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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Ancient Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Subcontinent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Subcontinent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Indian Subcontinent </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Subcontinent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Ancient China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Greece_and_Hellenistic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Greece_and_Hellenistic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greece_and_Hellenistic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Roman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 The Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.1 South America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.2 Mesoamerica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7.3 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Sub-Saharan Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sub-Saharan_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9.2 Pacific Islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages_and_Early_Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages_and_Early_Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Middle Ages and Early Modern period </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages_and_Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Middle Ages and Early Modern period subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages_and_Early_Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Arab world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Columbian_exchange" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Columbian_exchange"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Columbian exchange </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Columbian_exchange-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Modern agriculture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_agriculture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern agriculture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_agricultural_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_agricultural_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 British agricultural revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_agricultural_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Green_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Green_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Green Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Green_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Organic agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Surveys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Premodern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Premodern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Premodern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Premodern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of agriculture</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" > 49 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9" title="تاريخ الزراعة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الزراعة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_l%27agricultura" title="Historia de l'agricultura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de l'agricultura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%99nd_t%C9%99s%C9%99rr%C3%BCfat%C4%B1_tarixi" title="Kənd təsərrüfatı tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kənd təsərrüfatı tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DB%8C" title="اکینچیلیک تاریخی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اکینچیلیک تاریخی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="কৃষিকাজের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কৃষিকাজের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27agricultura" title="Història de l'agricultura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'agricultura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_zem%C4%9Bd%C4%9Blstv%C3%AD" title="Dějiny zemědělství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny zemědělství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landbrugshistorie" title="Landbrugshistorie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Landbrugshistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Landwirtschaft" title="Geschichte der Landwirtschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Landwirtschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της γεωργίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της γεωργίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_agricultura" title="Historia de la agricultura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la agricultura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_agrikulturo" title="Historio de agrikulturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de agrikulturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nekazaritzaren_historia" title="Nekazaritzaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nekazaritzaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="تاریخ کشاورزی و دامپروری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ کشاورزی و دامپروری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27agriculture" title="Histoire de l'agriculture – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'agriculture" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%86%8D%EC%97%85%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="농업의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="농업의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գյուղատնտեսության պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գյուղատնտեսության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="कृषि का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कृषि का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_poljoprivrede" title="Povijest poljoprivrede – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest poljoprivrede" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_pertanian" title="Sejarah pertanian – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah pertanian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27agricoltura" title="Storia dell'agricoltura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'agricoltura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA" title="היסטוריה של החקלאות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של החקלאות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_di_lagrikiltir" title="Istwè di lagrikiltir – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè di lagrikiltir" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_agriculturae" title="Historia agriculturae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia agriculturae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B2ria_de_l%27agricult%C3%BCra" title="Stòria de l'agricultüra – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Stòria de l'agricultüra" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a 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class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%90_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د کرنې تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کرنې تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_rolnictwa" title="Historia rolnictwa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia rolnictwa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_agricultura" title="História da agricultura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da agricultura" data-language-autonym="Português" 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href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of agriculture" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_po%C4%BEnohospod%C3%A1rstva" title="Dejiny poľnohospodárstva – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny poľnohospodárstva" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_poljoprivrede" title="Istorija poljoprivrede – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija poljoprivrede" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/250px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/375px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/500px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1337" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domesticated_plants_and_animals_of_Austronesia" title="Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_History_Review" title="Agricultural History Review">Agricultural History Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Argentina" title="History of agriculture in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Canada" title="History of agriculture in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_China" title="History of agriculture in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Chile" title="History of agriculture in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_organic_farming" title="History of organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Palestine" title="History of agriculture in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_history_of_Peru" title="Agricultural history of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Cheshire" title="History of agriculture in Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Scotland" title="History of agriculture in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_agriculture" title="History of African-American agriculture">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_California" title="History of agriculture in California">California</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">On land</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrivoltaic">Agrivoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_farming" title="Pig farming">pigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">poultry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheep_farming" title="Sheep farming">sheep</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming" title="Dairy farming">Dairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dryland_farming" title="Dryland farming">Dryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">Extensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_range" title="Free range">Free-range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convertible_husbandry" title="Convertible husbandry">Convertible husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_grazing" title="Rotational grazing">Rotational grazing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobby_farm" title="Hobby farm">Hobby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">Intensive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">pigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_crop_farming" title="Intensive crop farming">crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_farming" title="Natural farming">Natural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">Monoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">Orchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">Paddy field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Madeira)" title="Colonia (Madeira)">Colonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">Slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">Smallholding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">Terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_steam_sterilization" title="Soil steam sterilization">Steam sterilization</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Hydroculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroculture">Hydroculture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaponics" title="Aquaponics">Aquaponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">Hydroponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeroponics" title="Aeroponics">Aeroponics</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agribusiness" title="Agribusiness">Agribusiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_cooperative" title="Agricultural cooperative">Agricultural cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_supply_store" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural supply store">Agricultural supplies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_technology" title="Agricultural technology">Agricultural technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Agriculture">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_biotechnology" title="Agricultural biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">Cash crop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_agriculture" title="Cellular agriculture">Cellular agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_methods" title="Cultural methods">Cultural methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_farming" title="Contract farming">Contract farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">Extensive farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmhouse" title="Farmhouse">Farmhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_ratio" title="Feed ratio">Feed ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_range" title="Free range">Free range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">Intensive farming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">pigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_crop_farming" title="Intensive crop farming">crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanised_agriculture" title="Mechanised agriculture">Mechanised agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paludiculture" title="Paludiculture">Paludiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rice-duck_farming" title="Rice-duck farming">Rice-duck farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice-fish_system" title="Rice-fish system">Rice-fish system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">Sustainable food system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_universities_and_colleges" title="List of agricultural universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">Urban agriculture</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturist" title="Agriculturist">Agriculturist profession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery" title="List of agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_origins" title="List of food origins">Food origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agriculture_ministries" title="List of agriculture ministries">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_universities_and_colleges" title="List of agricultural universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Categories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agricultural_machinery" title="Category:Agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_by_country" title="Category:Agriculture by country">Agriculture by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_companies" title="Category:Agriculture companies">Agriculture companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a 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var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">Farmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_farm" title="Family farm">Family farmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmworker" title="Farmworker">Farmworker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">Tenant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">Pastoralists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herder" title="Herder">Herder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">Smallholders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_women" title="Rural women">Women</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_roles_in_agriculture" title="Gender roles in agriculture">in Agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" 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class="mw-redirect" title="Regional history">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_American_history" title="Rural American history">Rural American history</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_socialism" title="Agrarian socialism">Agrarian socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomadic_conflict" title="Nomadic conflict">Nomadic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_parliament" title="Rural parliament">Informal parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_movement" title="Peasant movement">Peasant movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Via_Campesina" title="Via Campesina">Via Campesina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rural_society" title="Template:Rural society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Rural_society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Rural society (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rural_society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rural society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/300px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/450px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg/600px-Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1337" /></a><figcaption>Ploughing with a yoke of horned cattle in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Ancient Egypt</a>. Painting from the burial chamber of <a href="/wiki/Sennedjem" title="Sennedjem">Sennedjem</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 BC.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a>. At least eleven separate regions of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> were involved as independent <a href="/wiki/Centers_of_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Centers of origin">centers of origin</a>. The development of agriculture about 12,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Wild <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grains</a> were collected and eaten from at least 104,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> However, domestication did not occur until much later. The earliest evidence of small-scale cultivation of edible grasses is from around 21,000 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Ohalo_II" title="Ohalo II">Ohalo II</a> people on the shores of the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> By around 9500 BC, the eight <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_founder_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic founder crops">Neolithic founder crops</a> – <a href="/wiki/Emmer_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmer wheat">emmer wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Einkorn_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Einkorn wheat">einkorn wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">hulled barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil">lentils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicia_ervilia" title="Vicia ervilia">bitter vetch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">chickpeas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> – were cultivated in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">Rye</a> may have been cultivated earlier, but this claim remains controversial.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Regardless, rye's spread from Southwest Asia to the Atlantic was independent of the Neolithic founder crop package.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> was domesticated in China by 6200 BC<a href="#cite_note-pnas1-7">[7]</a> with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by <a href="/wiki/Mung_bean" title="Mung bean">mung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soy">soy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azuki_bean" class="mw-redirect" title="Azuki bean">azuki</a> beans. Rice was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Choi_e1007414-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cubry_2274–2282.e6-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">Pigs</a> were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a> were domesticated from the wild <a href="/wiki/Aurochs" title="Aurochs">aurochs</a> in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC. <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">Camels</a> were domesticated late, perhaps around 3000 BC. In <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">subsaharan Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> was domesticated in the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> region of Africa by 3000 BC, along with <a href="/wiki/Pearl_millet" title="Pearl millet">pearl millet</a> by 2000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yam_(vegetable)" title="Yam (vegetable)">Yams</a> were domesticated in several distinct locations, including West Africa (unknown date), and <a href="/wiki/Cowpea" title="Cowpea">cowpeas</a> by 2500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oryza_glaberrima" title="Oryza glaberrima">African rice</a>) was also independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Choi_e1007414-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cubry_2274–2282.e6-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Teff" title="Teff">Teff</a> and likely <a href="/wiki/Finger_millet" title="Finger millet">finger millet</a> were domesticated in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> by 3000 BC, along with <a href="/wiki/Guizotia_abyssinica" title="Guizotia abyssinica">noog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ensete" title="Ensete">ensete</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coffee_bean" title="Coffee bean">coffee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Other plant foods domesticated in Africa include <a href="/wiki/Watermelon" title="Watermelon">watermelon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Okra" title="Okra">okra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamarind" title="Tamarind">tamarind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_eyed_peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Black eyed peas">black eyed peas</a>, along with tree crops such as the <a href="/wiki/Kola_nut" title="Kola nut">kola nut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elaeis" title="Elaeis">oil palm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="/wiki/True_plantains" title="True plantains">Plantains</a> were cultivated in Africa by 3000 BC and <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a> by 1500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The helmeted <a href="/wiki/Guineafowl" title="Guineafowl">guineafowl</a> was domesticated in West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanga_cattle" title="Sanga cattle">Sanga cattle</a> was likely also domesticated in North-East Africa, around 7000 BC, and later crossbred with other species.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In South America, agriculture began as early as 9000 BC, starting with the cultivation of several species of plants that later became only minor crops. In the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> of South America, the <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> was domesticated between 8000 BC and 5000 BC, along with <a href="/wiki/Phaseolus" title="Phaseolus">beans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squash_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (plant)">squash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomatoes">tomatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coca" title="Coca">coca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Llama" title="Llama">llamas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpaca" title="Alpaca">alpacas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pigs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">Cassava</a> was domesticated in the Amazon Basin no later than 7000 BC. <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> (Zea mays) found its way to South America from <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, where wild <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a> was domesticated about 7000 BC and <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selectively bred</a> to become domestic maize. <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> was domesticated in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> by 4200 BC; another species of cotton was domesticated in Mesoamerica and became by far the most important species of cotton in the textile industry in modern times.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Evidence of agriculture in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern</a> United States dates to about 3000 BCE. Several plants were cultivated, later to be replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a> cultivation of maize, squash, and beans. <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a> and some <a href="/wiki/List_of_root_vegetables" class="mw-redirect" title="List of root vegetables">root vegetables</a> were domesticated in <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> around 7000 BC. <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">Bananas</a> were cultivated and <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridized</a> in the same period in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, agriculture was invented at a currently unspecified period, with the oldest eel traps of <a href="/wiki/Budj_Bim" title="Budj Bim">Budj Bim</a> dating to 6,600 BC<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> and the deployment of several crops ranging from yams<a href="#cite_note-Gammage,_Bill_2011_pp._281-24">[24]</a> to bananas.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-25">[25]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300 BC, witnessed the intensification of agriculture in civilizations such as <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerma" title="Kerma">ancient Sudan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, world population continued to grow along with land use, as evidenced by the rapid increase in <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a> from cattle and the cultivation of rice.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> and era of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, both <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">the Republic</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">the Empire</a>, throughout the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Mediterranean">ancient Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> built upon existing systems of agriculture while also establishing the <a href="/wiki/Manorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Manorial">manorial</a> system that became a bedrock of medieval agriculture. In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, both in Europe and <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">in the Islamic world</a>, agriculture was transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the <a href="/wiki/Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">orange</a> to Europe by way of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">voyages of Christopher Columbus</a> in 1492, the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a> brought New World crops such as <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">sweet potatoes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manioc" class="mw-redirect" title="Manioc">manioc</a> to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a>, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to the Americas. <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> were introduced soon after the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> and developed much further in the past 200 years, starting with the <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a>. Since 1900, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as human labour has been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Mechanized_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanized farming">mechanization</a>, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber-Bosch process</a> allowed the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a> fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing <a href="/wiki/Crop_yields" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop yields">crop yields</a>. Modern agriculture has raised social, political, and environmental issues including overpopulation, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organisms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farm_subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm subsidies">farm subsidies</a>. In response, <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic farming</a> developed in the twentieth century as an alternative to the use of synthetic pesticides. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_hypotheses">Origin hypotheses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin hypotheses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout,_from_Australia_(1876,_vol_II).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg/220px-Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg/330px-Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg/440px-Native_Encampment_by_Skinner_Prout%2C_from_Australia_%281876%2C_vol_II%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Australian">Indigenous Australian</a> camp by Skinner Prout, 1876</figcaption></figure> Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of intensification and increasing <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">sedentism</a>; examples are the <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted, but were not immediately domesticated.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gerritsen2008-28">[28]</a> Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> When major climate change took place after the last <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a> (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> These conditions favoured <a href="/wiki/Annual_plant" title="Annual plant">annual plants</a> which die off in the long dry season, leaving a <a href="/wiki/Dormancy" title="Dormancy">dormant</a> <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tuber" title="Tuber">tuber</a>. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">pulses</a> enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.<a href="#cite_note-:1-1">[1]</a> Across Western Eurasia it was not until approximately 4,000 BC that farming societies completely replaced hunter-gatherers. These technologically advanced societies expanded faster in areas with less forest, pushing hunter-gatherers into denser woodlands. Only the middle-late Bronze Age and Iron Age societies were able to fully replace hunter-gatherers in their final stronghold located in the most densely forested areas. Unlike their Bronze and Iron Age counterparts, Neolithic societies couldn't establish themselves in dense forests, and Copper Age societies had only limited success. <a href="#cite_note-Gavashelishvili1-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_development">Early development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early development">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_food_origins" title="List of food origins">List of food origins</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/ClaySumerianSickle.jpg/220px-ClaySumerianSickle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/ClaySumerianSickle.jpg/330px-ClaySumerianSickle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/ClaySumerianSickle.jpg/440px-ClaySumerianSickle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> harvester's sickle, 3000 BC, made from baked clay</figcaption></figure> Early people began altering communities of <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> for their own benefit through means such as <a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">fire-stick farming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">forest gardening</a> very early.<a href="#cite_note-Biggest_Estate_on_Earth,_Australia-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Wild <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">grains</a> have been collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly much longer.<a href="#cite_note-:0-2">[2]</a> Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough <a href="/wiki/Rachis" title="Rachis">rachis</a> and larger seeds of <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereals</a> from just after the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a> (about 9500 BC) in the early <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>. <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">Monophyletic</a> characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal <a href="/wiki/Rachis" title="Rachis">rachis</a> could have occurred quite naturally.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg/220px-Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg/330px-Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg/440px-Traditional_Farming_Methods_and_Equipments.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An Indian farmer with a rock-weighted <a href="/wiki/Scratch_plough" class="mw-redirect" title="Scratch plough">scratch plough</a> pulled by two oxen. Similar ploughs were used throughout antiquity.</figcaption></figure> Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent <a href="/wiki/Centers_of_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Centers of origin">centers of origin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals. <a href="/wiki/Domestic_pig" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic pig">Domestic pigs</a> had multiple centres of origin in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> where <a href="/wiki/Wild_boar" title="Wild boar">wild boar</a> were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">Sheep</a> were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 BC and 9000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a> were domesticated from the wild <a href="/wiki/Aurochs" title="Aurochs">aurochs</a> in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-McTavish-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Camels" class="mw-redirect" title="Camels">Camels</a> were domesticated relatively late, perhaps around 3000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Sapir-Hen_2013_277–285-40">[40]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg/300px-Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg/450px-Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg/600px-Vavilov-centers_updated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Center_of_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Center of origin">Centres of origin</a> identified by <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a> in the 1930s. Area 3 (grey) is no longer recognised as a centre of origin, and <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> (red, 'P') was identified more recently.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></figcaption></figure> It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_founder_crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic founder crops">founder crops</a> of agriculture appear: first <a href="/wiki/Emmer_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmer wheat">emmer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Einkorn_wheat" class="mw-redirect" title="Einkorn wheat">einkorn wheat</a>, then hulled <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil">lentils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicia_ervilia" title="Vicia ervilia">bitter vetch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chick_pea" class="mw-redirect" title="Chick pea">chick peas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a>. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (<a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">PPNB</a>) sites in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_agriculture#Dubious" title="Talk:History of agriculture">discuss</a>] At around the same time (9400 BC), <a href="/wiki/Parthenocarpic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthenocarpic">parthenocarpic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">fig</a> trees were domesticated.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Domesticated <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a> occurs in small quantities at some <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a> (c. 7600 – c. 6000 BC) Can Hasan III near <a href="/wiki/%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk" title="Çatalhöyük">Çatalhöyük</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hillman-44">[44]</a> but is otherwise absent until the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-ZoharyHopf2012-45">[45]</a> Claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the <a href="/wiki/Epipalaeolithic" title="Epipalaeolithic">Epipalaeolithic</a> site of <a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Tell Abu Hureyra</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> valley of northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, remain controversial.<a href="#cite_note-Hillman2-46">[46]</a> Critics point to inconsistencies in the <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiocarbon">radiocarbon</a> dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on <a href="/wiki/Chaff" title="Chaff">chaff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sue_Colledge-47">[47]</a> By 8000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild grass <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a> in southern Mexico by 6700 BC.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a> (8000 BC), <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a>,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Capsicum" title="Capsicum">pepper</a> (4000 BC), <a href="/wiki/Squash_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (fruit)">squash</a> (8000 BC) and several varieties of <a href="/wiki/Legume" title="Legume">bean</a> (8000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Agriculture was independently developed on the island of <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">Banana</a> cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Musa_acuminata" title="Musa acuminata">Musa acuminata</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridization</a>, dates back to 5000 BC, and possibly to 8000 BC, in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Beekeeping" title="Beekeeping">Bees were kept</a> for honey in the Middle East around 7000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-9kya-53">[53]</a> Archaeological evidence from various sites on the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a> suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-54">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9ide_Fields" title="Céide Fields">Céide Fields</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> consist of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, these walls date to 3500 BC and is the oldest known field systems in europe.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">horse was domesticated</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pontic_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontic steppe">Pontic steppe</a> around 4000 BC In <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">Cannabis</a> was in use in China in Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in use both as a fibre for ropemaking and as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2350 BC.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_bull_cart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Old_bull_cart.jpg/220px-Old_bull_cart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Old_bull_cart.jpg/330px-Old_bull_cart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Old_bull_cart.jpg/440px-Old_bull_cart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4345" data-file-height="2897" /></a><figcaption>Clay and wood model of a bull cart carrying farm produce in large pots, <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a>. The site was abandoned in the 19th century BC.</figcaption></figure> In northern <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a> was domesticated by early <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan">Sino-Tibetan</a> speakers at around 8000 to 6000 BC, becoming the main crop of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> basin by 5500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-He2017-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lu-60">[60]</a> They were followed by <a href="/wiki/Mung_bean" title="Mung bean">mung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azuki_bean" class="mw-redirect" title="Azuki bean">azuki</a> beans. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg/330px-Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg/495px-Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg/660px-Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1053" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Chronological dispersal of <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian peoples</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific" title="Indo-Pacific">Indo-Pacific</a><a href="#cite_note-Chambers2013-61">[61]</a></figcaption></figure> In southern China, rice was domesticated in the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> basin at around 11,500 to 6200 BC, along with the development of <a href="/wiki/Wetland_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetland agriculture">wetland agriculture</a>, by early <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hmong-Mien_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Hmong-Mien languages">Hmong-Mien</a>-speakers. Other food plants were also harvested, including <a href="/wiki/Acorn" title="Acorn">acorns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eleocharis_dulcis" title="Eleocharis dulcis">water chestnuts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Foxnut" class="mw-redirect" title="Foxnut">foxnuts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pnas1-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-He2017-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bellwood2011-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hsieh2011-63">[63]</a> Rice cultivation was later spread to <a href="/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian expansion">Austronesian expansion</a>, starting at around 3,500 to 2,000 BC. This migration event also saw the introduction of cultivated and domesticated food plants from <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Island_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Island Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a> as <a href="/wiki/Canoe_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Canoe plants">canoe plants</a>. Contact with <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">Southern India</a> by Austronesian sailors also led to an exchange of food plants which later became the origin of the valuable <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">spice trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gilboa2016-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zumbroich2007-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mahdi1999-66">[66]</a> In the 1st millennium AD, Austronesian sailors also settled <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a>, bringing Southeast Asian and South Asian food plants with them to the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East African</a> coast, including bananas and rice.<a href="#cite_note-Beaujard2011-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-WalterLebot2007-68">[68]</a> Rice was also spread southwards into <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Southeast_Asia" title="Mainland Southeast Asia">Mainland Southeast Asia</a> by around 2000 to 1500 BC by the migrations of the early <a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kra-Dai" class="mw-redirect" title="Kra-Dai">Kra-Dai</a>-speakers.<a href="#cite_note-Bellwood2011-62">[62]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> was domesticated by 3000 BC in Sudan<a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pearl_millet" title="Pearl millet">pearl millet</a> by 2500 BC in Mali.<a href="#cite_note-:3-70">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kola_nut" title="Kola nut">Kola nut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> were also domesticated in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Carney2011-71">[71]</a> In <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Papuan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Papuan people">Papuan peoples</a> began practicing agriculture around 7000 BC, domesticating <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy2011-72">[72]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a> from the eighth millennium BC onwards at <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a>, 2-row and 6-row barley were cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the earliest levels of Merhgarh, wild game such as <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swamp_deer" class="mw-redirect" title="Swamp deer">swamp deer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blackbuck" title="Blackbuck">blackbuck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chital" title="Chital">chital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onager" title="Onager">wild ass</a>, wild goat, wild sheep, <a href="/wiki/Boar" class="mw-redirect" title="Boar">boar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nilgai" title="Nilgai">nilgai</a> were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep, goats, and humped <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-Barker2009-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">Maize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Squash_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (plant)">squash</a> were domesticated in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>; <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potatoes</a> in South America, and <a href="/wiki/Sunflower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflower">sunflowers</a> in the Eastern Woodlands of North America.<a href="#cite_note-AndersonGoudie2013-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civilizations">Civilizations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Civilizations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sumer">Sumer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sumer">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg/220px-VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg/330px-VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg/440px-VAM_-_Rollsiegel_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1522" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Domesticated animals on a <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a>, 2500 BC</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> farmers grew the cereals <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, starting to live in villages from about 8000 BC. Given the low rainfall of the region, agriculture relied on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> rivers. Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the growth of cereals in large enough quantities to support cities. The first ploughs appear in <a href="/wiki/Pictograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograph">pictographs</a> from Uruk around 3000 BC; seed-ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed furrow appear on <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)" title="Seal (emblem)">seals</a> around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops included <a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">chickpeas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil">lentils</a>, peas, beans, <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">garlic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lettuce" title="Lettuce">lettuce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leek" title="Leek">leeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard</a>. They grew fruits including <a href="/wiki/Date_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Date (fruit)">dates</a>, grapes, apples, melons, and figs. Alongside their farming, Sumerians also caught fish and hunted <a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>. The meat of sheep, goats, cows and poultry was eaten, mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking.<a href="#cite_note-BritMus-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Nakht_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg/170px-Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg/255px-Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg/340px-Tomb_of_Nakht_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="828" /></a><figcaption>Agricultural scenes of <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshing</a>, a grain store, harvesting with <a href="/wiki/Sickle" title="Sickle">sickles</a>, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from Ancient Egypt. Tomb of <a href="/wiki/Nakht" title="Nakht">Nakht</a>, 15th century BC.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Ancient Egyptian agriculture</a></div> The civilization of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> was indebted to the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a> and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000 BC and 4000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Janick-77">[77]</a> This was made possible with the development of basin irrigation.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as <a href="/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">flax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Janick-77">[77]</a> Archaeological evidence also suggests that the spread of agriculture in Egypt was facilitated by farming communities associated with the playa lakes of the Sahara some 6,500 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Subcontinent">Indian Subcontinent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Indian Subcontinent">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in the Indus Valley Civilisation">Agriculture in the Indus Valley Civilisation</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Jujube" title="Jujube">Jujube</a> was domesticated in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> by 9000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-gupta-80">[80]</a> Barley and wheat cultivation – along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goats – followed in <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a> by 8000–6000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Baber-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-harrisandgosden385-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wright_2009_p44-83">[83]</a> This period also saw the first domestication of the <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gupta-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral farming">Pastoral farming</a> in <a href="/wiki/India_(Herodotus)" title="India (Herodotus)">India</a> included threshing, planting crops in rows – either of two or of six – and storing grain in <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-harrisandgosden385-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Possehl-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> By the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-harrisandgosden385-82">[82]</a> Irrigation was developed in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> by around 4500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-R&U-86">[86]</a> The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which used <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-R&U-86">[86]</a> Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a> dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.<a href="#cite_note-lal-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_China">Ancient China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ancient China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Agriculture in China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_(Chinese_mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture (Chinese mythology)">Agriculture (Chinese mythology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg/220px-Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg/330px-Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg/440px-Terrace_field_yunnan_china.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Rice_terrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Rice terrace">rice terraces</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yuanyang_County,_Yunnan" title="Yuanyang County, Yunnan">Yuanyang County, Yunnan</a></figcaption></figure> Records from the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> provide a picture of early <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_China" title="Agriculture in China">Chinese agriculture</a> from the 5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granary</a> system and widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Sericulture" title="Sericulture">sericulture</a>. An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the <a href="/wiki/Qimin_Yaoshu" title="Qimin Yaoshu">Qimin Yaoshu</a> of AD 535, written by Jia Sixie.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_6_part_2_55_56-88">[88]</a> Jia's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer survive.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_6_part_2_56-89">[89]</a> The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_6_part_2_57-90">[90]</a> The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese <a href="/wiki/Agronomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Agronomist">agronomists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Wang_Zhen_(official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Zhen (official)">Wang Zhen</a> and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_6_part_2_56-89">[89]</a> <div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/220px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/330px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG/440px-Song_Dynasty_Hydraulic_Mill_for_Grain.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Song_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Song Dynasty">Northern Song era</a> (960–1127 AD) Chinese <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermill</a> for <a href="/wiki/Husk" title="Husk">dehusking</a> grain with a horizontal <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheel</a></figcaption></figure></div> For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulic</a>-powered <a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">trip hammer</a> by the 1st century BC.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_184-91">[91]</a> Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet <a href="/wiki/Chain_pump" title="Chain pump">chain pump</a> by the 1st century AD, powered by a <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oxen" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxen">oxen</a> pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_89_110-92">[92]</a> Although the chain pump found use in <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> of providing water for urban and palatial <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipe systems</a>,<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_33-93">[93]</a> it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channels</a> for <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">farmland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_110-94">[94]</a> By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> in the late 2nd century, <a href="/wiki/Heavy_plough" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy plough">heavy ploughs</a> had been developed with iron ploughshares and <a href="/wiki/Mouldboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouldboard">mouldboards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-greenberger_2006_11-12-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> These slowly spread west, revolutionizing farming in Northern Europe by the 10th century. (<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Glick" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Glick">Thomas Glick</a>, however, argues for a development of the Chinese plough as late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from similar designs known in Italy by the 7th century.)<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild rice <a href="/wiki/Oryza_rufipogon" title="Oryza rufipogon">Oryza rufipogon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pnas1-7">[7]</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pearl_River_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pearl River (China)">Pearl River</a> valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread to South and Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-nature1-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Greece_and_Hellenistic_world">Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture in ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Noe_082.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Noe_082.jpg/220px-Noe_082.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Noe_082.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="152" /></a><figcaption>An ear of <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, symbol of wealth in the city of <a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Greek colonies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>), stamped <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a>, c. 530–510 BC</figcaption></figure> The major cereal crops of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Mediterranean">ancient Mediterranean</a> region were wheat, <a href="/wiki/Emmer" title="Emmer">emmer</a>, and barley, while common vegetables included peas, beans, <a href="/wiki/Vicia_faba" title="Vicia faba">fava</a>, and olives, dairy products came mostly from sheep and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion for most people, usually consisted of pork, beef, and lamb.<a href="#cite_note-koester_1995_p76-77-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture in ancient Greece</a> was hindered by the <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Greece">mainland Greece</a> that only allowed for roughly 10% of the land to be cultivated properly, necessitating the specialised exportation of <a href="/wiki/Cooking_oil" title="Cooking oil">oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">wine</a> and importation of grains from <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> (centered in what is now <a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Greek colonies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greeks</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic Empire</a> controlled <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>, major grain-producing regions that mainland <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain market</a> also played a critical role in <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Rome">the rise</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a> was also practiced in other parts.<a href="#cite_note-koester_1995_p77-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Roman Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">Roman agriculture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg/220px-M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/M%C3%A4hmaschine.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="246" data-file-height="185" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">Roman</a> harvesting machine, a vallus, from a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_defensive_walls" title="Ancient Roman defensive walls">Roman wall</a> in Belgium, which was then part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a></figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman agriculture">Roman agriculture</a> was built on techniques originally pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">The Romans</a> laid the groundwork for the <a href="/wiki/Manorial" class="mw-redirect" title="Manorial">manorial</a> economic system, involving <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a>, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">Rome</a> can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18 to 88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80 to 500 iugera (singular <a href="/wiki/Iugerum" class="mw-redirect" title="Iugerum">iugerum</a>). Large estates (called <a href="/wiki/Latifundia" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundia">latifundia</a>) were over 500 iugera. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">The Romans</a> had four systems of farm management: direct work by the owner and his family; slaves doing work under the supervision of slave managers; <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenant farming</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecropping</a> in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.<a href="#cite_note-White-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Americas">The Americas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Americas">edit</a>]</div> Agricultural history took a different path from the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> as the Americas lacked large-seeded, easily domesticated grains (such as wheat and barley) and large domestic animals that could be used for agricultural labor. Rather than the practice which developed in the Old World of sowing a field with a single crop, pre-historic American agriculture usually consisted of cultivating many crops close to each other utilizing only hand labor. Moreover, agricultural areas in the Americas lacked the uniformity of the east–west area of <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid climates</a> in southern Europe and southwestern Asia, but instead had a north–south pattern with a variety of different climatic zones in close proximity to each other. This fostered the domestication of many different plants.<a href="#cite_note-Diamond-102">[102]</a> At the time of first contact between the Europeans and the Americans, the Europeans practiced "extensive agriculture, based on the plough and draught animals," with tenants under landlords, but also forced labor or slavery, while the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> practiced "intensive agriculture, based on human labour."<a href="#cite_note-Sempat-103">[103]</a> Europeans wanted control of land for the grazing of their livestock and property rights for the control of production. Though they were impressed with the productivity of traditional farming techniques, they saw no connection to their system and were dismissive of Native American practices as "gardening" rather than a commercializable enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-Sempat-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill-104">[104]</a> Due to several thousand years of selective breeding, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, the hemisphere's most important crop, was more productive than Old World grain crops. Maize produced two and one-half times more calories per acre than wheat and barley.<a href="#cite_note-Ensminger-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_America">South America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: South America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Incan_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Incan agriculture">Incan agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Chile" title="History of agriculture in Chile">History of agriculture in Chile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_agriculture_in_the_Amazon_Basin" title="Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Amazon Basin">Pre-Columbian agriculture in the Amazon Basin</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg/250px-Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg/375px-Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg/500px-Colca_Canyon_Puno.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1463" /></a><figcaption>Agriculture terraces were (and are) common in the austere, high-elevation environment of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trabajo-inca8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Trabajo-inca8.jpg/170px-Trabajo-inca8.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Trabajo-inca8.jpg/255px-Trabajo-inca8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Trabajo-inca8.jpg/340px-Trabajo-inca8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Incan_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Incan agriculture">Inca farmers</a> using a human-powered <a href="/wiki/Foot_plough" title="Foot plough">foot plough</a></figcaption></figure> The earliest known areas of possible agriculture in the Americas dating to about 9000 BC are in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, near present-day <a href="/wiki/Pereira,_Colombia" title="Pereira, Colombia">Pereira</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas_culture_(archaeology)" title="Las Vegas culture (archaeology)">Las Vegas</a> culture in <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Elena_Province" title="Santa Elena Province">Santa Elena peninsula</a>. The plants cultivated (or manipulated by humans) were <a href="/wiki/Goeppertia_allouia" title="Goeppertia allouia">lerén</a> (Calathea allouia), <a href="/wiki/Maranta_arundinacea" title="Maranta arundinacea">arrowroot</a> (Maranta arundinacea), <a href="/wiki/Squash_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (plant)">squash</a> (Cucurbita species), and <a href="/wiki/Calabash" title="Calabash">bottle gourd</a> (Lagenaria siceraria). All are plants of humid climates and their existence at this time on the semi-arid Santa Elena peninsula may be evidence that they were transplanted there from more humid environments.<a href="#cite_note-Zarillo_et_al-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piperno-107">[107]</a> In another study, this area of South America was identified as one of the four oldest places of origin for agriculture, along with the Fertile Crescent, China, and Mesoamerica, dated between 6200 BC and 10000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Larson-108">[108]</a> (To facilitate comprehension by readers, <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon calibrated BP</a> dates in the above sources have been converted to BC.) In the Andes region, with civilizations including the <a href="/wiki/Incan_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Incan agriculture">Inca</a>, the major crop was the <a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">potato</a>, domesticated between 8000 and 5000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Spooner_2005_14694–99-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-online-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-John_Michael_Francis_2005-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coca" title="Coca">Coca</a>, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the Andes, as were the <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pineapple" title="Pineapple">pineapple</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy2011-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">Cotton</a> was domesticated in <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> by 4200 BC.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Broudy1979-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Incan_animal_husbandry" class="mw-redirect" title="Incan animal husbandry">Animals were also domesticated</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Llama" title="Llama">llamas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alpaca" title="Alpaca">alpacas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guinea_pig" title="Guinea pig">guinea pigs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RischkowskyPilling2007-114">[114]</a> The people of the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> of South America grew large surpluses of food which they stored in buildings called <a href="/wiki/Qullqa" title="Qullqa">Qullqas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mumford-115">[115]</a> The most important crop domesticated in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Basin">Amazon Basin</a> and tropical lowlands was probably <a href="/wiki/Cassava" title="Cassava">cassava</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Manihot_esculenta" class="mw-redirect" title="Manihot esculenta">Manihot esculenta</a>), which was domesticated before 7000 BCE, likely in the <a href="/wiki/Rond%C3%B4nia" title="Rondônia">Rondônia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mato_Grosso" title="Mato Grosso">Mato Grosso</a> states of <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Isendahl-116">[116]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Guaitecas_Archipelago" title="Guaitecas Archipelago">Guaitecas Archipelago</a> in modern Chile was the southern limit of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Hispanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Hispanic">Pre-Hispanic</a> agriculture near 44° South latitude,<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> as noted by the mention of the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Potatoes_of_Chilo%C3%A9" title="Potatoes of Chiloé">Chiloé potatoes</a> by a Spanish expedition in 1557.<a href="#cite_note-Contreras-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Agriculture in Mesoamerica</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maize-teosinte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Maize-teosinte.jpg/220px-Maize-teosinte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Maize-teosinte.jpg/330px-Maize-teosinte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Maize-teosinte.jpg/440px-Maize-teosinte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1037" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>The creation of maize from <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a> (top), maize-teosinte hybrid (middle), to maize (bottom)</figcaption></figure> In Mesoamerica, wild <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a> was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, about 7,000 BC. It gradually spread across North America and to South America and was the most important crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated <a href="/wiki/Squash_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (plant)">squash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Theobroma_cacao" title="Theobroma cacao">cocoa</a>, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy2011-72">[72]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Turkey_(bird)" title="Turkey (bird)">turkey</a>, one of the most important poultry birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.<a href="#cite_note-Speller-120">[120]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a> were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Texcoco" title="Lake Texcoco">Lake Texcoco</a> was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed <a href="/wiki/Terrace_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrace (agriculture)">terraced</a> hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed <a href="/wiki/Chinampa" title="Chinampa">chinampas</a> or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens". The <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayas</a> between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland on the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">History of agriculture in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_on_the_Great_Plains" title="Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains">Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg/200px-Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg/300px-Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg/400px-Wichita_Indian_village_1850-1875.jpg 2x" data-file-width="822" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wichita_people" title="Wichita people">Wichita</a> village of grass houses surrounded by maize fields in the United States.</figcaption></figure> The indigenous people of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern U.S. domesticated numerous crops</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sunflowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunflowers">Sunflowers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>,<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> varieties of squash and <a href="/wiki/Chenopodium" title="Chenopodium">Chenopodium</a>, as well as crops no longer grown, including <a href="/wiki/Iva_annua" title="Iva annua">marsh elder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hordeum_pusillum" title="Hordeum pusillum">little barley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Wild foods including <a href="/wiki/Wild_rice" title="Wild rice">wild rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maple_sugar" title="Maple sugar">maple sugar</a> were harvested.<a href="#cite_note-Smith2013-126">[126]</a> The domesticated <a href="/wiki/Strawberry" title="Strawberry">strawberry</a> is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Two major crops, <a href="/wiki/Pecan" title="Pecan">pecans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concord_grape" title="Concord grape">Concord grapes</a>, were used extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_prehistoric_Southwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest">indigenous people in what is now California</a> and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms of <a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">forest gardening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">fire-stick farming</a> in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The <a href="/wiki/Native_American_use_of_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American use of fire">natives controlled fire</a> on a regional scale to create a low-intensity <a href="/wiki/Fire_ecology" title="Fire ecology">fire ecology</a> which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">sustained a low-density agriculture</a> in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cunningham2010-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> A system of <a href="/wiki/Companion_planting" title="Companion planting">companion planting</a> called <a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">the Three Sisters</a> was <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_on_the_prehistoric_Great_Plains" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture on the prehistoric Great Plains">developed in North America</a>. Three crops that complemented each other were planted together: <a href="/wiki/Winter_squash" title="Winter squash">winter squash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> (corn), and climbing <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a> (typically <a href="/wiki/Phaseolus_acutifolius" title="Phaseolus acutifolius">tepary beans</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phaseolus_vulgaris" title="Phaseolus vulgaris">common beans</a>). The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>, helping prevent the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Weed" title="Weed">weeds</a>. The squash leaves also act as a "living <a href="/wiki/Mulch" title="Mulch">mulch</a>".<a href="#cite_note-wilson-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-landon-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg/220px-Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg/330px-Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg/440px-Ashanti_Yam_Ceremony_1817.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Yam festival in the <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti Empire</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edward_Bowdich" title="Thomas Edward Bowdich">Thomas E. Bowdich</a> – 1817.</figcaption></figure> In the Sahel region, civilizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a> empires cultivated <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pearl_millet" title="Pearl millet">pearl millet</a>, which were domesticated between 3000 and 2500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-:2-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-70">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkey</a> was domesticated in <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> at approximately 5000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Archaeological evidence suggests that <a href="/wiki/Sanga_cattle" title="Sanga cattle">Sanga cattle</a> may have been independently domesticated in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> at around 1600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> In the tropical region of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, crops such as <a href="/wiki/Black-eyed_pea" title="Black-eyed pea">black-eyed peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_Island_red_pea" title="Sea Island red pea">Sea Island red peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yam_(vegetable)" title="Yam (vegetable)">yams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kola_nut" title="Kola nut">kola nuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jollof_rice" title="Jollof rice">Jollof rice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kokoro_(vegetable)" title="Kokoro (vegetable)">kokoro</a> were domesticated between 3000 and 1000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Carney2011-71">[71]</a> The coastal region of West Africa is often referred to as the "Yam Belt", due to its high production of yams.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Domestic_guineafowl" title="Domestic guineafowl">guineafowl</a> is a poultry bird that was domesticated in West Africa, and while the time of the guineafowl's domestication remains unclear, there is evidence that it was present in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> during the 5th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Several species of <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a> were also domesticated throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, with <a href="/wiki/Coffea_arabica" title="Coffea arabica">Coffea arabica</a> originating in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and serving as the main production of modern-day coffee since the late 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-Wein34-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Oceania">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg/170px-Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg/255px-Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg/340px-Panicum_decompositum_habitus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1986" data-file-height="2208" /></a><figcaption>Native millet, <a href="/wiki/Panicum_decompositum" title="Panicum decompositum">Panicum decompositum</a>, was planted and harvested by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a> in eastern central Australia.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">Fire-stick farming</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dark_Emu" title="Dark Emu">Dark Emu</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a> were predominately nomadic <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter-gatherers">hunter-gatherers</a>. Due to the policy of <a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a>, Aboriginals were regarded as not having been capable of sustained agriculture. However, the current consensus is that various agricultural methods were employed by the indigenous people.<a href="#cite_note-Gammage,_Bill_2011_pp._281-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-25">[25]</a> In two regions of Central Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, forms of agriculture were practiced. People living in permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a large scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of the central west coast grew yams (<a href="/wiki/Dioscorea" title="Dioscorea">Dioscorea hastifolia</a>), while various groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested bush onions (yaua – <a href="/wiki/Cyperus_bulbosus" title="Cyperus bulbosus">Cyperus bulbosus</a>), native millet (cooly, tindil – <a href="/wiki/Panicum_decompositum" title="Panicum decompositum">Panicum decompositum</a>) and a <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(ferns)" title="Sporocarp (ferns)">sporocarp</a>, ngardu (<a href="/wiki/Marsilea_drummondii" title="Marsilea drummondii">Marsilea drummondii</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Biggest_Estate_on_Earth,_Australia-31">[31]</a>: 281–304 <a href="#cite_note-Gerritsen2008-28">[28]</a> Indigenous Australians used systematic burning, <a href="/wiki/Fire-stick_farming" title="Fire-stick farming">fire-stick farming</a>, to enhance natural productivity.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the <a href="/wiki/Gunditjmara" title="Gunditjmara">Gunditjmara</a> and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Lourandos" title="Harry Lourandos">Harry Lourandos</a> suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of 'intensification' in progress across Australia,<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> a process that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the historian <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gammage" title="Bill Gammage">Bill Gammage</a> to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape.<a href="#cite_note-Biggest_Estate_on_Earth,_Australia-31">[31]</a> Torres Strait Islanders are now known to have planted <a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">bananas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pacific_Islands">Pacific Islands</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pacific Islands">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a>, archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture independently emerged around 7,000 years ago with the domestication of crops such as bananas and <a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">taro</a>. Pigs and chickens were imported to New Guinea, which were later innovated by other Pacific Island nations, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:02-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages_and_Early_Modern_period">Middle Ages and Early Modern period</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Middle Ages and Early Modern period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture in the Middle Ages</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> saw further improvements in agriculture. <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">Monasteries</a> spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The <a href="/wiki/Manorial_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Manorial system">manorial system</a> allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> or <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> During the medieval period, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantation</a> system of <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crescenzi_calendar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg/220px-Crescenzi_calendar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg/330px-Crescenzi_calendar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Crescenzi_calendar.jpg/440px-Crescenzi_calendar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Pietro_de_Crescenzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietro de Crescenzi">Pietro de Crescenzi</a></figcaption></figure> By AD 900, developments in <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">iron smelting</a> allowed for increased production in Europe, leading to developments in the production of agricultural implements such as <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">ploughs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hand_tool" title="Hand tool">hand tools</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horse_shoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse shoe">horse shoes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carruca" title="Carruca">carruca</a> heavy plough improved on the earlier <a href="/wiki/Scratch_plough" class="mw-redirect" title="Scratch plough">scratch plough</a>, with the adoption of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Mouldboard_plough" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouldboard plough">mouldboard plough</a> to turn over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of northern European forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> At the same time, some farmers in Europe moved from a two field <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> to a three-field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations permitted <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-fixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-fixing">nitrogen-fixing</a> <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a> such as peas, lentils and beans.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Improved <a href="/wiki/Horse_harness" title="Horse harness">horse harnesses</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Whippletree_(mechanism)" title="Whippletree (mechanism)">whippletree</a> further improved cultivation.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">Watermills</a> were introduced by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmills</a>, and used to grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and wool.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Crops included wheat, <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, barley and <a href="/wiki/Oats" class="mw-redirect" title="Oats">oats</a>. Peas, beans, and <a href="/wiki/Vetches" class="mw-redirect" title="Vetches">vetches</a> became common from the 13th century onward as a <a href="/wiki/Fodder_crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Fodder crop">fodder crop</a> for animals and also for their <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-fixation">nitrogen-fixation</a> fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell1-154">[154]</a> Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances,<a href="#cite_note-Campbell2-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stone1-156">[156]</a> and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">terrible weather of 1315–17</a>, that the needs of the population could not be met.<a href="#cite_note-John_Langdon_2010_20–23-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_world">Arab world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Arab world">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/42/Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg/170px-Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/42/Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg/255px-Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/42/Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg/340px-Water_Wheel_of_Hama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="2063" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Noria" title="Noria">Noria</a> wheels to lift water for irrigation and household use were among the technologies introduced to Europe via <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">medieval Islamic world</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></div> From the 8th century to the 14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic world</a> underwent a transformation in agricultural practice, described by the historian Andrew Watson as the <a href="/wiki/Arab_agricultural_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab agricultural revolution">Arab agricultural revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-159">[159]</a> This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice changed the economy, <a href="/wiki/Population_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Population distribution">population distribution</a>, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population levels, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urban growth</a>, the distribution of the labour force, cooking, diet, and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders covered much of the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>, and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-159">[159]</a> This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. Sugar cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, along with <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as <a href="/wiki/Aubergine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aubergine">aubergine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinach" title="Spinach">spinach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chard" title="Chard">chard</a>, and the use of imported spices such as <a href="/wiki/Cumin" title="Cumin">cumin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coriander" title="Coriander">coriander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>. Intensive irrigation, <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a>, and agricultural manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of <a href="/wiki/Noria" title="Noria">noria</a> water wheels, <a href="/wiki/Water_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mill">water mills</a>, dams and reservoirs.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatGeographic2015-161">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Columbian_exchange">Columbian exchange</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Columbian exchange">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></div> After 1492, a <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">global exchange</a> of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweet potatoes">sweet potatoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manioc" class="mw-redirect" title="Manioc">manioc</a> were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and <a href="/wiki/Turnip" title="Turnip">turnips</a> traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures in the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early Modern period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder-_The_Harvesters_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21851" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Harvesters_(painting)" title="The Harvesters (painting)">The Harvesters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel</a> – 1565</figcaption></figure> Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century,<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> becoming staple foods, replacing native African crops.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became a staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European diet. The increased supply of food reduced disease, increased births and reduced mortality, causing a population boom throughout the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, the US and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Chapman,_Jeff-165">[165]</a> The introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> compound used to fight <a href="/wiki/Colorado_potato_beetle" title="Colorado potato beetle">Colorado potato beetles</a>. Before the adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed, including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and 1623. The resulting dependence on the potato however caused the <a href="/wiki/European_Potato_Failure" class="mw-redirect" title="European Potato Failure">European Potato Failure</a>, a disastrous crop failure from <a href="/wiki/Potato_blight" class="mw-redirect" title="Potato blight">disease</a> that resulted in widespread <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">famine and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mann,_Charles_C-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_agriculture">Modern agriculture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Modern agriculture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">History of agricultural science</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_agricultural_revolution">British agricultural revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: British agricultural revolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery" title="List of agricultural machinery">List of agricultural machinery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanised_agriculture" title="Mechanised agriculture">Mechanised agriculture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Townshend,_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller,_Bt_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Charles_Townshend%2C_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt_%282%29.jpg/170px-Charles_Townshend%2C_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Charles_Townshend%2C_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt_%282%29.jpg/255px-Charles_Townshend%2C_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Charles_Townshend%2C_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt_%282%29.jpg/340px-Charles_Townshend%2C_2nd_Viscount_Townshend_by_Sir_Godfrey_Kneller%2C_Bt_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>The agriculturalist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Townshend,_2nd_Viscount_Townshend" title="Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend">Charles 'Turnip' Townshend</a> introduced four-field <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> and the cultivation of turnips.</figcaption></figure> Between the 17th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a large increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a>, mechanization, <a href="/wiki/Four-field_crop_rotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Four-field crop rotation">four-field crop rotation</a> to maintain soil nutrients, and <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a> enabled an <a href="/wiki/Malthusian_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthusian trap">unprecedented population growth</a> to 5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. The productivity of wheat went up from 19 US bushels (670 L; 150 US dry gal; 150 imp gal) per <a href="/wiki/Acre" title="Acre">acre</a> in 1720 to around 30 US bushels (1,100 L; 240 US dry gal; 230 imp gal) by 1840, marking a major turning point in history.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_(1762).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_%281762%29.png/170px-Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_%281762%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_%281762%29.png/255px-Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_%281762%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_%281762%29.png/340px-Jethro_Tull_seed_drill_%281762%29.png 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)" title="Jethro Tull (agriculturist)">Jethro Tull</a>'s seed drill, invented in 1701</figcaption></figure> Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hartlib" title="Samuel Hartlib">Samuel Hartlib</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Blith" title="Walter Blith">Walter Blith</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The main problem in sustaining agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and, in some places, <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a> was used. The Dutch four-field rotation system was popularised by the British agriculturist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Townshend,_2nd_Viscount_Townshend" title="Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend">Charles Townshend</a> in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover) opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The use of clover was especially important as the legume roots replenished soil nitrates.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another important factor. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bakewell_(farmer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bakewell (farmer)">Robert Bakewell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Coke,_1st_Earl_of_Leicester_(seventh_creation)" title="Thomas Coke, 1st Earl of Leicester (seventh creation)">Thomas Coke</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a> and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the <a href="/wiki/New_Leicester" class="mw-redirect" title="New Leicester">New Leicester</a> sheep. Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various agricultural operation, such as <a href="/wiki/Jethro_Tull_(agriculturist)" title="Jethro Tull (agriculturist)">Jethro Tull</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Seed_drill" title="Seed drill">seed drill</a> of 1701 that mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Meikle" title="Andrew Meikle">Andrew Meikle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Threshing_machine" title="Threshing machine">threshing machine</a> of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe's <a href="/wiki/Plough#Heavy_ploughs" title="Plough">Rotherham iron plough</a> in 1730<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> to <a href="/wiki/James_Small_(inventor)" title="James Small (inventor)">James Small</a>'s improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 <a href="/wiki/Ransomes,_Sims_%26_Jefferies" title="Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies">Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies</a> was producing 86 plough models for different soils.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Powered farm machinery began with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Trevithick" title="Richard Trevithick">Richard Trevithick</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stationary_steam_engine" title="Stationary steam engine">stationary steam engine</a>, used to drive a threshing machine, in 1812.<a href="#cite_note-Hodge-172">[172]</a> Mechanisation spread to additional farm uses throughout the 19th century. The first petrol-driven <a href="/wiki/Tractor" title="Tractor">tractor</a> was built in America by <a href="/wiki/John_Froelich" title="John Froelich">John Froelich</a> in 1892.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Bennet_Lawes" title="John Bennet Lawes">John Bennet Lawes</a> began the scientific investigation of fertilization at the <a href="/wiki/Rothamsted_Experimental_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rothamsted Experimental Station">Rothamsted Experimental Station</a> in 1843. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of <a href="/wiki/Sodium_nitrate" title="Sodium nitrate">sodium nitrate</a> deposits in <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, was imported to Britain by <a href="/wiki/John_Thomas_North" title="John Thomas North">John Thomas North</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of <a href="/wiki/Super_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Super phosphate">phosphate</a> from the dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sulphuric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphuric acid">sulphuric acid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">Intensive farming</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agriculture_(Plowing)_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Agriculture_%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg/220px-Agriculture_%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Agriculture_%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg/330px-Agriculture_%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Agriculture_%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg/440px-Agriculture_%28Plowing%29_CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1379" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Early 20th-century image of a <a href="/wiki/Tractor" title="Tractor">tractor</a> ploughing an <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> field</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Dan_Albone" title="Dan Albone">Dan Albone</a> constructed the first commercially successful gasoline-powered general-purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923 <a href="/wiki/International_Harvester" title="International Harvester">International Harvester</a> <a href="/wiki/Farmall" title="Farmall">Farmall</a> tractor marked a major point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical harvesters (<a href="/wiki/Combine_harvester" title="Combine harvester">combines</a>), <a href="/wiki/Planter_(farm_implement)" title="Planter (farm implement)">planters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transplanter" title="Transplanter">transplanters</a> and other equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> These inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater volumes of high-quality produce per land unit.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bt_plants.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Bt_plants.png/130px-Bt_plants.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Bt_plants.png/195px-Bt_plants.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Bt_plants.png/260px-Bt_plants.png 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="1302" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_thuringiensis" title="Bacillus thuringiensis">Bt-toxins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">genetically modified</a> <a href="/wiki/Peanut" title="Peanut">peanut</a> leaves (bottom) protect from damage by <a href="/wiki/European_corn_borer" title="European corn borer">corn borers</a> (top).<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber-Bosch method</a> for synthesizing <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate" title="Ammonium nitrate">ammonium nitrate</a> represented a major breakthrough and allowed <a href="/wiki/Crop_yields" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop yields">crop yields</a> to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a>. In 1910 <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a>, while working for German chemical company <a href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</a>, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">Collective farming</a> was widely practiced in the Soviet Union, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries, China, and Vietnam, starting in the 1930s in the Soviet Union; one result was the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%9333" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–33">Soviet famine of 1932–33</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Another consequence occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> in China initiated by <a href="/wiki/Mao_Tse-tung" class="mw-redirect" title="Mao Tse-tung">Mao Tse-tung</a> that resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Chinese_Famine" title="Great Chinese Famine">Great Chinese Famine</a> from 1959 to 1961 and ultimately reshaped the thinking of <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Farm_subsidies" class="mw-redirect" title="Farm subsidies">farm subsidies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include <a href="/wiki/Gene_manipulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene manipulation">gene manipulation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-James_1996-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fray-183">[183]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">hydroponics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Douglas1975-184">[184]</a> and the development of economically viable <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">ethanol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP2009-185">[185]</a> The number of people involved in farming in industrial countries fell radically from 24 percent of the American population to 1.5 percent in 2002. The number of farms also decreased, and their ownership became more concentrated; for example, between 1967 and 2002, one million pig farms in America consolidated into 114,000, with 80 percent of the production on factory farms.<a href="#cite_note-dominion-186">[186]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Worldwatch_Institute" title="Worldwatch Institute">Worldwatch Institute</a>, 74 percent of the world's poultry, 43 percent of beef, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.<a href="#cite_note-dominion-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-WW2006-187">[187]</a> Famines however continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climatic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-smh.com.au-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Green_Revolution">Green Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Green Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Norman_Borlaug.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg/220px-Norman_Borlaug.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg/330px-Norman_Borlaug.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Norman_Borlaug.jpg/440px-Norman_Borlaug.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman Borlaug</a>, father of the <a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a> of the 1970s, is credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation.</figcaption></figure> The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and <a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">technology transfer</a> initiatives between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Borlaug" title="Norman Borlaug">Norman Borlaug</a> and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> to farmers.<a href="#cite_note-Hazell_2009-189">[189]</a> Synthetic nitrogen, mined <a href="/wiki/Rock_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock phosphate">rock phosphate</a>, pesticides, and mechanization have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grains</a> has also led to cheaper livestock. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population. Still, technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a food surplus.<a href="#cite_note-BumperCrop-190">[190]</a> Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield leveled off. The genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years". It takes only a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.<a href="#cite_note-Tilman2002-191">[191]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg/220px-TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg/330px-TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg/440px-TONY_OWEN_ORGANIC_FARM_-_NARA_-_543017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2032" /></a><figcaption>An organic farmer, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, 1972</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organic_agriculture">Organic agriculture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Organic agriculture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></div> For most of its history, agriculture has been <a href="/wiki/Organic_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic agriculture">organic</a>, without synthetic <a href="/wiki/Fertilisers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilisers">fertilisers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a>, and without <a href="/wiki/GMOs" class="mw-redirect" title="GMOs">GMOs</a>. With the advent of chemical agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a> called for farming without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture Course of 1924 laid the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">biodynamic agriculture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lord_Northbourne" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Northbourne">Lord Northbourne</a> developed these ideas and presented his manifesto of <a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">organic farming</a> in 1940. This became a worldwide movement, and organic farming is now practiced in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_expansion" title="Agricultural expansion">Agricultural expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farming/language_dispersal_hypothesis" title="Farming/language dispersal hypothesis">Farming/language dispersal hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_hydroculture" title="Historical hydroculture">Historical hydroculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cotton" title="History of cotton">History of cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fertilizer" title="History of fertilizer">History of fertilizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gardening" title="History of gardening">History of gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sugar" title="History of sugar">History of sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_potato" title="History of the potato">History of the potato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_history" title="Rural history">Rural history</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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PNAS. 110 (15): 1398–406. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PNAS..110E1398M">2013PNAS..110E1398M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1303367110">10.1073/pnas.1303367110</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3625352">3625352</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23530234">23530234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.atitle=New+World+cattle+show+ancestry+from+multiple+independent+domestication+events&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=1398-406&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3625352%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23530234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1303367110&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013PNAS..110E1398M&rft.au=McTavish%2C+E.J.&rft.au=Decker%2C+J.E.&rft.au=Schnabel%2C+R.D.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+J.F.&rft.au=Hillis%2C+D.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3625352&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sapir-Hen_2013_277–285-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Sapir-Hen_2013_277–285_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSapir-HenBen-Yosef2013" class="citation journal cs1">Sapir-Hen, Lidar; Ben-Yosef, Erez (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archaeology.tau.ac.il/ben-yosef/pub/Pub_PDFs/Sapir-Hen&Ben-Yosef13_CamelAravah_TelAviv.pdf">"The Introduction of Domestic Camels to the Southern Levant: Evidence from the Aravah Valley"</a> (PDF). 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Oxford University Press. pp. 159–161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955995-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-955995-4"><bdi>978-0-19-955995-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Agricultural+Revolution+in+Prehistory%3A+Why+Did+Foragers+Become+Farmers%3F&rft.pages=159-161&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-955995-4&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-BYUDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AndersonGoudie2013-74"><a href="#cite_ref-AndersonGoudie2013_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonGoudieParker2013" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, David; Goudie, Andrew; Parker, Adrian (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lFP1CdFDkIMC&pg=PA283">Global Environments Through the Quaternary: Exploring Environmental Change</a>. 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Oxford University Press. pp. 20–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866262-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866262-4"><bdi>978-0-19-866262-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=20-23&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866262-4&rft.au=Langdon%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan1997" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, William Chester (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R6mBDhnM76EC">The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century</a>. 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(1974). "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100". The Journal of Economic History. 34 (1): 8–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700079602">10.1017/s0022050700079602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154359726">154359726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Economic+History&rft.atitle=The+Arab+Agricultural+Revolution+and+Its+Diffusion%2C+700%E2%80%931100&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-35&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0022050700079602&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154359726%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1983" class="citation book cs1">Watson, Andrew M. 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Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24711-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24711-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24711-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Innovation+in+the+Early+Islamic+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24711-5&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Andrew+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatGeographic2015-161"><a href="#cite_ref-NatGeographic2015_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h2Q5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126">Food Journeys of a Lifetime</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. 2015. pp. 126–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-1609-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-1609-1"><bdi>978-1-4262-1609-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+Journeys+of+a+Lifetime&rft.pages=126-&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4262-1609-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh2Q5BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby,_Alfred" class="citation web cs1">Crosby, Alfred. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange">"The Columbian Exchange"</a>. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved 11 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Columbian+Exchange&rft.pub=The+Gilder+Lehrman+Institute+of+American+History&rft.au=Crosby%2C+Alfred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gilderlehrman.org%2Fhistory-by-era%2Famerican-indians%2Fessays%2Fcolumbian-exchange&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagner,_Holly" class="citation web cs1">Wagner, Holly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143623/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm">"Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa"</a>. The Ohio State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm">the original</a> on 2013-12-08. Retrieved 11 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Super-Sized+Cassava+Plants+May+Help+Fight+Hunger+In+Africa&rft.pub=The+Ohio+State+University&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Holly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchnews.osu.edu%2Farchive%2Fsuprtubr.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWambuguWafula2000" class="citation web cs1">Wambugu, Florence; Wafula, John, eds. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/16/default.html">"Advances in Maize Streak Virus Disease Research in Eastern and Southern Africa"</a>. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications. Retrieved 16 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Maize+Streak+Virus+Disease+Research+in+Eastern+and+Southern+Africa&rft.pub=International+Service+for+the+Acquisition+of+Agri-Biotech+Applications&rft.date=2000&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaaa.org%2Fresources%2Fpublications%2Fbriefs%2F16%2Fdefault.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chapman,_Jeff-165"><a href="#cite_ref-Chapman,_Jeff_165-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman,_Jeff2000" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Jeff (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-magazine.com/potato.html">"The Impact of the Potato"</a>. History Magazine (2). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000511090854/http://www.history-magazine.com/potato.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2000.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+the+Potato&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Chapman%2C+Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history-magazine.com%2Fpotato.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mann,_Charles_C-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Mann,_Charles_C_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann,_Charles_C." class="citation journal cs1">Mann, Charles C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102230906/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/How-the-Potato-Changed-the-World.html">"How the Potato Changed History"</a>. Smithsonian (November 2011). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/How-the-Potato-Changed-the-World.html">the original</a> on 2013-11-02. Retrieved 2013-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=How+the+Potato+Changed+History&rft.issue=November+2011&rft.au=Mann%2C+Charles+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory-archaeology%2FHow-the-Potato-Changed-the-World.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> Adapted from 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created, by Charles C. Mann. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnell1985" class="citation book cs1">Snell, K.D.M. (1985). Annals of the Labouring Poor, Social Change and Agrarian England 1660–1900. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24548-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24548-7"><bdi>978-0-521-24548-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annals+of+the+Labouring+Poor%2C+Social+Change+and+Agrarian+England+1660%E2%80%931900&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24548-7&rft.aulast=Snell&rft.aufirst=K.D.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> Chapter 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThirsk2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thirsk, Joan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2655">"Blith, Walter (bap. 1605, d. 1654)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F2655">10.1093/ref:odnb/2655</a>. Retrieved 2 September 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Blith%2C+Walter+%28bap.+1605%2C+d.+1654%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F2655&rft.aulast=Thirsk&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2Farticle%2F2655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarskamp,_Jaap2009" class="citation journal cs1">Harskamp, Jaap (2009). "The Low Countries and the English Agricultural Revolution". Gastronomica. 9 (3): 32–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fgfc.2009.9.3.32">10.1525/gfc.2009.9.3.32</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/gfc.2009.9.3.32">10.1525/gfc.2009.9.3.32</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gastronomica&rft.atitle=The+Low+Countries+and+the+English+Agricultural+Revolution&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=32-41&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fgfc.2009.9.3.32&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1525%2Fgfc.2009.9.3.32%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Harskamp%2C+Jaap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne,_F.G." class="citation web cs1">Payne, F.G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bahs.org.uk/AGHR/ARTICLES/05n2a2.pdf">"The British Plough: Some Stages in its Development"</a> (PDF). British Agricultural History Society. Retrieved 5 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+British+Plough%3A+Some+Stages+in+its+Development&rft.pub=British+Agricultural+History+Society&rft.au=Payne%2C+F.G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bahs.org.uk%2FAGHR%2FARTICLES%2F05n2a2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarlow,_Robert_Stockes2003" class="citation book cs1">Barlow, Robert Stockes (2003). 300 Years of Farm Implements and Machinery 1630–1930. 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(August 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716085832/http://cedarcreek.umn.edu/biblio/fulltext/t1860.pdf">"Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices"</a> (PDF). Nature. 418 (6898): 671–677. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.418..671T">2002Natur.418..671T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01014">10.1038/nature01014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12167873">12167873</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3016610">3016610</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cedarcreek.umn.edu/biblio/fulltext/t1860.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2013-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Agricultural+sustainability+and+intensive+production+practices&rft.volume=418&rft.issue=6898&rft.pages=671-677&rft.date=2002-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3016610%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12167873&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.418..671T&rft.au=Tilman%2C+D.&rft.au=Cassman%2C+K.G.&rft.au=Matson%2C+P.A.&rft.au=Naylor%2C+R.&rft.au=Polasky%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcedarcreek.umn.edu%2Fbiblio%2Ffulltext%2Ft1860.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaull2011" class="citation journal cs1">Paull, John (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orgprints.org/18809/1/Paull2011KoberwitzEJSS.pdf">"Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924"</a> (PDF). European Journal of Social Sciences. 21 (1): 64–70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Attending+the+First+Organic+Agriculture+Course%3A+Rudolf+Steiner%27s+Agriculture+Course+at+Koberwitz%2C+1924&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64-70&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Paull&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forgprints.org%2F18809%2F1%2FPaull2011KoberwitzEJSS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaull,_John2014" class="citation journal cs1">Paull, John (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orgprints.org/26547/12/26547.pdf">"Lord Northbourne, the man who invented organic farming, a biography"</a> (PDF). Journal of Organic Systems. 9 (1): 31–53.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Organic+Systems&rft.atitle=Lord+Northbourne%2C+the+man+who+invented+organic+farming%2C+a+biography&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-53&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Paull%2C+John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forgprints.org%2F26547%2F12%2F26547.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Civitello, Linda. Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Wiley, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Cuisine-Culture-History-Food-People/dp/0470403713/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Federico, Giovanni. Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800–2000 (Princeton UP, 2005) highly quantitative</li> <li>Grew, Raymond. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%20in%20Global%20History">Food in Global History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193653/https://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%20in%20Global%20History">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1999)</li> <li>Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (W.H. Freeman, 1990)</li> <li>Herr, Richard, ed. Themes in Rural History of the Western World (Iowa State UP, 1993)</li> <li>Kiple, Kenneth F., and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds. The Cambridge world history of food (2 vol Cambridge University Press, 2000) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ktp.isam.org.tr/pdficn/098209ic.pdf">online</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li>Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis (Monthly Review Press, 2006) Marxist perspective.</li> <li>Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Food in world history (Routledge, 2023).</li></ul> <ul><li>Prentice, E. Parmalee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121214194357/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=history;rgn=title;view=toc;idno=2727319">Hunger and History: The Influence of Hunger on Human History</a> (Harper, 1939)</li> <li>Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (Routledge, 2008)</li> <li>Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne. A history of food ( John Wiley & Sons, 2009), 800+ pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QmevzbQ0AsIC&dq=+%27%27Food+in+world+history%27%27+&pg=PR13">online</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Whayne, Jeannie. The Oxford Handbook of Agricultural History (2024) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Agricultural-History-Handbooks/dp/0190924160/ref=sr_1_1?Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.x=0&Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.y=0&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.4Ku5FnV7gZsuez_x1GMZIw.f4LJlHrlC8wB8-n7bXNFKlg4FEPQuUnW2B9hb8KY6O0&dib_tag=se&qid=1712711517&refinements=p_27%3AWhayne%2Cp_28%3AOxford&s=books&sr=1-1&unfiltered=1&asin=0190924160&revisionId=&format=4&depth=1">excerpt</a>; covers historiographical traditions within geographic regions across the world.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Premodern">Premodern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Premodern">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bakels, C.C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000 (Springer, 2009)</li> <li>Barker, Graeme, and Candice Goucher, eds. The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12000 BCE–500 CE. (Cambridge UP, 2015)</li> <li>Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds. Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern Times (Oxford UP, 1999)</li> <li>Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (Yale UP, 1977)</li> <li>Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C.C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial Era (Sagem 1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a>. <a href="/wiki/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel" title="Guns, Germs, and Steel">Guns, Germs, and Steel</a> (W.W. Norton, 1997)</li> <li>Duncan-Jones, Richard. Economy of the Roman Empire (Cambridge UP, 1982)</li> <li>Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (Oxford UP, 3rd ed. 2013)</li> <li>Harris, D.R., ed. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, (Routledge, 1996)</li> <li>Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard. Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction (Routledge, 1995)</li> <li>Lee, Mabel Ping-hua. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.227">The economic history of china: with special reference to agriculture</a> (Columbia University, 1921)</li> <li>Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (Edinburgh UP, 1970)</li> <li>Oka, H-I. Origin of Cultivated Rice (Elsevier, 2012)</li> <li>Price, T.D. and A. Gebauer, eds. Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (1995)</li> <li>Srivastava, Vinod Chandra, ed. History of Agriculture in India (5 vols., 2014). From 2000 BC to present.</li> <li>Stevens, C.E. "Agriculture and Rural Life in the Later Roman Empire" in Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Vol. I, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages (Cambridge UP, 1971)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeall1959" class="citation journal cs1">Teall, John L. (1959). "The grain supply of the Byzantine Empire, 330–1025". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 13: 87–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291130">10.2307/1291130</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291130">1291130</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.atitle=The+grain+supply+of+the+Byzantine+Empire%2C+330%E2%80%931025&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=87-139&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1291130&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291130%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Teall&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Yasuda, Y., ed. The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (SAB, 2003)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Modern">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Collingham, E.M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (Penguin, 2012)</li> <li>Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History ( 1969) 43:4, 463–475. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4617724">in JSTOR</a>, in Britain, 1750–1850</li> <li>Ludden, David, ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp">New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193046/https://www.questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Cambridge, 1999).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill1999" class="citation journal cs1">McNeill, William H. (1999). "How the Potato Changed the World's History". Social Research. 66 (1): 67–83. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971302">40971302</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22416329">22416329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Research&rft.atitle=How+the+Potato+Changed+the+World%27s+History&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-83&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40971302%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22416329&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning2005" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Richard (1 February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=woam4BS6TaYC">Against the Grain: How Agriculture Has Hijacked Civilization</a>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4668-2342-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4668-2342-6"><bdi>978-1-4668-2342-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+the+Grain%3A+How+Agriculture+Has+Hijacked+Civilization&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2005-02-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4668-2342-6&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwoam4BS6TaYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <ul><li>Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (Penguin, 1986)</li> <li>Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (Heinemann, 2008) a standard scholarly history</li> <li>Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato (Cambridge, 2010)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe_2">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Ambrosoli, Mauro. The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350–1850 (Cambridge UP, 1997)</li> <li>Brassley, Paul, Yves Segers, and Leen Van Molle, eds. War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural Europe from the 1930s to the 1950s (Routledge, 2012)</li> <li>Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870–1947 (Manchester UP, 1987)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2007" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Gregory (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/31320/1/50512257X.pdf">"The long march of history: Farm wages, population, and economic growth, England 1209–1869"</a> (PDF). Economic History Review. 60 (1): 97–135. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2006.00358.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.2006.00358.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154325999">154325999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+long+march+of+history%3A+Farm+wages%2C+population%2C+and+economic+growth%2C+England+1209%E2%80%931869&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-135&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2006.00358.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154325999%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.econstor.eu%2Fbitstream%2F10419%2F31320%2F1%2F50512257X.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history (Springer, 1965)</li> <li>Gras, Norman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579">A history of agriculture in Europe and America</a> (Crofts, 1925)</li> <li>Harvey, Nigel. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales (HarperCollins, 1980)</li> <li>Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815 (Princeton UP, 1996)</li> <li>Hoyle, Richard W., ed. The Farmer in England, 1650–1980 (Routledge, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/130/544/757.short">online review</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li>Kussmaul, Ann. A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538–1840 (Cambridge University Press, 1990)</li> <li>Langdon, John. Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge UP, 1986)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill1948" class="citation journal cs1">McNeill, William H. (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal of Modern History. 21 (3): 218–221. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F237272">10.1086/237272</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876068">1876068</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145099646">145099646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Introduction+of+the+Potato+into+Ireland&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=218-221&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145099646%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1876068%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F237272&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Moon, David. The Plough that Broke the Steppes: Agriculture and Environment on Russia's Grasslands, 1700–1914 (Oxford UP, 2014)</li> <li>Slicher van Bath, B.H. The Agrarian History of Western Europe, AD 500–1850 (Edward Arnold, reprint, 1963)</li> <li>Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (Cambridge University Press, 8 vols., 1978)</li> <li>Williamson, Tom. Transformation of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700–1870 (Liverpool UP, 2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ina_Zweiniger-Bargielowska" title="Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska">Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina</a>, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds. Food and war in twentieth century Europe (Ashgate, 2011)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America_2">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bidwell, Percy Wells, and John I. Falconer. History of agriculture in the northern United States, 1620-1860 (1925), massive scholarly history. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofagricul00bidw/page/n8/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis (University of Minnesota P, 1993)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFite1983" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Fite" title="Gilbert Fite">Fite, Gilbert C.</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923">"American Farmers: The New Minority"</a>. Annals of Iowa. 46 (7): 553–555. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923">10.17077/0003-4827.8923</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Iowa&rft.atitle=American+Farmers%3A+The+New+Minority&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=553-555&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923&rft.aulast=Fite&rft.aufirst=Gilbert+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.17077%252F0003-4827.8923&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gras, Norman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579">A History of Agriculture in Europe and America</a>, (F.S. Crofts, 1925)</li> <li>Gray, L.C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (P. Smith, 1933) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1944">Volume I online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1945">Volume 2</a></li> <li>Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. (University of Virginia Press, 2004)</li> <li>Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (Purdue UP, 2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMundlak2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mundlak, Yair (2005). "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture". Journal of Economic Literature. 43 (4): 989–1024. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.582.8537">10.1.1.582.8537</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1257%2F002205105775362005">10.1257/002205105775362005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Literature&rft.atitle=Economic+Growth%3A+Lessons+from+Two+Centuries+of+American+Agriculture&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=989-1024&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.582.8537%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1257%2F002205105775362005&rft.aulast=Mundlak&rft.aufirst=Yair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+agriculture" class="Z3988"></li> <li>O'Sullivan, Robin. American Organic: A Cultural History of Farming, Gardening, Shopping, and Eating (University Press of Kansas, 2015)</li> <li>Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. Readings in the history of American agriculture (University of Illinois Press, 1960)</li> <li>Robert, Joseph C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=3136323">The story of tobacco in America</a> (University of North Carolina Press, 1949)</li> <li>Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (UP of New England, 1981)</li> <li>Russell, Peter A. How Agriculture Made Canada: Farming in the Nineteenth Century (McGill-Queen's UP, 2012)</li> <li>Schafer, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2712484">The social history of American agriculture</a> (Da Capo, 1970 [1936])</li> <li>Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972 (Iowa State UP, 1972)</li> <li>Weeden, William Babcock. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1">Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789</a> (Houghton, Mifflin, 1891)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_agriculture&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chla.library.cornell.edu/">"The Core Historical Literature of Agriculture"</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Library" title="Cornell University Library">Cornell University Library</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural Engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmworker" title="Farmworker">Farm worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herder" title="Herder">Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_system" title="Food system">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agribusiness" title="Agribusiness">Agribusiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_cooperative" title="Agricultural cooperative">Agricultural cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_supply_store" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural supply store">Agricultural supplies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_technology" title="Agricultural technology">Agricultural technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Agriculture">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_biotechnology" title="Agricultural biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">Animal husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">Cash crop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_agriculture" title="Cellular agriculture">Cellular agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_methods" title="Cultural methods">Cultural methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_farming" title="Contract farming">Contract farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">Extensive farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmhouse" title="Farmhouse">Farmhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_ratio" title="Feed ratio">Feed ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_range" title="Free range">Free range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">Intensive farming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">pigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_crop_farming" title="Intensive crop farming">crops</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanised_agriculture" title="Mechanised agriculture">Mechanised agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paludiculture" title="Paludiculture">Paludiculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">Polyculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rice-duck_farming" title="Rice-duck farming">Rice-duck farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice-fish_system" title="Rice-fish system">Rice-fish system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">Sustainable food system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_universities_and_colleges" title="List of agricultural universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">Urban agriculture</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domesticated_plants_and_animals_of_Austronesia" title="Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_History_Review" title="Agricultural History Review">Agricultural History Review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Argentina" title="History of agriculture in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Canada" title="History of agriculture in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_China" title="History of agriculture in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Chile" title="History of agriculture in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Mesoamerica" title="Agriculture in Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_organic_farming" title="History of organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Palestine" title="History of agriculture in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_history_of_Peru" title="Agricultural history of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Agricultural_Revolution" title="British Agricultural Revolution">British Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Cheshire" title="History of agriculture in Cheshire">Cheshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_Scotland" title="History of agriculture in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_agriculture" title="History of African-American agriculture">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_California" title="History of agriculture in California">California</a></li></ul></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">Farming Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">Agrivoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming" title="Dairy farming">Dairy farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goat_farming" title="Goat farming">Goat farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convertible_husbandry" title="Convertible husbandry">Convertible husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_grazing" title="Rotational grazing">Rotational grazing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroponics" title="Hydroponics">Hydroponics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_farming" title="Mixed farming">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">Monoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddy_field" title="Paddy field">Paddy field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral farming">Pastoral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bocage" title="Bocage">Bocage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pig_farming" title="Pig farming">Pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orchard" title="Orchard">Orchards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">Subsistence agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheep_farming" title="Sheep farming">Sheep farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrace_(earthworks)" title="Terrace (earthworks)">Terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Environmental impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_expansion" title="Agricultural expansion">Agricultural expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural wastewater">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="Environmental impact of irrigation">Environmental impact of irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Climate change and agriculture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agricultural_machinery" title="Category:Agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_by_country" title="Category:Agriculture by country">Agriculture by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_companies" title="Category:Agriculture companies">Agriculture companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" title="Category:Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_agriculture" title="Category:History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Livestock" title="Category:Livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Meat_industry" title="Category:Meat industry">Meat industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Poultry_farming" title="Category:Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture_and_the_environment" title="Category:Agriculture and the environment">Agriculture and the environment</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturist" title="Agriculturist">Agriculturist profession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery" title="List of agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_origins" title="List of food origins">Food origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agriculture_ministries" title="List of agriculture ministries">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_universities_and_colleges" title="List of agricultural universities and colleges">Universities and colleges</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Agriculture" title="Category:Agriculture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Agriculture" title="Portal:Agriculture">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Agriculture" class="extiw" title="commons:Agriculture">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Agriculture" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Agriculture">Wikiproject</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_biology" title="Template:History of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_biology" title="Template talk:History of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields, disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories, concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></li> <li><a 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