping systems. Specifically, improved nutrition; pest, pathogen, and weed stress reduction; and improved soil structure have been found in some cases to be correlated to beneficial rotation effects. </p><p>Other benefits include reduced production cost. Overall financial risks are more widely distributed over more diverse production of crops and/or livestock. Less reliance is placed on purchased inputs and over time crops can maintain production goals with fewer inputs. This in tandem with greater short and long term yields makes rotation a powerful tool for improving agricultural systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil_organic_matter">Soil organic matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Soil organic matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of different species in rotation allows for increased soil organic matter (SOM), greater soil structure, and improvement of the chemical and biological soil environment for crops. With more SOM, water infiltration and retention improves, providing increased drought tolerance and decreased erosion. </p><p>Soil organic matter is a mix of decaying material from biomass with active <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>. Crop rotation, by nature, increases exposure to biomass from sod, green manure, and various other plant debris. The reduced need for intensive <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> under crop rotation allows biomass aggregation to lead to greater nutrient retention and utilization, decreasing the need for added nutrients.<sup id="cite_ref-baldwinCEFS_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baldwinCEFS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With tillage, disruption and oxidation of soil creates a less conducive environment for diversity and proliferation of microorganisms in the soil. These microorganisms are what make nutrients available to plants. So, where "active" soil organic matter is a key to productive soil, soil with low microbial activity provides significantly fewer nutrients to plants; this is true even though the quantity of biomass left in the soil may be the same. </p><p>Soil microorganisms also decrease <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pest_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pest (agriculture)">pest</a> activity through competition. In addition, plants produce root exudates and other chemicals which manipulate their soil environment as well as their weed environment. Thus rotation allows increased yields from nutrient availability but also alleviation of <a href="/wiki/Allelopathy" title="Allelopathy">allelopathy</a> and competitive weed environments.<sup id="cite_ref-One_Earth_2020_pp._284–293_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-One_Earth_2020_pp._284–293-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Carbon sequestration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crop rotations greatly increase <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil organic carbon (SOC)</a> content, the main constituent of <a href="/wiki/Soil_organic_matter" title="Soil organic matter">soil organic matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-triberti2016_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-triberti2016-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carbon, along with hydrogen and oxygen, is a macronutrient for plants. Highly diverse rotations spanning long periods of time have shown to be even more effective in increasing SOC, while soil disturbances (e.g. from tillage) are responsible for exponential decline in SOC levels.<sup id="cite_ref-triberti2016_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-triberti2016-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Brazil, conversion to no-till methods combined with intensive crop rotations has been shown an SOC sequestration rate of 0.41 tonnes per hectare per year.<sup id="cite_ref-victoria2012_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-victoria2012-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to enhancing crop productivity, sequestration of atmospheric carbon has great implications in reducing rates of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> by removing carbon dioxide from the air. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitrogen_fixing">Nitrogen fixing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nitrogen fixing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rotations can add nutrients to the soil. <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">Legumes</a>, plants of the family <a href="/wiki/Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a>, have nodules on their <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a> which contain <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen-fixing</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> called <a href="/wiki/Rhizobium" title="Rhizobium">rhizobia</a>. During a process called nodulation, the rhizobia bacteria use nutrients and water provided by the plant to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which is then converted into an organic compound that the plant can use as its nitrogen source.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It therefore makes good sense agriculturally to alternate them with cereals (family <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a>) and other plants that require <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a>. How much nitrogen made available to the plants depends on factors such as the kind of legume, the effectiveness of rhizobia bacteria, soil conditions, and the availability of elements necessary for plant food.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pathogen_and_pest_control">Pathogen and pest control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pathogen and pest control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Plant%E2%80%93soil_feedback" title="Plant–soil feedback">Plant–soil feedback</a></div> <p>Crop rotation is also used to control pests and diseases that can become established in the soil over time. The changing of crops in a sequence decreases the population level of pests by (1) interrupting pest life cycles and (2) interrupting pest habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants within the same <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomic family">taxonomic family</a> tend to have similar pests and pathogens. By regularly changing crops and keeping the soil occupied by cover crops instead of lying fallow, pest cycles can be broken or limited, especially cycles that benefit from overwintering in residue.<sup id="cite_ref-moncada2010_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moncada2010-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Root-knot_nematode" title="Root-knot nematode">root-knot nematode</a> is a serious problem for some plants in warm climates and sandy soils, where it slowly builds up to high levels in the soil, and can severely damage plant productivity by cutting off circulation from the plant roots. Growing a crop that is not a host for root-knot nematode for one season greatly reduces the level of the nematode in the soil, thus making it possible to grow a susceptible crop the following season without needing soil <a href="/wiki/Fumigation" title="Fumigation">fumigation</a>. </p><p>This principle is of particular use in <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic farming</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">pest control</a> must be achieved without synthetic pesticides.<sup id="cite_ref-NCATweb_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCATweb-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weed_management">Weed management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Weed management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Integrating certain crops, especially <a href="/wiki/Cover_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Cover crops">cover crops</a>, into crop rotations is of particular value to <a href="/wiki/Weed_control" title="Weed control">weed management</a>. These crops crowd out weeds through competition. In addition, the sod and compost from cover crops and green manure slows the growth of what weeds are still able to make it through the soil, giving the crops further competitive advantage. By slowing the growth and proliferation of weeds while cover crops are cultivated, farmers greatly reduce the presence of weeds for future crops, including shallow rooted and row crops, which are less resistant to weeds. Cover crops are, therefore, considered conservation crops because they protect otherwise fallow land from becoming overrun with weeds.<sup id="cite_ref-moncada2010_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moncada2010-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This system has advantages over other common practices for weeds management, such as <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a>. Tillage is meant to inhibit growth of weeds by overturning the soil; however, this has a countering effect of exposing weed seeds that may have gotten buried and burying valuable crop seeds. Under crop rotation, the number of viable seeds in the soil is reduced through the reduction of the weed population. </p><p>In addition to their negative impact on crop quality and yield, weeds can slow down the harvesting process. Weeds make farmers less efficient when harvesting, because weeds like bindweeds, and knotgrass, can become tangled in the equipment, resulting in a stop-and-go type of harvest.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_soil_erosion">Reducing soil erosion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reducing soil erosion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crop rotation can significantly reduce the amount of soil lost from <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> by water. In areas that are highly susceptible to erosion, farm management practices such as zero and reduced tillage can be supplemented with specific crop rotation methods to reduce raindrop impact, sediment detachment, <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">sediment transport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>, and soil loss.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protection against soil loss is maximized with rotation methods that leave the greatest mass of crop stubble (plant residue left after harvest) on top of the soil. Stubble cover in contact with the soil minimizes erosion from water by reducing overland flow velocity, stream power, and thus the ability of the water to detach and transport sediment.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soil erosion and seal prevent the disruption and detachment of soil aggregates that cause macropores to block, infiltration to decline, and runoff to increase.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This significantly improves the resilience of soils when subjected to periods of erosion and stress. </p><p>When a forage crop breaks down, binding products are formed that act like an adhesive on the soil, which makes particles stick together, and form aggregates.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formation of soil aggregates is important for erosion control, as they are better able to resist raindrop impact, and water erosion. Soil aggregates also reduce wind erosion, because they are larger particles, and are more resistant to abrasion through tillage practices.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effect of crop rotation on erosion control varies by climate. In regions under relatively consistent climate conditions, where annual rainfall and temperature levels are assumed, rigid crop rotations can produce sufficient plant growth and soil cover. In regions where climate conditions are less predictable, and unexpected periods of rain and drought may occur, a more flexible approach for soil cover by crop rotation is necessary. An opportunity cropping system promotes adequate soil cover under these erratic climate conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Carroll_Halpin_Burger_Bell_1997_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carroll_Halpin_Burger_Bell_1997-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an opportunity cropping system, crops are grown when soil water is adequate and there is a reliable sowing window. This form of cropping system is likely to produce better soil cover than a rigid crop rotation because crops are only sown under optimal conditions, whereas rigid systems are not necessarily sown in the best conditions available.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crop rotations also affect the timing and length of when a field is subject to fallow.<sup id="cite_ref-Huang_Shao_Zhang_Li_2003_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huang_Shao_Zhang_Li_2003-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is very important because depending on a particular region's climate, a field could be the most vulnerable to erosion when it is under fallow. Efficient fallow management is an essential part of reducing erosion in a crop rotation system. Zero tillage is a fundamental management practice that promotes crop stubble retention under longer unplanned fallows when crops cannot be planted.<sup id="cite_ref-Carroll_Halpin_Burger_Bell_1997_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carroll_Halpin_Burger_Bell_1997-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such management practices that succeed in retaining suitable soil cover in areas under fallow will ultimately reduce soil loss. In a recent study that lasted a decade, it was found that a common winter cover crop after potato harvest such as fall rye can reduce soil run-off by as much as 43%, and this is typically the most nutritional soil.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Biodiversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Increasing the biodiversity of crops has beneficial effects on the surrounding ecosystem and can host a greater diversity of fauna, insects,<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and beneficial microorganisms in the soil<sup id="cite_ref-coleman2012_11-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coleman2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as found by McDaniel et al 2014 and Lori et al 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-Saleem-et-al-2019_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saleem-et-al-2019-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some studies point to increased nutrient availability from crop rotation under organic systems compared to conventional practices as organic practices are less likely to inhibit of beneficial microbes in soil organic matter, such as arbuscular mycorrhizae, which increase nutrient uptake in plants.<sup id="cite_ref-mader2000_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mader2000-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasing biodiversity also increases the resilience of agro-ecological systems.<sup id="cite_ref-baldwinCEFS_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baldwinCEFS-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Farm_productivity">Farm productivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Farm productivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Crop rotation contributes to increased yields through improved soil nutrition. By requiring planting and harvesting of different crops at different times, more land can be farmed with the same amount of machinery and labour. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Risk_management">Risk management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Risk management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different crops in the rotation can reduce the risks of adverse weather for the individual farmer.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Challenges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While crop rotation requires a great deal of planning, crop choice must respond to a number of fixed conditions (soil type, topography, climate, and irrigation) in addition to conditions that may change dramatically from year to the next (weather, market, labor supply).<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this way, it is unwise to plan crops years in advance. Improper implementation of a crop rotation plan may lead to imbalances in the soil nutrient composition or a buildup of pathogens affecting a critical crop.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consequences of faulty rotation may take years to become apparent even to experienced soil scientists and can take just as long to correct.<sup id="cite_ref-johnson2009_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson2009-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many challenges exist within the practices associated with crop rotation. For example, <a href="/wiki/Green_manure" title="Green manure">green manure</a> from legumes can lead to an invasion of snails or slugs and the decay from green manure can occasionally suppress the growth of other crops.<sup id="cite_ref-RHS_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RHS-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convertible_husbandry" title="Convertible husbandry">Convertible husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_system" title="Field system">Field system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillage_erosion" title="Tillage erosion">Tillage erosion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190923164709/https://time.graphics/event/2281456">"Jan 1, 6000 BC – Crop Rotation (Timeline)"</a>. <i>time.graphics</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=time.graphics&rft.atitle=Jan+1%2C+6000+BC+%E2%80%93+Crop+Rotation+%28Timeline%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.graphics%2Fevent%2F2281456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-crop-rotation.html">"What Is Crop Rotation?"</a>. <i>WorldAtlas</i>. 25 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Water use efficiency and sustainability of different long-term crop rotation systems in the Loess Plateau of China". <i>Soil and Tillage Research</i>. <b>72</b> (1): 95–104. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003STilR..72...95H">2003STilR..72...95H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0167-1987%2803%2900065-5">10.1016/S0167-1987(03)00065-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soil+and+Tillage+Research&rft.atitle=Water+use+efficiency+and+sustainability+of+different+long-term+crop+rotation+systems+in+the+Loess+Plateau+of+China&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95-104&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0167-1987%2803%2900065-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003STilR..72...95H&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Mingbin&rft.au=Shao%2C+Mingan&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Lu&rft.au=Li%2C+Yushan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker" class="citation news cs1">Walker, Andy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peicanada.com/island_farmer/article_1f8f774a-ea1d-11e5-b9b4-2314cedac479.html">"Cover crops have major role to play in soil health"</a>. <i>peicanada.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=peicanada.com&rft.atitle=Cover+crops+have+major+role+to+play+in+soil+health&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peicanada.com%2Fisland_farmer%2Farticle_1f8f774a-ea1d-11e5-b9b4-2314cedac479.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://permaculturenews.org/2016/06/15/crop-rotation-a-vital-component-of-organic-farming/">"Crop Rotation – A Vital Component of Organic Farming"</a>. 15 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crop+Rotation+%E2%80%93+A+Vital+Component+of+Organic+Farming&rft.date=2016-06-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpermaculturenews.org%2F2016%2F06%2F15%2Fcrop-rotation-a-vital-component-of-organic-farming%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamoahFrancisVarvelWaltman1998" class="citation journal cs1">Yamoah, Charles F.; Francis, Charles A.; Varvel, Gary E.; Waltman, William J. (April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1334&context=agronomyfacpub">"Weather and Management Impact on Crop Yield Variability in Rotations"</a>. <i>Journal of Production Agriculture</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 219–225. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2134%2Fjpa1998.0219">10.2134/jpa1998.0219</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54785967">54785967</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Production+Agriculture&rft.atitle=Weather+and+Management+Impact+on+Crop+Yield+Variability+in+Rotations&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-225&rft.date=1998-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2134%2Fjpa1998.0219&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A54785967%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Yamoah&rft.aufirst=Charles+F.&rft.au=Francis%2C+Charles+A.&rft.au=Varvel%2C+Gary+E.&rft.au=Waltman%2C+William+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1334%26context%3Dagronomyfacpub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Randy L. (1 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326024134/https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/3769/PDF">"Are Some Crops Synergistic to Following Crops?"</a>. <i>Agronomy Journal</i>. <b>97</b> (1): 7–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AgrJ...97....7A">2005AgrJ...97....7A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2134%2Fagronj2005.0007a">10.2134/agronj2005.0007a</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215776836">215776836</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/3769/PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agronomy+Journal&rft.atitle=Are+Some+Crops+Synergistic+to+Following+Crops%3F&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-10&rft.date=2005-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A215776836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2134%2Fagronj2005.0007a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AgrJ...97....7A&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Randy+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnaldc.nal.usda.gov%2Fdownload%2F3769%2FPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Bullock, D. G. (1992). "Crop rotation". <i>Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 309–326. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992CRvPS..11..309B">1992CRvPS..11..309B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07352689209382349">10.1080/07352689209382349</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Plant+Sciences&rft.atitle=Crop+rotation&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=309-326&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07352689209382349&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992CRvPS..11..309B&rft.aulast=Bullock&rft.aufirst=D.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Francis, Charles A. (2003). "Advances in the Design of Resource-Efficient Cropping Systems". <i>Journal of Crop Production</i>. <b>8</b> (1–2): 15–32. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JCrIm...8...15F">2003JCrIm...8...15F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2Fj144v08n01_02">10.1300/j144v08n01_02</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Crop+Production&rft.atitle=Advances+in+the+Design+of+Resource-Efficient+Cropping+Systems&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=15-32&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2Fj144v08n01_02&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JCrIm...8...15F&rft.aulast=Francis&rft.aufirst=Charles+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Porter, Paul M.; Lauer, Joseph G.; Lueschen, William E.; Ford, J. Harlan; Hoverstad, Tom R.; Oplinger, Edward S.; Crookston, R. Kent (1997). "Environment Affects the Corn and Soybean Rotation Effect". <i>Agronomy Journal</i>. <b>89</b> (3): 442–448. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997AgrJ...89..442P">1997AgrJ...89..442P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2134%2Fagronj1997.00021962008900030012x">10.2134/agronj1997.00021962008900030012x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agronomy+Journal&rft.atitle=Environment+Affects+the+Corn+and+Soybean+Rotation+Effect&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=442-448&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2134%2Fagronj1997.00021962008900030012x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997AgrJ...89..442P&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rft.au=Lauer%2C+Joseph+G.&rft.au=Lueschen%2C+William+E.&rft.au=Ford%2C+J.+Harlan&rft.au=Hoverstad%2C+Tom+R.&rft.au=Oplinger%2C+Edward+S.&rft.au=Crookston%2C+R.+Kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">White, L. T. (1962). <i>Medieval Technology and Social Change</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Technology+and+Social+Change&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=L.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Crop_rotation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150304180952/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/middle.htm">Technology in the middle ages</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Rotation of Crops"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Rotation_of_Crops">"Rotation of Crops" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rotation+of+Crops&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrop+rotation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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