CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Bertrand Russell - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"6cc80eb9-d9d3-4d7f-8572-ce1f8957f3b8","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Bertrand_Russell","wgTitle":"Bertrand Russell","wgCurRevisionId":1276353951,"wgRevisionId":1276353951,"wgArticleId":4163,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from September 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)","CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB","Pages containing links to subscription-only content", "Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2020","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use British English from November 2020","Use dmy dates from July 2023","Biography with signature","Articles with hCards","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014","Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021","Wikipedia references cleanup from September 2023","All articles needing references cleanup","Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2023","All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify","Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch","Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch","Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata","Articles with Project Gutenberg links","Articles with Internet Archive links","Articles with LibriVox links","Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links", "Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Bertrand Russell","1872 births","1970 deaths","19th-century atheists","19th-century English mathematicians","19th-century English philosophers","19th-century English essayists","20th-century atheists","20th-century English mathematicians","20th-century English philosophers","20th-century English essayists","Academics of the London School of Economics","Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge","Analytic philosophers","British anti–Vietnam War activists","Aristotelian philosophers","Atheist philosophers","British anti–World War I activists","British atheism activists","British ethicists","Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists","British consciousness researchers and theorists","Consequentialists","British critics of Christianity","British critics of religions","Critics of the Catholic Church","Critics of work and the work ethic", "De Morgan Medallists","Deaths from influenza in the United Kingdom","Earls Russell","Empiricists","English agnostics","English anti-fascists","English anti–nuclear weapons activists","British writers on atheism","English essayists","British historians of philosophy","English humanists","English logicians","English male non-fiction writers","English Nobel laureates","English pacifists","English people of Scottish descent","English people of Welsh descent","English political commentators","English political philosophers","English political writers","English prisoners and detainees","English sceptics","English socialists","British epistemologists","European democratic socialists","Fellows of the Royal Society","Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge","Free love advocates","British free speech activists","Freethought writers","Georgists","Honorary Fellows of the British Academy","Infectious disease deaths in Wales","Intellectual historians","Jerusalem Prize recipients", "Kalinga Prize recipients","English LGBTQ rights activists","Liberal socialism","Linguistic turn","Logicians","Mathematical logicians","Members of the Order of Merit","Metaphilosophers","British metaphysicians","Metaphysics writers","Nobel laureates in Literature","British nonviolence advocates","Ontologists","People from Harting","People from Monmouthshire","British philosophers of culture","Philosophers of economics","British philosophers of education","Philosophers of history","British philosophers of language","Philosophers of law","Philosophers of literature","British philosophers of logic","Philosophers of love","Philosophers of mathematics","British philosophers of mind","British philosophers of religion","British philosophers of science","Philosophers of sexuality","Philosophers of social science","Philosophers of technology","British political philosophers","Presidents of the Aristotelian Society","Residents of Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park","Rhetoric theorists", "Russell family","Secular humanists","Set theorists","The Nation (U.S. magazine) people","Theorists on Western civilization","Universal basic income writers","University of California, Los Angeles faculty","University of Chicago faculty","Utilitarians","Writers about activism and social change","Writers about communism","Writers about globalization","Writers about religion and science","Writers about the Soviet Union","People from Penrhyndeudraeth","Anti-nationalists","Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates","Labour Party (UK) hereditary peers","World Constitutional Convention call signatories"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Bertrand_Russell","wgRelevantArticleId":4163,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}}, "wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q33760","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready", "user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1507"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1005"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="804"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Bertrand Russell - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Bertrand_Russell rootpage-Bertrand_Russell skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Bertrand+Russell" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Bertrand+Russell" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Bertrand+Russell" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Bertrand+Russell" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Biography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Biography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_life_and_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life_and_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life and background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life_and_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Childhood_and_adolescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Childhood_and_adolescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Childhood and adolescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Childhood_and_adolescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Early career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>First World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-G._H._Hardy_on_the_Trinity_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#G._H._Hardy_on_the_Trinity_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>G. H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-G._H._Hardy_on_the_Trinity_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Between_the_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Between_the_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Between the wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Between_the_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Later life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Political causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_years,_death_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_years,_death_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Final years, death and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Final_years,_death_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marriages_and_issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriages_and_issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11.1</span> <span>Marriages and issue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriages_and_issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Titles,_awards_and_honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Titles,_awards_and_honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Titles, awards and honours</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Titles,_awards_and_honours-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Titles, awards and honours subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Titles,_awards_and_honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Honours_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Honours and awards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholastic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholastic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Scholastic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholastic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Views</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Views subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_opinion_and_expression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_opinion_and_expression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Freedom of opinion and expression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_opinion_and_expression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Selected works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>General and cited sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books_about_Russell's_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_about_Russell's_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Books about Russell's philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_about_Russell's_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographical_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Biographical books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bertrand Russell</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 124 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-124" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">124 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A0%E1%88%AD%E1%89%B5%E1%88%AB%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%B5_%E1%88%A8%E1%88%B5%E1%88%8D" title="በርትራንድ ረስል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="በርትራንድ ረስል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="بيرتراند راسل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بيرتراند راسل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="বাৰ্ট্ৰেণ্ড ৰাছেল – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="বাৰ্ট্ৰেণ্ড ৰাছেল" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertran_Rassel" title="Bertran Rassel – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Bertran Rassel" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برتراند راسل – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="برتراند راسل" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="বারট্রান্ড রাসেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বারট্রান্ড রাসেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%90%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80_%D0%A3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертран Артур Уільям Расел – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бертран Артур Уільям Расел" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Бэртран Расэл – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэртран Расэл" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%A0%D1%8A%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бъртранд Ръсел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бъртранд Ръсел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="بيرطراند راسل – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بيرطراند راسل" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%A1%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Μπέρτραντ Ράσελ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπέρτραντ Ράσελ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برتراند راسل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برتراند راسل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AC%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9F%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A1_%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B2" title="બર્ટ્રાન્ડ રસેલ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="બર્ટ્રાન્ડ રસેલ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%84%ED%8A%B8%EB%9F%B0%EB%93%9C_%EB%9F%AC%EC%85%80" title="버트런드 러셀 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="버트런드 러셀" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Բերտրան Ռասել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բերտրան Ռասել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2" title="बर्ट्रैंड रसल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बर्ट्रैंड रसल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93_%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9C" title="ברטראנד ראסל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ברטראנד ראסל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D" title="ಬರ್ಟ್ರಾಂಡ್ ರಸಲ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬರ್ಟ್ರಾಂಡ್ ರಸಲ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ბერტრან რასელი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბერტრან რასელი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертран Рассел – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бертран Рассел" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертран Рассел – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бертран Рассел" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrandus_Russell" title="Bertrandus Russell – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bertrandus Russell" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%93rtrands_Rasels" title="Bērtrands Rasels – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Bērtrands Rasels" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертранд Расел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бертранд Расел" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BD" title="ബെർട്രാൻഡ് റസ്സൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ബെർട്രാൻഡ് റസ്സൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="बर्ट्रांड रसेल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बर्ट्रांड रसेल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ბერტრან რასელი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბერტრან რასელი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برتراند راسل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="برتراند راسل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برتراند راسل – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="برتراند راسل" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертран Рассел – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бертран Рассел" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA" title="ဘာထရန် ရပ်ဆဲလ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဘာထရန် ရပ်ဆဲလ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="बर्टेन्ड रसेल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बर्टेन्ड रसेल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%A9%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A9%E3%83%83%E3%82%BB%E3%83%AB" title="バートランド・ラッセル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バートランド・ラッセル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%A1_%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2" title="ਬਰਟਰੈਂਡ ਰਸਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਰਟਰੈਂਡ ਰਸਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برٹرینڈ رسل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="برٹرینڈ رسل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%BC%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%89_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برټرانډ راسل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برټرانډ راسل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.Russel" title="B.Russel – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="B.Russel" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Рассел, Бертран – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Рассел, Бертран" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF_%DA%95%DB%95%D8%B3%DA%B5" title="بێرتراند ڕەسڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بێرتراند ڕەسڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертранд Расел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бертранд Расел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பெர்ட்ரண்டு ரசல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெர்ட்ரண்டு ரசல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Бертран Рассел – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Бертран Рассел" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D" title="బెర్ట్రాండ్ రస్సెల్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బెర్ట్రాండ్ రస్సెల్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C" title="เบอร์ทรันด์ รัสเซลล์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เบอร์ทรันด์ รัสเซลล์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Бертран Расселл – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бертран Расселл" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%88_%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%84" title="برٹرینڈ رسل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برٹرینڈ رسل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russelli_Bertrand" title="Russelli Bertrand – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Russelli Bertrand" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E7%B4%A0%E4%BC%AF%E7%88%B5%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%96" title="羅素伯爵三世 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="羅素伯爵三世" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="伯特兰·罗素" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E8%98%AD%C2%B7%E7%BE%85%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特蘭·羅素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="伯特蘭·羅素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Bertrand Russell" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%85%B0%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E7%B4%A0" title="伯特兰·罗素 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伯特兰·罗素" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q33760#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Bertrand_Russell" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Bertrand_Russell" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Bertrand_Russell" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&oldid=1276353951" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Bertrand_Russell&id=1276353951&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBertrand_Russell"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBertrand_Russell"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Bertrand_Russell&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Bertrand_Arthur_William_Russell" hreflang="en"><span>Wikisource</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q33760" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">British philosopher and logician (1872–1970)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/The_Right_Honourable" title="The Right Honourable">The Right Honourable</a></div><div class="fn">The Earl Russell</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg/220px-Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg/330px-Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg/440px-Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="800" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Russell in 1936</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Bertrand Arthur William Russell</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1872-05-18</span>)</span>18 May 1872<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Trellech" title="Trellech">Trellech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monmouthshire_(historic)" title="Monmouthshire (historic)">Monmouthshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a><sup id="cite_ref-fn1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">2 February 1970<span style="display:none">(1970-02-02)</span> (aged 97)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Penrhyndeudraeth" title="Penrhyndeudraeth">Penrhyndeudraeth</a>, Merionethshire, Wales</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Education</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>, 1893)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alys_Pearsall_Smith" title="Alys Pearsall Smith">Alys Pearsall Smith</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1894; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1921)<wbr /></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dora_Russell" title="Dora Russell">Dora Black</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1921; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1935)<wbr /></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Russell" title="Patricia Russell">Patricia Spence</a> </div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1936; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1952)<wbr /></div><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Edith_Finch_Russell" title="Edith Finch Russell">Edith Finch</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1952)<wbr /></div></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist nowrap"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Morgan_Medal" title="De Morgan Medal">De Morgan Medal</a> (1932)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_Medal" title="Sylvester Medal">Sylvester Medal</a> (1934)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> (1950)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_Prize" title="Kalinga Prize">Kalinga Prize</a> (1957)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Prize" title="Jerusalem Prize">Jerusalem Prize</a> (1963)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/20th-century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th-century philosophy">20th-century philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data org"><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/James_Ward_(psychologist)" title="James Ward (psychologist)">James Ward</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/A._N._Whitehead" class="mw-redirect" title="A. N. Whitehead">A. N. Whitehead</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Demos" title="Raphael Demos">Raphael Demos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Copi" title="Irving Copi">Irving Copi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pitts" title="Walter Pitts">Walter Pitts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li>ethics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a></li> <li>mathematics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><span class="nowrap"> </span></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Automated_reasoning" title="Automated reasoning">Automated reasoning</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving" title="Automated theorem proving">Automated theorem proving</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_reducibility" title="Axiom of reducibility">Axiom of reducibility</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Barber_paradox" title="Barber paradox">Barber paradox</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Berry_paradox" title="Berry paradox">Berry paradox</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Chicken_(game)" title="Chicken (game)">Chicken</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Connective_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Connective (logic)">Connective</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Criticism of the <a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">coherence theory of truth</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Criticism of the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_internal_relations" title="Doctrine of internal relations">doctrine of internal relations</a>/<a href="/wiki/Logical_holism" title="Logical holism">logical holism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivist theory of names</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Double_negation" title="Double negation">Double negation</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_structural_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemic structural realism">Epistemic structural realism</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential fallacy</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Failure_of_reference" class="mw-redirect" title="Failure of reference">Failure of reference</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance" title="Knowledge by acquaintance">Knowledge by acquaintance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_by_description" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge by description">knowledge by description</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atomic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic proposition">atomic proposition</a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical logic</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Predicativism" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicativism">Predicativism</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Propositional_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional analysis">Propositional analysis</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">Propositional calculus</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Naive_set_theory" title="Naive set theory">Naive set theory</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Paradoxes_of_set_theory" title="Paradoxes of set theory">Paradoxes of set theory</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Peano%E2%80%93Russell_notation" title="Peano–Russell notation">Peano–Russell notation</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Propositional_formula" title="Propositional formula">Propositional formula</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Self-refuting_idea" title="Self-refuting idea">Self-refuting idea</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Quantification_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantification (logic)">Quantification</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Myhill_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell–Myhill paradox">Russell–Myhill paradox</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_conjugation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell's conjugation">Russell's conjugation</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russell-style_universes" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell-style universes">Russell-style universes</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0">Russell's theory of causal lines<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russellian_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Russellian change">Russellian change</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Russellian_propositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Russellian propositions">Russellian propositions</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Round_square_copula" class="mw-redirect" title="Round square copula">Russellian view</a> (Russell's critique of <a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong's</a> <a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">theory of objects</a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Set-theoretic_definition_of_natural_numbers" title="Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers">Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Singleton_(mathematics)" title="Singleton (mathematics)">Singleton</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Relation_(philosophy)" title="Relation (philosophy)">Theory of relations</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ramified_type_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramified type theory">ramified type theory</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tensor_product_of_graphs" title="Tensor product of graphs">Tensor product of graphs</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_the_proposition" title="Unity of the proposition">Unity of the proposition</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_House_of_Lords" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the House of Lords">Member of the House of Lords</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><div class="skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="width:100%; margin:0; color: black; background-color: #eee"><b><a href="/wiki/Lords_Temporal" title="Lords Temporal">Lord Temporal</a></b></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />4 March 1931 – 2 February 1970<br /><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_peer" title="Hereditary peer">Hereditary peerage</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Russell,_2nd_Earl_Russell" title="Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell">The 2nd Earl Russell</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_4th_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 4th Earl Russell">The 4th Earl Russell</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> (1922–1965)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other political<br />affiliations</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> (1907–1922)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg/250px-Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg/375px-Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg/500px-Bertrand_Russell_signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="220" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell</b>, <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a></span>, <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-frs_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, and <a href="/wiki/Public_intellectual" class="mw-redirect" title="Public intellectual">public intellectual</a>. He had influence on <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>, and various areas of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was one of the early 20th century's prominent <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logicians</a><sup id="cite_ref-stanford_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a founder of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>, along with his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, his friend and colleague <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, and his student and protégé <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. Russell with Moore led the British "revolt against <a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">idealism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with his former teacher <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">A. N. Whitehead</a>, Russell wrote <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i>, a milestone in the development of <a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">classical logic</a> and a major attempt to reduce the whole of mathematics to <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>). Russell's article "<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell was a <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifist</a> who championed <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">anti-imperialism</a> and chaired the <a href="/wiki/India_League" title="India League">India League</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He went to prison for his pacifism during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and initially supported appeasement against <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, before changing his view in 1943, describing war as a necessary "lesser of two evils". In the wake of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, he welcomed American global <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> in preference to either <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> hegemony or no (or ineffective) world leadership, even if it were to come at the cost of using their <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He would later criticise <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinist</a> <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarianism</a>, condemn the United States' involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, and become an outspoken proponent of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">nuclear disarmament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, Russell was awarded the <a href="/wiki/1950_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1950 Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also the recipient of the <a href="/wiki/De_Morgan_Medal" title="De Morgan Medal">De Morgan Medal</a> (1932), <a href="/wiki/Sylvester_Medal" title="Sylvester Medal">Sylvester Medal</a> (1934), <a href="/wiki/Kalinga_Prize" title="Kalinga Prize">Kalinga Prize</a> (1957), and <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Prize" title="Jerusalem Prize">Jerusalem Prize</a> (1963). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life_and_background">Early life and background</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life and background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born at <a href="/wiki/Cleddon_Hall" title="Cleddon Hall">Ravenscroft</a>, a country house in <a href="/wiki/Trellech" title="Trellech">Trellech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monmouthshire_(historic)" title="Monmouthshire (historic)">Monmouthshire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-fn1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on 18 May 1872, into an influential and liberal family of the <a href="/wiki/British_aristocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="British aristocracy">British aristocracy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His parents were <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_Viscount_Amberley" title="John Russell, Viscount Amberley">Viscount</a> and <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Russell,_Viscountess_Amberley" title="Katharine Russell, Viscountess Amberley">Viscountess Amberley</a>. Lord Amberley consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the biologist <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Spalding" title="Douglas Spalding">Douglas Spalding</a>. Both were early advocates of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a> at a time when this was considered scandalous.<sup id="cite_ref-calicut_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-calicut-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lord Amberley was a <a href="/wiki/Deist" class="mw-redirect" title="Deist">deist</a>, and even asked the philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> to act as Russell's secular godfather.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mill died the year after Russell's birth, but his writings later influenced Russell's life. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_in_1876.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Bertrand_Russell_in_1876.jpg/170px-Bertrand_Russell_in_1876.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Bertrand_Russell_in_1876.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Russell as a 4-year-old</figcaption></figure> <p>Russell's paternal grandfather, Lord John Russell, later <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">1st Earl Russell</a> (1792–1878), had twice been <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of the United Kingdom</a> in the 1840s and 1860s.<sup id="cite_ref-John_R_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_R-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A member of Parliament since the early 1810s, he met with <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> in <a href="/wiki/Elba" title="Elba">Elba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power and the <a href="/wiki/Peerage" title="Peerage">peerage</a> with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tudor dynasty">Tudor dynasty</a> (see: <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Bedford" title="Duke of Bedford">Duke of Bedford</a>). They established themselves as one of the leading <a href="/wiki/British_Whig_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="British Whig Party">Whig</a> families and participated in political events from the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">dissolution of the monasteries</a> in 1536–1540 to the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> in 1688–1689 and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Reform_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Reform Act">Great Reform Act</a> in 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-John_R_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-John_R-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-peerage_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peerage-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lady Amberley was the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Stanley,_2nd_Baron_Stanley_of_Alderley" title="Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley">Lord</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Stanley,_Baroness_Stanley_of_Alderley" title="Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley">Lady Stanley of Alderley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell often feared the ridicule of his maternal grandmother,<sup id="cite_ref-Booth_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Booth-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of the campaigners for <a href="/wiki/Education_of_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Education of women">education of women</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood_and_adolescence">Childhood and adolescence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Childhood and adolescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russell had two siblings: brother <a href="/wiki/Frank_Russell,_2nd_Earl_Russell" title="Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell">Frank</a> (seven years older), and sister Rachel (four years older). In June 1874, Russell's mother died of <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a>, followed shortly by Rachel's death. In January 1876, his father died of <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after a long period of <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Monk1996_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk1996-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 14">: 14 </span></sup> Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of <a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Victorian</a> paternal grandparents, who lived at <a href="/wiki/Pembroke_Lodge,_Richmond_Park" title="Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park">Pembroke Lodge</a> in <a href="/wiki/Richmond_Park" title="Richmond Park">Richmond Park</a>. His grandfather, former Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Earl Russell</a>, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kind old man in a wheelchair. His grandmother, the <a href="/wiki/Frances_Russell,_Countess_Russell" title="Frances Russell, Countess Russell">Countess Russell</a> (née Lady Frances Elliot), was the central family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-calicut_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-calicut-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Countess was from a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> family and petitioned the <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a> to set aside a provision in Amberley's will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a> and supporting <a href="/wiki/Home_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Rule">Irish Home Rule</a>), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life. Her favourite Bible verse, "Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil",<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> became his motto. The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality; Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pembroke_Lodge,_Richmond_Park.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pembroke_Lodge%2C_Richmond_Park.jpg/220px-Pembroke_Lodge%2C_Richmond_Park.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pembroke_Lodge%2C_Richmond_Park.jpg/330px-Pembroke_Lodge%2C_Richmond_Park.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pembroke_Lodge%2C_Richmond_Park.jpg/440px-Pembroke_Lodge%2C_Richmond_Park.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Childhood home, <a href="/wiki/Pembroke_Lodge,_Richmond_Park" title="Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park">Pembroke Lodge</a>, Richmond Park, London</figcaption></figure> <p>Russell's adolescence was lonely and he contemplated suicide. He remarked in his autobiography that his interests in "nature and books and (later) mathematics saved me from complete despondency;"<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> only his wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was educated at home by a series of tutors.<sup id="cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel_prize-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Russell was eleven years old, his brother Frank introduced him to the work of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, which he described in his autobiography as "one of the great events of my life, as dazzling as first love".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During these formative years, he also discovered the works of <a href="/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" title="Percy Bysshe Shelley">Percy Bysshe Shelley</a>. Russell wrote: "I spent all my spare time reading him, and learning him by heart, knowing no one to whom I could speak of what I thought or felt, I used to reflect how wonderful it would have been to know Shelley, and to wonder whether I should meet any live human being with whom I should feel so much sympathy."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell claimed that beginning at age 15, he spent considerable time thinking about the validity of <a href="/wiki/Dogma#In_religion" title="Dogma">Christian religious dogma</a>, which he found unconvincing.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this age, he came to the conclusion that there is no <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> and, two years later, that there is no life after death. Finally, at the age of 18, after reading Mill's <i>Autobiography</i>, he abandoned the "<a href="/wiki/First_Cause" class="mw-redirect" title="First Cause">First Cause</a>" argument and became an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He travelled to the continent in 1890 with an American friend, <a href="/wiki/Edward_FitzGerald_(mountaineer)" title="Edward FitzGerald (mountaineer)">Edward FitzGerald</a>, and with FitzGerald's family he visited the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Exhibition_of_1889" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Exhibition of 1889">Paris Exhibition of 1889</a> and climbed the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a> soon after it was completed.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1967a_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1967a-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Bertrand_Russell_in_1893.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Portrait_of_Bertrand_Russell_in_1893.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Bertrand_Russell_in_1893.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Portrait_of_Bertrand_Russell_in_1893.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Bertrand_Russell_in_1893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Portrait_of_Bertrand_Russell_in_1893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Russell at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, in 1893</figcaption></figure> <p>Russell won a scholarship to read for the <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_Tripos" title="Mathematical Tripos">Mathematical Tripos</a> at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, and began his studies there in 1890,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> taking as coach <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rumsey_Webb" title="Robert Rumsey Webb">Robert Rumsey Webb</a>. He became acquainted with the younger <a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="George Edward Moore">George Edward Moore</a> and came under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, who recommended him to the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Apostles" title="Cambridge Apostles">Cambridge Apostles</a>. He distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating as seventh <a href="/wiki/Wrangler_(University_of_Cambridge)" title="Wrangler (University of Cambridge)">Wrangler</a> in the former in 1893 and becoming a Fellow in the latter in 1895.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitehead_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitehead-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JSTOR_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JSTOR-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_career">Early career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_reducibility" title="Axiom of reducibility">Axiom of reducibility</a></div> <p>Russell began his published work in 1896 with <i>German Social Democracy</i>, a study in politics that was an early indication of his interest in political and social theory. In 1896 he taught German social democracy at the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LSE_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSE-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Coefficients_(dining_club)" title="Coefficients (dining club)">Coefficients dining club</a> of social reformers set up in 1902 by the <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian</a> campaigners <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Webb">Sidney</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_Webb" title="Beatrice Webb">Beatrice Webb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LettersPg16_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LettersPg16-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He now started a study of the <a href="/wiki/Foundations_of_mathematics" title="Foundations of mathematics">foundations of mathematics</a> at Trinity. In 1897, he wrote <i>An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry</i> (submitted at the <a href="/wiki/Fellow" title="Fellow">Fellowship</a> Examination of Trinity College) which discussed the <a href="/wiki/Cayley%E2%80%93Klein_metric" title="Cayley–Klein metric">Cayley–Klein metrics</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">non-Euclidean geometry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He attended the first <a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="International Congress of Philosophy">International Congress of Philosophy</a> in Paris in 1900 where he met <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Padoa" title="Alessandro Padoa">Alessandro Padoa</a>. The Italians had responded to <a href="/wiki/Georg_Cantor" title="Georg Cantor">Georg Cantor</a>, making a science of <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a>; they gave Russell their literature including the <i><a href="/wiki/Formulario_mathematico" title="Formulario mathematico">Formulario mathematico</a></i>. Russell was impressed by the precision of Peano's arguments at the Congress, read the literature upon returning to England, and came upon <a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a>. In 1903 he published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a></i>, a work on the foundations of mathematics. It advanced a thesis of <a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">logicism</a>, that mathematics and logic are one and the same.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the age of 29, in February 1901, Russell underwent what he called a "sort of mystic illumination", after witnessing <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a>'s wife's suffering in an <a href="/wiki/Angina_pectoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Angina pectoris">angina</a> attack. "I found myself filled with semi-mystical feelings about beauty and with a desire almost as profound as that of the <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a> to find some philosophy which should make human life endurable", Russell would later recall. "At the end of those five minutes, I had become a completely different person."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1905, he wrote the essay "<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>", which was published in the philosophical journal <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i>. Russell was elected a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1908" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1908">Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1908</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-frs_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frs-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three-volume <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i>, written with Whitehead, was published between 1910 and 1913. This, along with the earlier <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i>, soon made Russell world-famous in his field. Russell's first political activity was as the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Liberal" title="Independent Liberal">Independent Liberal</a> candidate in the <a href="/wiki/1907_Wimbledon_by-election" title="1907 Wimbledon by-election">1907 by-election</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Wimbledon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Wimbledon (UK Parliament constituency)">Wimbledon constituency</a>, where he was not elected.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1910, he became a lecturer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, Trinity College, where he had studied. He was considered for a fellowship, which would give him a vote in the college government and protect him from being fired for his opinions, but was passed over because he was "anti-clerical", because he was agnostic. He was approached by the Austrian engineering student <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, who started undergraduate study with him. Russell viewed Wittgenstein as a successor who would continue his work on logic. He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various <a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">phobias</a> and his bouts of despair. This was a drain on Russell's energy, but Russell continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-Wittgenstein_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wittgenstein-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell delivered his lectures on <a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">logical atomism</a>, his version of these ideas, in 1918, before the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Wittgenstein was, at that time, serving in the Austrian Army and subsequently spent nine months in an Italian <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoner of war</a> camp at the end of the conflict. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Committee_of_the_No-Conscription_Fellowship_May_1916.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/National_Committee_of_the_No-Conscription_Fellowship_May_1916.gif/220px-National_Committee_of_the_No-Conscription_Fellowship_May_1916.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e4/National_Committee_of_the_No-Conscription_Fellowship_May_1916.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="193" /></a><figcaption>Russell served on the National Committee of the <a href="/wiki/No-Conscription_Fellowship" title="No-Conscription Fellowship">No-Conscription Fellowship</a>, shown here in May 1916 (<i>back right</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Russell was one of the few people to engage in active <a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_World_War_I" title="Opposition to World War I">pacifist activities</a>. In 1916, because of his lack of a fellowship, he was dismissed from Trinity College following his conviction under the <a href="/wiki/Defence_of_the_Realm_Act_1914" title="Defence of the Realm Act 1914">Defence of the Realm Act 1914</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later described this, in <i><a href="/wiki/Free_Thought_and_Official_Propaganda" title="Free Thought and Official Propaganda">Free Thought and Official Propaganda</a></i>, as an illegitimate means the state used to violate freedom of expression. Russell championed the case of <a href="/wiki/Eric_Chappelow" title="Eric Chappelow">Eric Chappelow</a>, a poet jailed and abused as a conscientious objector.<sup id="cite_ref-Moorehead_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moorehead-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell played a part in the <i>Leeds Convention</i> in June 1917, a historic event which saw well over a thousand "anti-war socialists" gather; many being delegates from the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Labour_Party" title="Independent Labour Party">Independent Labour Party</a> and the Socialist Party, united in their pacifist beliefs and advocating a peace settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The international press reported that Russell appeared with a number of Labour <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" title="Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)">Members of Parliament</a> (MPs), including <a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">Ramsay MacDonald</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Snowden" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Snowden">Philip Snowden</a>, as well as former <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> MP and anti-conscription campaigner, Professor <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Lupton" title="Arnold Lupton">Arnold Lupton</a>. After the event, Russell told Lady Ottoline Morrell that, "to my surprise, when I got up to speak, I was given the greatest ovation that was possible to give anybody".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His conviction in 1916 resulted in Russell being fined £100 (equivalent to £7,100 in 2023), which he refused to pay in the hope that he would be sent to prison, but his books were sold at auction to raise the money. The books were bought by friends; he later treasured his copy of the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Bible</a> that was stamped "Confiscated by Cambridge Police". </p><p>A later conviction for publicly lecturing against inviting the United States to enter the war on the United Kingdom's side resulted in six months' imprisonment in <a href="/wiki/HM_Prison_Brixton" title="HM Prison Brixton">Brixton Prison</a> (see <i><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_political_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's political views">Bertrand Russell's political views</a></i>) in 1918 (he was prosecuted under the <a href="/wiki/Defence_of_the_Realm_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Defence of the Realm Act">Defence of the Realm Act</a><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)<sup id="cite_ref-Pacifist_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pacifist-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later said of his imprisonment: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I found prison in many ways quite agreeable. I had no engagements, no difficult decisions to make, no fear of callers, no interruptions to my work. I read enormously; I wrote a book, "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy"... and began the work for "The Analysis of Mind". I was rather interested in my fellow-prisoners, who seemed to me in no way morally inferior to the rest of the population, though they were on the whole slightly below the usual level of intelligence as was shown by their having been caught.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>While he was reading <a href="/wiki/Lytton_Strachey" title="Lytton Strachey">Strachey</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Victorians" title="Eminent Victorians">Eminent Victorians</a></i> chapter about <a href="/wiki/Charles_George_Gordon" title="Charles George Gordon">Gordon</a> he laughed out loud in his cell prompting the warder to intervene and reminding him that "prison was a place of punishment".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell was reinstated to Trinity in 1919, resigned in 1920, was Tarner Lecturer in 1926 and became a Fellow again in 1944 until 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1924, Russell again gained press attention when attending a "banquet" in the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> with well-known campaigners, including <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Lupton" title="Arnold Lupton">Arnold Lupton</a>, who had been an <a href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(United_Kingdom)" title="Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)">MP</a> and had also endured imprisonment for "passive resistance to military or naval service".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="G._H._Hardy_on_the_Trinity_controversy">G. H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: G. H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1941, <a href="/wiki/G._H._Hardy" title="G. H. Hardy">G. H. Hardy</a> wrote a 61-page pamphlet titled <i>Bertrand Russell and Trinity</i> – published later as a book by Cambridge University Press with a foreword by <a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a>—in which he gave an authoritative account of Russell's 1916 dismissal from Trinity College, explaining that a reconciliation between the college and Russell had later taken place and gave details about Russell's personal life. Hardy writes that Russell's dismissal had created a scandal since the vast majority of the Fellows of the College opposed the decision. The ensuing pressure from the Fellows induced the Council to reinstate Russell. In January 1920, it was announced that Russell had accepted the reinstatement offer from Trinity and would begin lecturing in October. In July 1920, Russell applied for a one-year leave of absence; this was approved. He spent the year giving lectures in China and Japan. In January 1921, it was announced by Trinity that Russell had resigned and his resignation had been accepted. This resignation, Hardy explains, was voluntary and was not the result of another altercation. </p><p>The reason for the resignation, according to Hardy, was that Russell was going through a tumultuous time in his personal life with a divorce and subsequent remarriage. Russell contemplated asking Trinity for another one-year leave of absence but decided against it since this would have been an "unusual application" and the situation had the potential to snowball into another controversy. Although Russell did the right thing, in Hardy's opinion, the reputation of the College suffered with Russell's resignation since the 'world of learning' knew about Russell's altercation with Trinity but not that the rift had healed. In 1925, Russell was asked by the Council of Trinity College to give the <i>Tarner Lectures</i> on the Philosophy of the Sciences; these would later be the basis for one of Russell's best-received books according to Hardy: <i>The Analysis of Matter</i>, published in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the preface to the Trinity pamphlet, Hardy wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I wish to make it plain that Russell himself is not responsible, directly or indirectly, for the writing of the pamphlet.... I wrote it without his knowledge and, when I sent him the typescript and asked for his permission to print it, I suggested that, unless it contained misstatement of fact, he should make no comment on it. He agreed to this... no word has been changed as the result of any suggestion from him.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Between_the_wars">Between the wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Between the wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 1920, Russell travelled to <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a> as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FreeLib_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FreeLib-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote a four-part series of articles, titled "Soviet Russia—1920", for the magazine <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-nation1_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nation1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sov1920_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sov1920-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He met <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and had an hour-long conversation with him. In his autobiography, he mentions that he found Lenin disappointing, sensing an "impish cruelty" in him and comparing him to "an opinionated professor". He cruised down the <a href="/wiki/Volga" title="Volga">Volga</a> on a steamship. His experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for the revolution. He subsequently wrote a book, <i>The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Practice_&_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Practice_&-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> about his experiences on this trip, taken with a group of 24 others from the UK, all of whom came home thinking well of the Soviet regime, despite Russell's attempts to change their minds. For example, he told them that he had heard shots fired in the middle of the night and was sure that these were clandestine executions, but the others maintained that it was only cars backfiring.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russell_with_John_and_Kate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Russell_with_John_and_Kate.jpg/220px-Russell_with_John_and_Kate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Russell_with_John_and_Kate.jpg/330px-Russell_with_John_and_Kate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Russell_with_John_and_Kate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="422" data-file-height="444" /></a><figcaption>Russell with his children, <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_4th_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 4th Earl Russell">John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lady_Katharine_Tait" class="mw-redirect" title="Lady Katharine Tait">Kate</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Russell's lover <a href="/wiki/Dora_Russell" title="Dora Russell">Dora Black</a>, a British author, <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> and socialist campaigner, visited Soviet Russia independently at the same time; in contrast to his reaction, she was enthusiastic about the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">Bolshevik revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Practice_&_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Practice_&-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following year, Russell, accompanied by Dora, visited <a href="/wiki/Peking" class="mw-redirect" title="Peking">Peking</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> was then known outside of China) to lecture on philosophy for a year.<sup id="cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel_prize-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He went with optimism and hope, seeing China as <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_China#Fight_against_warlordism_and_the_First_United_Front" title="History of the Republic of China">then being</a> on a new path.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars present in China at the time included <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a><sup id="cite_ref-pneumonia_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pneumonia-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a>, the Indian Nobel-laureate poet.<sup id="cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel_prize-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before leaving China, Russell became gravely ill with <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_premature_obituaries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of premature obituaries">incorrect reports</a> of his death were published in the Japanese press.<sup id="cite_ref-pneumonia_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pneumonia-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora took on the role of spurning the local press by handing out notices reading "Mr. Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists".<sup id="cite_ref-papers_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papers-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apparently they found this harsh and reacted resentfully.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The editor of Vol. 15 of his _Collected Papers_ seems to have put it, in the volume's Intro, "The press, not appreciating the sarcasm, were not amused." Conceivably the context justifies attributing that, with a proper ref, to that editor (but presumably not our stating it as what the press did, felt, or said), nor necessarily as Lord Russell's opinion. We do not use irony (fundamentally, because it interferes with consistently clearly stating the verifiable facts). It is also unlikely that even BR's use of it in this circumstance, even if verifiable as his words, rises above chit-chat and to the level of being worthy of mention as a *notable* utterance or opinion of his. (July 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell supported his family during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, ethics, and education to the layman. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:124px;max-width:124px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg/120px-Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg/180px-Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg/240px-Bertrand_Russell_in_1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="423" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Russell_in_1924_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Russell_in_1924_01.jpg/120px-Russell_in_1924_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Russell_in_1924_01.jpg/180px-Russell_in_1924_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Russell_in_1924_01.jpg/240px-Russell_in_1924_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="397" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Bertrand Russell in 1924</div></div></div></div> <p>From 1922 to 1927 the Russells divided their time between London and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>, spending summers in <a href="/wiki/Porthcurno" title="Porthcurno">Porthcurno</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/1922_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1922 United Kingdom general election">1922</a> and <a href="/wiki/1923_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1923 United Kingdom general election">1923 general elections</a> Russell stood as a <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> candidate in the <a href="/wiki/Chelsea_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Chelsea (UK Parliament constituency)">Chelsea constituency</a>, but only on the basis that he knew he was unlikely to be elected in such a safe Conservative seat, and he was unsuccessful on both occasions. </p><p>After the birth of his two children, he became interested in education, especially <a href="/wiki/Early_childhood_education" title="Early childhood education">early childhood education</a>. He was not satisfied with the old <a href="/wiki/Traditional_education" title="Traditional education">traditional education</a> and thought that <a href="/wiki/Progressive_education" title="Progressive education">progressive education</a> also had some flaws;<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as a result, together with Dora, Russell founded the experimental Beacon Hill School in 1927. The school was run from a succession of different locations, including its original premises at the Russells' residence, Telegraph House, near <a href="/wiki/Harting" title="Harting">Harting</a>, West Sussex. During this time, he published <i>On Education, Especially in Early Childhood</i>. On 8 July 1930, Dora gave birth to her third child Harriet Ruth. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-Beacon_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beacon-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dora_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dora-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1927 Russell met <a href="/wiki/Barry_Stevens_(therapist)" title="Barry Stevens (therapist)">Barry Fox (later Barry Stevens)</a>, who became a known <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_therapy" title="Gestalt therapy">Gestalt therapist</a> and writer in later years.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They developed an intense relationship, and in Fox's words: "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>for three years we were very close."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fox sent her daughter Judith to Beacon Hill School.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1927 to 1932 Russell wrote 34 letters to Fox.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in 1931, Russell became the 3rd <a href="/wiki/Earl_Russell" title="Earl Russell">Earl Russell</a>. </p><p>Russell's marriage to Dora grew tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American journalist, Griffin Barry.<sup id="cite_ref-Dora_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dora-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They separated in 1932 and finally divorced. On 18 January 1936, Russell married his third wife, an <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> undergraduate named <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Russell_(nee_Spence)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patricia Russell (nee Spence)">Patricia ("Peter") Spence</a>, who had been his children's governess since 1930. Russell and Peter had one son, <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Russell,_5th_Earl_Russell" title="Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell">Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell</a>, 5th Earl Russell, who became a historian and one of the leading figures in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrat</a> party.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell returned in 1937 to the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a> to lecture on the science of power.<sup id="cite_ref-LSE_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSE-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 1930s, Russell became a friend and collaborator of <a href="/wiki/V._K._Krishna_Menon" title="V. K. Krishna Menon">V. K. Krishna Menon</a>, then President of the <a href="/wiki/India_League" title="India League">India League</a>, the foremost lobby in the United Kingdom for Indian independence.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell chaired the India League from 1932 to 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_political_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's political views">Russell's political views</a> changed over time, mostly about war. He opposed rearmament against <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. In 1937, he wrote in a personal letter: "If the Germans succeed in sending an invading army to England we should do best to treat them as visitors, give them quarters and invite the commander and chief to dine with the prime minister."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1940, he changed his <a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</a> view that avoiding a full-scale world war was more important than defeating Hitler. He concluded that Adolf Hitler taking over all of Europe would be a permanent threat to democracy. In 1943, he adopted a stance toward large-scale warfare called "relative political pacifism": "War was always a great evil, but in some particularly extreme circumstances, it may be the lesser of two evils."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before World War II, Russell taught at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, later moving on to Los Angeles to lecture at the <a href="/wiki/UCLA_Department_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA Department of Philosophy">UCLA Department of Philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was appointed professor at the <a href="/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a> (CCNY) in 1940, but after a public outcry the appointment was annulled by a court judgment that pronounced him "morally unfit" to teach at the college because of his opinions, especially those relating to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_morality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual morality">sexual morality</a>, detailed in <i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_and_Morals" title="Marriage and Morals">Marriage and Morals</a></i> (1929). The matter was taken to the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court" title="New York Supreme Court">New York Supreme Court</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Kay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Kay (page does not exist)">Jean Kay</a> who was afraid that her daughter would be harmed by the appointment, though her daughter was not a student at CCNY.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many intellectuals, led by <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, protested at his treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Denied_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denied-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s oft-quoted aphorism that "great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds" originated in his open letter, dated 19 March 1940, to <a href="/wiki/Morris_Raphael_Cohen" title="Morris Raphael Cohen">Morris Raphael Cohen</a>, a professor emeritus at CCNY, supporting Russell's appointment.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dewey and <a href="/wiki/Horace_M._Kallen" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace M. Kallen">Horace M. Kallen</a> edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bertrand_Russell_Case" title="The Bertrand Russell Case">The Bertrand Russell Case</a></i>. Russell soon joined the <a href="/wiki/Barnes_Foundation" title="Barnes Foundation">Barnes Foundation</a>, lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy; these lectures formed the basis of <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a></i>. His relationship with the eccentric <a href="/wiki/Albert_C._Barnes" title="Albert C. Barnes">Albert C. Barnes</a> soon soured, and he returned to the UK in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College.<sup id="cite_ref-professor_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-professor-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_life">Later life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Later life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1950_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1950 Nobel Prize in Literature">1950 Nobel Prize in Literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/220px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/330px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/440px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="893" /></a><figcaption>Russell in 1954</figcaption></figure> <p>Russell participated in many broadcasts over the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>, particularly <i><a href="/wiki/The_Brains_Trust" title="The Brains Trust">The Brains Trust</a></i> and for the <a href="/wiki/BBC_Third_Programme" title="BBC Third Programme">Third Programme</a>, on various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time Russell was known outside academic circles, frequently the subject or author of magazine and newspaper articles, and was called upon to offer opinions on a variety of subjects, even mundane ones. En route to one of his lectures in <a href="/wiki/Trondheim" title="Trondheim">Trondheim</a>, Russell was one of 24 survivors (out of 43 passengers) of an <a href="/wiki/Bukken_Bruse_disaster" title="Bukken Bruse disaster">aeroplane crash in Hommelvik</a> in October 1948. He said he owed his life to smoking since the people who drowned were in the non-smoking part of the plane.<sup id="cite_ref-letters_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letters-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a></i> (1945) became a best-seller and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life. </p><p>In 1942, Russell argued in favour of a moderate <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, capable of overcoming its metaphysical principles. In an inquiry on <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a>, launched by the Austrian artist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paalen" title="Wolfgang Paalen">Wolfgang Paalen</a> in his journal <i><a href="/wiki/DYN_(magazine)" title="DYN (magazine)">DYN</a></i>, Russell said: "I think the metaphysics of both <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> plain nonsense—Marx's claim to be 'science' is no more justified than <a href="/wiki/Mary_Baker_Eddy" title="Mary Baker Eddy">Mary Baker Eddy</a>'s. This does not mean that I am opposed to socialism."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1943, Russell expressed support for <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>: "I have come gradually to see that, in a dangerous and largely hostile world, it is essential to Jews to have some country which is theirs, some region where they are not suspected aliens, some state which embodies what is distinctive in their culture".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a speech in 1948, Russell said that if the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>'s aggression continued, it would be morally worse to go to war after the USSR possessed an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">atomic bomb</a> than before it possessed one, because if the USSR had no bomb the West's victory would come more swiftly and with fewer casualties than if there were atomic bombs on both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, only the United States possessed an atomic bomb, and the USSR was pursuing an aggressive policy towards the countries in Eastern Europe which were being absorbed into the Soviet Union's <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a>. Many understood Russell's comments to mean that Russell approved of a <a href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_nuclear_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-emptive nuclear strike">first strike</a> in a war with the USSR, including <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Lawson" title="Nigel Lawson">Nigel Lawson</a>, who was present when Russell spoke of such matters. Others, including <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Griffin_(philosopher)" title="Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)">Griffin</a>, who obtained a transcript of the speech, have argued that he was explaining the usefulness of America's atomic arsenal in deterring the USSR from continuing its domination of Eastern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-letters_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-letters-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just after the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombs exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, Russell wrote letters, and published articles in newspapers from 1945 to 1948, stating clearly that it was morally justified and better to go to war against the USSR using atomic bombs while the United States possessed them and before the USSR did.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1949, one week after the USSR tested its first A-bomb, but before this became known, Russell wrote that the USSR would be unable to develop nuclear weapons because following Stalin's purges only science based on Marxist principles would be practised in the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After it became known that the USSR had carried out <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union">its nuclear bomb tests</a>, Russell declared his position advocating the total abolition of atomic weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1948, Russell was invited by the BBC to deliver the inaugural <a href="/wiki/Reith_Lectures" title="Reith Lectures">Reith Lectures</a><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—what was to become an annual series of lectures, still broadcast by the BBC. His series of six broadcasts, titled <i>Authority and the Individual</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explored themes such as the role of individual initiative in the development of a community and the role of state control in a progressive society. Russell continued to write about philosophy. He wrote a foreword to <i>Words and Things</i> by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a>, which was highly critical of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">later thought</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a> refused to have the book reviewed in the philosophical journal <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i>, which caused Russell to respond via <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i>. The result was a month-long correspondence in <i>The Times</i> between the supporters and detractors of ordinary language philosophy, which was ended when the paper published an editorial critical of both sides but agreeing with the opponents of ordinary language philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the King's <a href="/wiki/Birthday_Honours" title="Birthday Honours">Birthday Honours</a> of 9 June 1949, Russell was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_(Commonwealth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of Merit (Commonwealth)">Order of Merit</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the following year he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel_prize-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he was given the Order of Merit, <a href="/wiki/George_VI" title="George VI">George VI</a> was affable but embarrassed at decorating a former jailbird, saying, "You have sometimes behaved in a manner that would not do if generally adopted".<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell merely smiled, but afterwards claimed that the reply "That's right, just like your <a href="/wiki/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward VIII of the United Kingdom">brother</a>" immediately came to mind. </p><p>In 1950, Russell attended the inaugural conference for the <a href="/wiki/Congress_for_Cultural_Freedom" title="Congress for Cultural Freedom">Congress for Cultural Freedom</a>, a <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>-funded anti-communist organisation committed to the deployment of culture as a weapon during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell was one of the known patrons of the Congress until he resigned in 1956.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1952, Russell was divorced by Spence, with whom he had been very unhappy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Conrad, Russell's son by Spence, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and 1968 (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, <a href="/wiki/Edith_Finch_Russell" title="Edith Finch Russell">Edith Finch</a>, soon after the divorce, on 15 December 1952. They had known each other since 1925, and Edith had taught English at Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, sharing a house for 20 years with Russell's old friend <a href="/wiki/Lucy_Donnelly" title="Lucy Donnelly">Lucy Donnelly</a>. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their marriage was a happy, close, and loving one. Russell's eldest son John suffered from <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>, which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and his former wife Dora.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1962 Russell played a public role in the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis#Crisis_deepens" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a>: in an exchange of telegrams with Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, Khrushchev assured him that the Soviet government would not be reckless.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell sent this telegram to <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">President Kennedy</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>YOUR ACTION DESPERATE. THREAT TO HUMAN SURVIVAL. NO CONCEIVABLE JUSTIFICATION. CIVILIZED MAN CONDEMNS IT. WE WILL NOT HAVE MASS MURDER. ULTIMATUM MEANS WAR... END THIS MADNESS.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to historian Peter Knight, after JFK's <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_assassination" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. Kennedy assassination">assassination</a>, Russell, "prompted by the emerging work of the lawyer <a href="/wiki/Mark_Lane_(author)" title="Mark Lane (author)">Mark Lane</a> in the US ... rallied support from other noteworthy and left-leaning compatriots to form a Who Killed Kennedy Committee in June 1964, members of which included <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foot" title="Michael Foot">Michael Foot</a> MP, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Benn" title="Caroline Benn">Caroline Benn</a>, the publisher <a href="/wiki/Victor_Gollancz" title="Victor Gollancz">Victor Gollancz</a>, the writers <a href="/wiki/John_Arden" title="John Arden">John Arden</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._B._Priestley" title="J. B. Priestley">J. B. Priestley</a>, and the Oxford history professor <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper" title="Hugh Trevor-Roper">Hugh Trevor-Roper</a>." Russell published a highly critical article in <i><a href="/wiki/M._S._Arnoni" title="M. S. Arnoni">The Minority of One</a></i> weeks before the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Commission" title="Warren Commission">Warren Commission</a> Report was published, setting forth <i>16 Questions on the Assassination.</i><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell equated the <a href="/wiki/Lee_Harvey_Oswald" title="Lee Harvey Oswald">Oswald</a> case with the <a href="/wiki/Dreyfus_affair" title="Dreyfus affair">Dreyfus affair</a> of late 19th-century France, in which the state convicted an innocent man. Russell also criticised the American press for failing to heed any voices critical of the official version.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_causes">Political causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Political causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Bertrand_Russell" title="Political views of Bertrand Russell">Political views of Bertrand Russell</a></div> <p>Bertrand Russell was opposed to war from a young age; his opposition to World War I was used as grounds for his dismissal from Trinity College at Cambridge. This incident fused two of his controversial causes, as he had failed to be granted fellow status which would have protected him from firing, because he was not willing to either pretend to be a devout Christian, or at least avoid admitting he was agnostic. </p><p>He later described the resolution of these issues as essential to freedom of thought and expression, citing the incident in <a href="/wiki/Free_Thought_and_Official_Propaganda" title="Free Thought and Official Propaganda">Free Thought and Official Propaganda</a>, where he explained that the expression of any idea, even the most obviously "bad", must be protected not only from direct State intervention but also economic leveraging and other means of being silenced: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The opinions which are still persecuted strike the majority as so monstrous and immoral that the general principle of toleration cannot be held to apply to them. But this is exactly the same view as that which made possible the tortures of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-free_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-free-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Russell spent the 1950s and 1960s engaged in political causes primarily related to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">nuclear disarmament</a> and opposing the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. The 1955 <a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a> was a document calling for nuclear disarmament and was signed by eleven of the most prominent nuclear physicists and intellectuals of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Manifesto_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manifesto-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1960 "<a href="/wiki/Committee_of_100_(United_Kingdom)" title="Committee of 100 (United Kingdom)">The Committee of 100</a>" was formed with a declaration by Russell and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Scott_(priest)" title="Michael Scott (priest)">Michael Scott</a>, entitled "Act or Perish", which called for a "movement of nonviolent resistance to nuclear war and weapons of mass destruction".<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1961, at the age of 89, Russell was jailed for seven days in <a href="/wiki/HM_Prison_Brixton" title="HM Prison Brixton">Brixton Prison</a> for a "breach of the peace" after taking part in <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_100_(United_Kingdom)#1961" title="Committee of 100 (United Kingdom)">an anti-nuclear demonstration</a> in London. The magistrate offered to exempt him from jail if he pledged himself to "good behaviour", to which Russell replied: "No, I won't."<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1966 to 1967, Russell worked with <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and many other intellectual figures to form the <a href="/wiki/Russell_Tribunal" title="Russell Tribunal">Russell Vietnam War Crimes Tribunal</a> to investigate the conduct of the United States in Vietnam. He wrote many letters to world leaders during this period. </p><p> Early in his life, Russell supported <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenicist</a> policies. In 1894, he proposed that the state issue certificates of health to prospective parents and withhold public benefits from those considered unfit.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, he wrote that people deemed "mentally defective" and "feebleminded" should be sexually sterilised because they "are apt to have enormous numbers of illegitimate children, all, as a rule, wholly useless to the community."<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell was also an advocate of <a href="/wiki/Population_control" title="Population control">population control</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The nations which at present increase rapidly should be encouraged to adopt the methods by which, in the West, the increase of population has been checked. Educational propaganda, with government help, could achieve this result in a generation. There are, however, two powerful forces opposed to such a policy: one is religion, the other is nationalism. I think it is the duty of all to proclaim that opposition to the spread of birth is appalling depth of misery and degradation, and that within another fifty years or so. I do not pretend that <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a> is the only way in which population can be kept from increasing. There are others, which, one must suppose, opponents of birth control would prefer. War, as I remarked a moment ago, has hitherto been disappointing in this respect, but perhaps bacteriological war may prove more effective. If a <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> could be spread throughout the whole world once in every generation survivors could procreate freely without making the world too full.</p></blockquote> <p>On 20 November 1948, in a public speech at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_School" title="Westminster School">Westminster School</a>, addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers by suggesting that a preemptive nuclear strike on the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> was justified. Russell argued that war between the United States and the Soviet Union seemed inevitable, so it would be a humanitarian gesture to get it over with quickly and have the United States in the dominant position. Currently, Russell argued, humanity could survive such a war, whereas a full <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">nuclear war</a> after both sides had manufactured large stockpiles of more destructive weapons was likely to result in the <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human race</a>. Russell later relented from this stance, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers. </p><p>In 1956, before and during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>, Russell expressed his opposition to European imperialism in the Middle East. He viewed the crisis as another reminder of the pressing need for an effective mechanism for international governance, and to restrict national sovereignty in places such as the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> area "where general interest is involved". At the same time the Suez Crisis was taking place, the world was also captivated by the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution</a> and the subsequent crushing of the revolt by intervening Soviet forces. Russell attracted criticism for speaking out fervently against the Suez war while ignoring Soviet repression in Hungary, to which he responded that he did not criticise the Soviets "because there was no need. Most of the so-called Western World was fulminating". Although he later feigned a lack of concern, at the time he was disgusted by the brutal Soviet response, and on 16 November 1956, he expressed approval for a declaration of support for Hungarian scholars which <a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a> had cabled to the Soviet embassy in London twelve days previously, shortly after Soviet troops had entered <a href="/wiki/Budapest" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1957 Russell wrote an article addressing US President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> and Soviet Premier <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, urging a summit to consider "the conditions of co-existence". Khrushchev responded that peace could be served by such a meeting. In January 1958 Russell elaborated his views in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Observer" title="The Observer">The Observer</a></i>, proposing a cessation of all nuclear weapons production, with the UK taking the first step by unilaterally suspending its own nuclear weapons program if necessary, and with Germany "freed from all alien armed forces and pledged to neutrality in any conflict between East and West". US Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> replied for Eisenhower. The exchange of letters was published as <i>The Vital Letters of Russell, Khrushchev, and Dulles</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell was asked by <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a></i>, a liberal American magazine, to elaborate his views on world peace. He urged that all nuclear weapons testing and flights by planes armed with nuclear weapons be halted immediately, and negotiations be opened for the destruction of all <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bombs">hydrogen bombs</a>, with the number of conventional nuclear devices limited to ensure a balance of power. He proposed that Germany be reunified and accept the <a href="/wiki/Oder-Neisse_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Oder-Neisse line">Oder-Neisse line</a> as its border, and that a neutral zone be established in Central Europe, consisting at the minimum of Germany, Poland, Hungary, and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, with each of these countries being free of foreign troops and influence, and prohibited from forming alliances with countries outside the zone. In the Middle East, Russell suggested that the West avoid opposing <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, and proposed the creation of a United Nations peacekeeping force to guard Israel's frontiers to ensure that Israel was prevented from committing aggression and protected from it. He also suggested Western recognition of the People's Republic of China, and that it be admitted to the UN with a permanent seat on the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ref1_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ref1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He was in contact with <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Rogosin" title="Lionel Rogosin">Lionel Rogosin</a> while the latter was filming his anti-war film <i><a href="/wiki/Good_Times,_Wonderful_Times" title="Good Times, Wonderful Times">Good Times, Wonderful Times</a></i> in the 1960s. He became a hero to many of the youthful members of the <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>. In early 1963, Russell became increasingly vocal in his disapproval of the Vietnam War, and felt that the US government's policies there were near-<a href="/wiki/Genocidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocidal">genocidal</a>. In 1963, he became the inaugural recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Prize" title="Jerusalem Prize">Jerusalem Prize</a>, an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.<sup id="cite_ref-jerusalem_prize_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jerusalem_prize-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1964, he was one of eleven world figures who issued an appeal to Israel and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab countries</a> to accept an <a href="/wiki/Arms_embargo" title="Arms embargo">arms embargo</a> and international supervision of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear plant">nuclear plants</a> and rocket weaponry.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1965, he tore up his <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> card because he suspected <a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Harold Wilson</a>'s Labour government was going to send troops to support the United States in Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_years,_death_and_legacy"><span id="Final_years.2C_death_and_legacy"></span>Final years, death and legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Final years, death and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plas_Penrhyn_(geograph_6365767).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plas_Penrhyn_%28geograph_6365767%29.jpg/220px-Plas_Penrhyn_%28geograph_6365767%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plas_Penrhyn_%28geograph_6365767%29.jpg/330px-Plas_Penrhyn_%28geograph_6365767%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plas_Penrhyn_%28geograph_6365767%29.jpg/440px-Plas_Penrhyn_%28geograph_6365767%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Plas Penrhyn in <a href="/wiki/Penrhyndeudraeth" title="Penrhyndeudraeth">Penrhyndeudraeth</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_1972_stamp_of_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bertrand_Russell_1972_stamp_of_India.jpg/220px-Bertrand_Russell_1972_stamp_of_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bertrand_Russell_1972_stamp_of_India.jpg/330px-Bertrand_Russell_1972_stamp_of_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Bertrand_Russell_1972_stamp_of_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption>Russell on a 1972 stamp of India</figcaption></figure> <p>In June 1955, Russell had leased Plas Penrhyn in <a href="/wiki/Penrhyndeudraeth" title="Penrhyndeudraeth">Penrhyndeudraeth</a>, Merionethshire, Wales and on 5 July of the following year it became his and Edith's principal residence.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg/220px-Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg/330px-Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg/440px-Bust_Of_Bertrand_Russell-Red_Lion_Square-London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Russell in <a href="/wiki/Red_Lion_Square" title="Red Lion Square">Red Lion Square</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Russell published his three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968, and 1969. He made a <a href="/wiki/Cameo_appearance" title="Cameo appearance">cameo appearance</a> playing himself in the anti-war <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> film <a href="/wiki/Aman_(film)" title="Aman (film)"><i>Aman</i></a>, by <a href="/wiki/Mohan_Kumar_(director)" title="Mohan Kumar (director)">Mohan Kumar</a>, which was released in India in 1967. This was Russell's only appearance in a feature film.<sup id="cite_ref-Bertrand_Russell_in_Bollywood_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertrand_Russell_in_Bollywood-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 23 November 1969, he wrote to <i>The Times</i> newspaper saying that the preparation for show trials in Czechoslovakia was "highly alarming". The same month, he appealed to Secretary General <a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a> of the United Nations to support an international war crimes commission to investigate alleged torture and genocide by the United States in <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a> during the Vietnam War. The following month, he protested to <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin" title="Alexei Kosygin">Alexei Kosygin</a> over the expulsion of <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union_of_Writers" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Union of Writers">Soviet Union of Writers</a>. </p><p>On 31 January 1970, Russell issued a statement condemning "Israel's aggression in the Middle East", and in particular, Israeli bombing raids being carried out deep in Egyptian territory as part of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a>, which he compared to German bombing raids in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a> and the US bombing of Vietnam. He called for an Israeli withdrawal to the pre-<a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> borders, stating "The aggression committed by Israel must be condemned, not only because no state has the right to annexe foreign territory, but because every expansion is an experiment to discover how much more aggression the world will tolerate."<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was Russell's final political statement or act. It was read out at the International Conference of Parliamentarians in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> on 3 February 1970, the day after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-Last_Message_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Last_Message-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell died of <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, just after 8 pm on 2 February 1970 at his home in Penrhyndeudraeth, aged 97.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His body was cremated in <a href="/wiki/Colwyn_Bay" title="Colwyn Bay">Colwyn Bay</a> on 5 February 1970 with five people present.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accordance with his will, there was no religious ceremony but one minute's silence; his ashes were later scattered over the Welsh mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he was born in <a href="/wiki/Monmouthshire_(historic)" title="Monmouthshire (historic)">Monmouthshire</a>, and died in <a href="/wiki/Penrhyndeudraeth" title="Penrhyndeudraeth">Penrhyndeudraeth</a> in Wales, Russell identified as English.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later in 1970, on 23 October, his will was published showing he had left an estate valued at £69,423 (equivalent to £1.4 million in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1980, a memorial to Russell was commissioned by a committee including the philosopher <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>. It consists of a bust of Russell in <a href="/wiki/Red_Lion_Square" title="Red Lion Square">Red Lion Square</a> in London sculpted by Marcelle Quinton.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lady Katharine Jane Tait, Russell's daughter, founded the Bertrand Russell Society in 1974 to preserve and understand his work. It publishes the <i>Bertrand Russell Society Bulletin</i>, holds meetings and awards prizes for scholarship, including the Bertrand Russell Society Award.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She also authored several essays about her father; as well as a book, <i>My Father, Bertrand Russell</i>, which was published in 1975.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All members receive <i>Russell: The Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies</i>. </p><p>For the <a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesquicentennial">sesquicentennial</a> of his birth, in May 2022, <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="McMaster University's">McMaster University's</a> Bertrand Russell Archive, the university's largest and most heavily used research collection, organised both a physical and virtual exhibition on Russell's anti-nuclear stance in the post-war era, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://expo.mcmaster.ca/s/scientists-for-peace/page/scientists-for-peace-introduction"><i>Scientists</i> <i>for Peace: the Russell-Einstein Manifesto and the Pugwash Conference</i></a>, which included the earliest version of the <a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell_Peace_Foundation" title="Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation">Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation</a> held a commemoration at <a href="/wiki/Conway_Hall" title="Conway Hall">Conway Hall</a> in Red Lion Square, London, on 18 May, the anniversary of his birth.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For its part, on the same day, <i><a href="/wiki/La_Estrella_de_Panam%C3%A1" title="La Estrella de Panamá">La Estrella de Panamá</a></i> published a biographical sketch by Francisco Díaz Montilla, who commented that "[if he] had to characterize Russell's work in one sentence [he] would say: criticism and rejection of dogmatism."<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bangladesh's first leader, <a href="/wiki/Mujibur_Rahman" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujibur Rahman">Mujibur Rahman</a>, named his youngest son <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Russel" title="Sheikh Russel">Sheikh Russel</a> in honour of Bertrand Russell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marriages_and_issue">Marriages and issue</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Marriages and issue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1889, Russell at 17 years of age, met the family of <a href="/wiki/Alys_Pearsall_Smith" title="Alys Pearsall Smith">Alys Pearsall Smith</a>, an American <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quaker</a> five years older, who was a graduate of <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College" title="Bryn Mawr College">Bryn Mawr College</a> near <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell1967b_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell1967b-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Monk1996_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk1996-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 37">: 37 </span></sup> He became a friend of the Pearsall Smith family. They knew him as "Lord John's grandson" and enjoyed showing him off.<sup id="cite_ref-Monk1996_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monk1996-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 48">: 48 </span></sup> </p><p>He fell in love with Alys, and contrary to his grandmother's wishes, married her on 13 December 1894. Their marriage began to fall apart in 1901 when it occurred to Russell, while cycling, that he no longer loved her.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She asked him if he loved her and he cruelly replied that he did not. Russell also disliked Alys's mother, finding her controlling and cruel. A lengthy period of separation began in 1911 with Russell's affair with <a href="/wiki/Lady_Ottoline_Morrell" title="Lady Ottoline Morrell">Lady Ottoline Morrell</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-the_Journal_of_the_Bertrand_Russell_Archives_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the_Journal_of_the_Bertrand_Russell_Archives-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he and Alys finally divorced in 1921 to enable Russell to remarry.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell2002_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell2002-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his years of separation from Alys, Russell had affairs (often simultaneous) with a number of women, including Morrell and the actress <a href="/wiki/Lady_Constance_Malleson" title="Lady Constance Malleson">Lady Constance Malleson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-private_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-private-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have suggested that at this point he had an affair with <a href="/wiki/Vivienne_Haigh-Wood" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivienne Haigh-Wood">Vivienne Haigh-Wood</a>, the English governess and writer, and first wife of <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1921, his second marriage was to Dora Winifred Black MBE (died 1986), daughter of Sir Frederick Black. Dora was six months pregnant when the couple returned to England. </p><p>This was dissolved in 1935, having produced two children: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Conrad_Russell,_4th_Earl_Russell" class="mw-redirect" title="John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell">John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell</a> (1921–1987)</li> <li>Lady Katharine Jane Russell (1923–2021), who married Rev. Charles Tait in 1948 and had issue</li></ul> <p>Russell's third marriage was to Patricia Helen Spence (died 2004) in 1936, with the marriage producing one child: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Sebastian_Robert_Russell,_5th_Earl_Russell" class="mw-redirect" title="Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell">Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell</a> (1937–2004). 5th Earl Russell, who became a historian and one of the leading figures in the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)" title="Liberal Democrats (UK)">Liberal Democrat</a> party.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallery_18-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Russell's third marriage ended in divorce in 1952. He married Edith Finch in the same year. Finch died in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Titles,_awards_and_honours"><span id="Titles.2C_awards_and_honours"></span>Titles, awards and honours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Titles, awards and honours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon his brother's death in 1931, Russell became the 3rd <a href="/wiki/Earl_Russell" title="Earl Russell">Earl Russell</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingston_Russell" title="Kingston Russell">Kingston Russell</a>, and the subsidiary title of Viscount Amberley of Amberley and of Ardsalla.<sup id="cite_ref-nytimes_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytimes-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He held both titles, and the accompanying seat in the House of Lords, until his death in 1970. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Honours_and_awards">Honours and awards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Honours and awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:20%;">Country </th> <th style="width:20%;">Date </th> <th style="width:60%;">Award </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span>United Kingdom</td> <td><b>1932</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/De_Morgan_Medal" title="De Morgan Medal">De Morgan Medal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span>United Kingdom</td> <td><b>1934</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_Medal" title="Sylvester Medal">Sylvester Medal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span>United Kingdom</td> <td><b>1949</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit" title="Order of Merit">Order of Merit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span>Sweden</td> <td><b>1950</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span>United Nations</td> <td><b>1957</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_Prize" title="Kalinga Prize">Kalinga Prize</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span>Israel</td> <td><b>1963</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Prize" title="Jerusalem Prize">Jerusalem Prize</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholastic">Scholastic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Scholastic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:20%;">Date </th> <th style="width:40%;">School/Association </th> <th style="width:20%;">Award/Position </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>1893</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_undergraduate_degree_classification" title="British undergraduate degree classification">First Class Honours</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1894</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/British_undergraduate_degree_classification" title="British undergraduate degree classification">First Class Honours</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1895</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td> <td>Fellowship </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1896</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics_and_Political_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="London School of Economics and Political Science">London School of Economics and Political Science</a></td> <td>Lecturer </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1899, 1901, 1910, 1915</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td> <td>Lecturer </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1908</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/The_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Royal Society">The Royal Society</a></td> <td>Fellowship </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1911</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_Society" title="Aristotelian Society">Aristotelian Society</a></td> <td>President </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1938</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></td> <td>Visiting Professor of Philosophy </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1939</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_California_at_Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California at Los Angeles">University of California at Los Angeles</a></td> <td>Professor of Philosophy </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1941-42</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barnes_Foundation" title="Barnes Foundation">Barnes Foundation</a></td> <td>Lecturer </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1944-49</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td> <td>Fellowship </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1949</b></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></td> <td>Lifetime Fellowship<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Views">Views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: black"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:blue;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png/75px-Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png/113px-Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png/150px-Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1859" /></a></span></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:blue;color:white;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">This article is part of <br />a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Bertrand Russell</span></a></span></span></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_views_of_Bertrand_Russell" title="Philosophical views of Bertrand Russell">Views on philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Bertrand_Russell" title="Political views of Bertrand Russell">Views on society</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell_Peace_Foundation" title="Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation">Peace Foundation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell_Professorship_of_Philosophy" title="Bertrand Russell Professorship of Philosophy">Professorship of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bertrand_Russell_Case" title="The Bertrand Russell Case">Appointment court case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peano%E2%80%93Russell_notation" title="Peano–Russell notation">Peano–Russell notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copleston%E2%80%93Russell_debate" title="Copleston–Russell debate">Copleston–Russell debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Tribunal" title="Russell Tribunal">Russell Tribunal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li></ul> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bertrand_Russell_sidebar" title="Template:Bertrand Russell sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bertrand_Russell_sidebar" title="Template talk:Bertrand Russell sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bertrand_Russell_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bertrand Russell sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_philosophical_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's philosophical views">Bertrand Russell's philosophical views</a></div> <p>Russell is credited with being one of the founders of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a>. He was impressed by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> (1646–1716), and wrote on major areas of philosophy except <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>. He was prolific in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_views_on_philosophy#Logic_and_philosophy_of_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's views on philosophy">logic and the philosophy of mathematics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_views_on_philosophy#Philosophy_of_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's views on philosophy">philosophy of language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_views_on_philosophy#Ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's views on philosophy">ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_views_on_philosophy#Epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's views on philosophy">epistemology</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Brand_Blanshard" title="Brand Blanshard">Brand Blanshard</a> asked Russell why he did not write on aesthetics, Russell replied that he did not know anything about it, though he hastened to add "but that is not a very good excuse, for my friends tell me it has not deterred me from writing on other subjects".<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On ethics, Russell wrote that he was a <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> in his youth, yet he later distanced himself from this view.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the advancement of science and protection of liberty of expression, Russell advocated <a href="/wiki/The_Will_to_Doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="The Will to Doubt">The Will to Doubt</a>, the recognition that all human knowledge is at most a best guess, that one should always remember: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>None of our beliefs are quite true; all have at least a penumbra of vagueness and error. The methods of increasing the degree of truth in our beliefs are well known; they consist in hearing all sides, trying to ascertain all the relevant facts, controlling our own bias by discussion with people who have the opposite bias, and cultivating a readiness to discard any hypothesis which has proved inadequate. These methods are practised in science, and have built up the body of scientific knowledge. Every man of science whose outlook is truly scientific is ready to admit that what passes for scientific knowledge at the moment is sure to require correction with the progress of discovery; nevertheless, it is near enough to the truth to serve for most practical purposes, though not for all. In science, where alone something approximating to genuine knowledge is to be found, men's attitude is tentative and full of doubt.<sup id="cite_ref-free_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-free-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Russell described himself in 1947 as an agnostic or an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheist</a>: he found it difficult to determine which term to adopt, saying:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Therefore, in regard to the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Olympic gods</a>, speaking to a purely philosophical audience, I would say that I am an Agnostic. But speaking popularly, I think that all of us would say in regard to those gods that we were Atheists. In regard to the <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christian God</a>, I should, I think, take exactly the same line.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> For most of his adult life, Russell maintained religion to be little more than <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a> and, despite any positive effects, largely harmful to people. He believed that religion and the religious outlook serve to impede knowledge and foster fear and dependency, and to be responsible for much of our world's wars, oppression, and misery. He was a member of the advisory council of the <a href="/wiki/British_Humanist_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="British Humanist Association">British Humanist Association</a><sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the president of Cardiff Humanists until his death.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_political_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's political views">Bertrand Russell's political views</a></div> <p>Political and social activism occupied much of Russell's time for most of his life. Russell remained politically active almost to the end of his life, writing to and exhorting world leaders and lending his name to various causes. He was a prominent campaigner against Western intervention into the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> in the 1960s, writing essays and books, attending demonstrations, and even organising the <a href="/wiki/Russell_Tribunal" title="Russell Tribunal">Russell Tribunal</a> in 1966 alongside other prominent philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, which fed into his 1967 book <i>War Crimes in Vietnam.</i><sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell argued for a "scientific society", where war would be abolished, population growth would be limited, and prosperity would be shared.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He suggested the establishment of a "single supreme world government" able to enforce peace,<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> claiming that "the only thing that will redeem mankind is co-operation".<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a <a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">world constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, for the first time in human history, a <a href="/wiki/World_Constituent_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constituent Assembly">World Constituent Assembly</a> convened to draft and adopt the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell also expressed support for <a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">guild socialism</a>, and commented positively on several socialist thinkers and activists.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Bricmont" title="Jean Bricmont">Jean Bricmont</a> and Normand Baillargeon, "Russell was both a <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialist</a>, a combination that was perfectly comprehensible in his time, but which has become almost unthinkable today. He was a liberal in that he opposed concentrations of power in all its manifestations, military, governmental, or religious, as well as the superstitious or nationalist ideas that usually serve as its justification. But he was also a socialist, even as an extension of his liberalism, because he was equally opposed to the concentrations of power stemming from the <a href="/wiki/Private_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Private ownership">private ownership</a> of the major <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a>, which therefore needed to be put under social control (which does not mean state control)."<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell was an active supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Homosexual_Law_Reform_Society" title="Homosexual Law Reform Society">Homosexual Law Reform Society</a>, being one of the signatories of <a href="/wiki/A._E._Dyson" title="A. E. Dyson">A. E. Dyson</a>'s 1958 letter to <i>The Times</i> calling for a change in the law regarding male homosexual practices, which were partly legalised in 1967, when Russell was still alive.<sup id="cite_ref-GALHA_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GALHA-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He expressed sympathy and support for the <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinian</a> people and was critical of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>'s actions. He wrote in 1960 that, "I think it was a mistake to establish a Jewish State in Palestine, but it would be a still greater mistake to try to get rid of it now that it exists."<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his final written document, read aloud in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> three days after his death on 31 January 1970, he condemned Israel as an aggressive <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> power, which "wishes to consolidate with the least difficulty what it has already taken by violence. Every new conquest becomes the new basis of the proposed negotiation from strength, which ignores the injustice of the previous aggression." In regards to the Palestinian people and <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_refugees" title="Palestinian refugees">refugees</a>, he wrote that, "No people anywhere in the world would accept being expelled en masse from their own country; how can anyone require the people of Palestine to accept a punishment which nobody else would tolerate? A permanent just settlement of the refugees in their homeland is an essential ingredient of any genuine settlement in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russell advocated for a <a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">universal basic income</a>. In his 1918 book <i>Roads to Freedom</i>, Russell wrote that "<a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> has the advantage as regards liberty, Socialism as regards the inducement to work.  Can we not find a method of combining these two advantages? It seems to me that we can. [...] Stated in more familiar terms, the plan we are advocating amounts essentially to this: that a certain small income, sufficient for necessaries, should be secured to all, whether they work or not, and that a larger income – as much larger as might be warranted by the total amount of commodities produced – should be given to those who are willing to engage in some work which the community recognizes as useful...When education is finished, no one should be compelled to work, and those who choose not to work should receive a bare livelihood and be left completely free."<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In "Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday" ("Postscript" in his <i>Autobiography</i>), Russell wrote: "I have lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social. Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times. Social: to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them. These things I believe, and the world, for all its horrors, has left me unshaken".<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_opinion_and_expression">Freedom of opinion and expression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Freedom of opinion and expression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russell supported freedom of opinion and was an opponent of both censorship and indoctrination. In 1928, he wrote: "The fundamental argument for freedom of opinion is the doubtfulness of all our belief... when the State intervenes to ensure the indoctrination of some doctrine, it does so because there is no conclusive evidence in favour of that doctrine ... It is clear that thought is not free if the profession of certain opinions make it impossible to make a living".<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1957, he wrote: "'Free thought' means thinking freely ... to be worthy of the name freethinker he must be free of two things: the force of tradition and the tyranny of his own passions."<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_2">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russell has presented ideas on the possible means of control of education in case of scientific dictatorship governments, of the kind of this excerpt taken from Chapter II "General Effects of Scientific Technique" of "The Impact of Science on society":<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This subject will make great strides when it is taken up by scientists under a scientific dictatorship. Anaxagoras maintained that snow is black, but no one believed him. The social psychologists of the future will have a number of classes of school children on whom they will try different methods of producing an unshakable conviction that snow is black. Various results will soon be arrived at. First, that the influence of home is obstructive. Second, that not much can be done unless indoctrination begins before the age of ten. Third, that verses set to music and repeatedly intoned are very effective. Fourth, that the opinion that snow is white must be held to show a morbid taste for eccentricity. But I anticipate. It is for future scientists to make these maxims precise and discover exactly how much it costs per head to make children believe that snow is black, and how much less it would cost to make them believe it is dark grey. Although this science will be diligently studied, it will be rigidly confined to the governing class. The populace will not be allowed to know how its convictions were generated. When the technique has been perfected, every government that has been in charge of education for a generation will be able to control its subjects securely without the need of armies or policemen. As yet there is only one country which has succeeded in creating this politician's paradise. The social effects of scientific technique have already been many and important, and are likely to be even more noteworthy in the future. Some of these effects depend upon the political and economic character of the country concerned; others are inevitable, whatever this character may be.</p></blockquote><p> He pushed his visionary scenarios even further into details, in Chapter III "Scientific Technique in an Oligarchy" of the same book,<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stating as an example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> In future such failures are not likely to occur where there is dictatorship. Diet, injections, and injunctions will combine, from a very early age, to produce the sort of character and the sort of beliefs that the authorities consider desirable, and any serious criticism of the powers that be will become psychologically impossible. Even if all are miserable, all will believe themselves happy, because the government will tell them that they are so.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Selected works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below are selected Russell's works in English, sorted by year of first publication: </p> <ul><li>1896. <i>German Social Democracy</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longmans, Green & Co.</a><sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1897. <i>An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>1900. <i>A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>1903. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cambridge University Press</li> <li>1903. <i>A Free man's worship, and other essays</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1905. <i><a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i>, Vol. 14. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0026-4423">0026-4423</a>. Basil Blackwell</li> <li>1910. <i>Philosophical Essays</i>. London: Longmans, Green</li> <li>1910–1913. <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>). 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li>1912. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Problems_of_Philosophy" title="The Problems of Philosophy">The Problems of Philosophy</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: Williams and Norgate</li> <li>1914. <i>Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1916. <i>Principles of Social Reconstruction</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London, George Allen and Unwin</li> <li>1916. <i><a href="/wiki/Why_Men_Fight_(book)" title="Why Men Fight (book)">Why Men Fight</a></i>. New York: The Century Co</li> <li>1916. <i>The Policy of the Entente, 1904–1914: a reply to Professor Gilbert Murray</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchester: The National Labour Press</li> <li>1916. <i>Justice in War-time</i>. Chicago: Open Court</li> <li>1917. <i>Political Ideals</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New York: The Century Co.</li> <li>1918. <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mysticism_and_Logic_and_Other_Essays" class="extiw" title="s:Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays">Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays</a></i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1918. <i>Proposed Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1919. <i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Mathematical_Philosophy" title="Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy">Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09604-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09604-9">0-415-09604-9</a> for Routledge paperback)<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1920. <i>The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1921. <i>The Analysis of Mind</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1922. <i>The Problem of China</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1922. <i><a href="/wiki/Free_Thought_and_Official_Propaganda" title="Free Thought and Official Propaganda">Free Thought and Official Propaganda</a></i>, delivered at South Place Institute<sup id="cite_ref-free_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-free-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1923. <i>The Prospects of Industrial Civilization</i>, in collaboration with Dora Russell. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1923. <i>The ABC of Atoms</i>, London: Kegan Paul. Trench, Trubner</li> <li>1924. <i>Icarus; or, The Future of Science</i>. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner</li> <li>1925. <i>The ABC of Relativity</i>. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner (revised and edited by <a href="/wiki/Felix_Pirani" title="Felix Pirani">Felix Pirani</a>)</li> <li>1925. <i>What I Believe</i>. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner</li> <li>1926. <i>On Education, Especially in Early Childhood</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1927. <i>The Analysis of Matter</i>. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner</li> <li>1927. <i>An Outline of Philosophy</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1927. <i><a href="/wiki/Why_I_Am_Not_a_Christian" title="Why I Am Not a Christian">Why I Am Not a Christian</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: Watts</li> <li>1927. <i>Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell</i>. New York: Modern Library</li> <li>1928. <i>Sceptical Essays</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1929. <i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_and_Morals" title="Marriage and Morals">Marriage and Morals</a></i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1930. <i>The Conquest of Happiness</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1931. <i>The Scientific Outlook</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1932. <i>Education and the Social Order</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1934. <i>Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1935. <i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Idleness_and_Other_Essays" title="In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays">In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1935. <i>Religion and Science</i>. London: Thornton Butterworth</li> <li>1936. <i>Which Way to Peace?</i>. London: Jonathan Cape</li> <li>1937. <i>The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley</i>, with Patricia Russell, 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press; reprinted (1966) as <i>The Amberley Papers. Bertrand Russell's Family Background</i>, 2 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1938. <i><a href="/wiki/Power:_A_New_Social_Analysis" title="Power: A New Social Analysis">Power: A New Social Analysis</a></i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1940. <i>An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth</i>. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1945. <i>The Bomb and Civilisation</i>. Published in the <i>Glasgow Forward</i> on 18 August 1945</li> <li>1946. <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a> and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day</i><sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New York: Simon and Schuster</li> <li>1948. <i>Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1949. <i>Authority and the Individual</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1950. <i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Unpopular_Essays"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Unpopular Essays</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1951. <i>New Hopes for a Changing World</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1952. <i>The Impact of Science on Society</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1953. <i>Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1954. <i>Human Society in Ethics and Politics</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1954. <i>Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1956. <i>Portraits from Memory and Other Essays</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1956. <i>Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950</i>, edited by Robert C. Marsh. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1957. <i>Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects</i>, edited by Paul Edwards. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1958. <i>Understanding History and Other Essays</i>. New York: Philosophical Library</li> <li>1958. <i>The Will to Doubt</i>. New York: Philosophical Library</li> <li>1959. <i>Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1959. <i><a href="/wiki/My_Philosophical_Development" title="My Philosophical Development">My Philosophical Development</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1959. <i>Wisdom of the West: A Historical Survey of Western Philosophy in Its Social and Political Setting</i>, edited by Paul Foulkes. London: Macdonald</li> <li>1960. <i>Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind</i>, Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company</li> <li>1961. <i>The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell</i>, edited by R. E. Egner and L. E. Denonn. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1961. <i>Fact and Fiction</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1961. <i>Has Man a Future?</i> London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1963. <i>Essays in Skepticism</i>. New York: Philosophical Library</li> <li>1963. <i>Unarmed Victory</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1965. <i>Legitimacy Versus Industrialism, 1814–1848</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin (first published as Parts I and II of <i>Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914</i>, 1934)</li> <li>1965. <i>On the Philosophy of Science</i>, edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr. Indianapolis: The Bobbs–Merrill Company</li> <li>1966. <i>The ABC of Relativity</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1967. <i>Russell's Peace Appeals</i>, edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka. Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books</li> <li>1967. <i>War Crimes in Vietnam</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin</li> <li>1951–1969. <i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-archive.org_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive.org-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 3 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin. Vol. 2, 1956<sup id="cite_ref-archive.org_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive.org-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>1969. <i>Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950–1968</i>, edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils. London: George Allen and Unwin</li></ul> <p>Russell was the author of more than sixty books and over two thousand articles.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, he wrote many pamphlets, introductions, and letters to the editor. One pamphlet titled, <i>I Appeal unto Caesar': The Case of the Conscientious Objectors</i>, ghostwritten for Margaret Hobhouse, the mother of imprisoned peace activist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hobhouse" title="Stephen Hobhouse">Stephen Hobhouse</a>, allegedly helped secure the release from prison of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">conscientious objectors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His works can be found in anthologies and collections, including <i>The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell</i>, which <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a> began publishing in 1983. By March 2017 this collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works included 18 volumes,<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several more are in progress. A bibliography in three additional volumes catalogues his publications. The Russell Archives held by McMaster's <a href="/wiki/William_Ready_Division_of_Archives_and_Research_Collections" title="William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections">William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections</a> possess over 40,000 of his letters.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Moral_Sciences_Club" title="Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club">Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Jesus" title="Criticism of Jesus">Criticism of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad#Impressions" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a> (Russell's impression)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">List of peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logicomix" title="Logicomix">Logicomix</a></i>, a graphic novel about the foundational quest in mathematics, the narrator of the story being Bertrand Russell and with his life as the main storyline</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Research_Department" title="Information Research Department">Information Research Department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">Type system</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-fn1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fn1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fn1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">At the time of Russell's birth, some considered Monmouthshire to be part of Wales and some part of England. See <a href="/wiki/Monmouthshire_(historic)#Ambiguity_over_status" title="Monmouthshire (historic)">Monmouthshire (historic)#Ambiguity over status</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell and G. E. Moore broke themselves free from <a href="/wiki/British_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="British Idealism">British Idealism</a> which, for nearly 90 years, had been dominating <a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British philosophy</a>. Russell would later recall that "with a sense of escaping from prison, we allowed ourselves to think that grass is green, that the sun and stars would exist if no one was aware of them<span class="nowrap"> </span>..."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Citation_style plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-citation_style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>has an unclear <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Citation_style" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation style</a></b>. The reason given is: <b>Citation styles are inconsistent, a mix of CS1, plain text, and minimally-formatted links, sometimes with webarchive templates.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes" title="Help:Footnotes">footnoting</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/james-ward/">James Ward</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200501112521/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/james-ward/">Archived</a> 1 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wettstein, Howard, "<a href="/wiki/Frege%E2%80%93Russell_view" class="mw-redirect" title="Frege–Russell view">Frege-Russell Semantics?</a>", <i>Dialectica</i> <b>44</b>(1–2), 1990, pp. 113–135, esp. 115: "Russell maintains that when one is acquainted with something, say, a present sense datum or oneself, one can refer to it without the mediation of anything like a Fregean sense. One can refer to it, as we might say, <i>directly</i>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structural-realism/#Rel">"Structural Realism"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080703161848/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structural-realism/#Rel">Archived</a> 3 July 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: entry by James Ladyman in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russellian-monism">"Russellian Monism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142036/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russellian-monism/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russellian+Monism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frussellian-monism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowe2007" class="citation book cs1">Dowe, Phil (10 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-process">"Causal Processes"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910141924/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/causation-process/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Causal+Processes&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2007-09-10&rft.aulast=Dowe&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcausation-process&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrvine2015" class="citation book cs1">Irvine, Andrew David (1 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/russell">"Bertrand Russell"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142027/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/russell/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2015-01-01&rft.aulast=Irvine&rft.aufirst=Andrew+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2015%2Fentries%2Frussell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frs-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreisel1973" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Kreisel" title="Georg Kreisel">Kreisel, G.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0021">"Bertrand Arthur William Russell, Earl Russell. 1872–1970"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>19</b>: <span class="nowrap">583–</span>620. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0021">10.1098/rsbm.1973.0021</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-4606">0080-4606</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/769574">769574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Arthur+William+Russell%2C+Earl+Russell.+1872%E2%80%931970&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E583-%3C%2Fspan%3E620&rft.date=1973&rft.issn=0080-4606&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F769574%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.1973.0021&rft.aulast=Kreisel&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.1973.0021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stanford_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">"Bertrand Russell"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070609090837/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">Archived</a> 9 June 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 1 May 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell B, (1944) "My Mental Development", in, Paul Arthur Schilpp: <i>The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell</i>, New York: Tudor, 1951, pp. 3–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudlow" class="citation web cs1">Ludlow, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/descriptions/">"Descriptions, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181017161154/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/descriptions/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Descriptions%2C+The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+%28Fall+2008+Edition%29%2C+Edward+N.+Zalta+%28ed.%29&rft.aulast=Ludlow&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2008%2Fentries%2Fdescriptions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRempel1979" class="citation journal cs1">Rempel, Richard (1979). "From Imperialism to Free Trade: Couturat, Halevy and Russell's First Crusade". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>40</b> (3). University of Pennsylvania Press: <span class="nowrap">423–</span>443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709246">10.2307/2709246</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709246">2709246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=From+Imperialism+to+Free+Trade%3A+Couturat%2C+Halevy+and+Russell%27s+First+Crusade&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E423-%3C%2Fspan%3E443&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2709246&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709246%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rempel&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1988" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1988) [1917]. <i>Political Ideals</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-10907-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-10907-8"><bdi>0-415-10907-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Ideals&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-415-10907-8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasta2013" class="citation book cs1">Nasta, Susheila, ed. (2013). <i>India in Britain: South Asian Networks and Connections, 1858–1950</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-39271-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-39271-7"><bdi>978-0-230-39271-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/802321049">802321049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+in+Britain%3A+South+Asian+Networks+and+Connections%2C+1858%E2%80%931950&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F802321049&rft.isbn=978-0-230-39271-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samoiloff, Louise Cripps. <i>C .L. R. James: Memories and Commentaries</i>, p. 19. Associated University Presses, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8453-4865-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8453-4865-5">0-8453-4865-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1946" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bertrand (October 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WwwAAAAAMBAJ">"Atomic Weapon and the Prevention of War"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 2/7–8, (1 October 1946)</i>. p. 20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910141925/https://books.google.com/books?id=WwwAAAAAMBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists%2C+2%2F7%E2%80%938%2C+%281+October+1946%29&rft.atitle=Atomic+Weapon+and+the+Prevention+of+War&rft.pages=20&rft.date=1946-10&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWwwAAAAAMBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gallery-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gallery_18-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110928232717/http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand">"The Bertrand Russell oGallery"</a>. <i>Russell.mcmaster.ca</i>. 6 June 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand">the original</a> on 28 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russell.mcmaster.ca&rft.atitle=The+Bertrand+Russell+oGallery&rft.date=2011-06-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frussell.mcmaster.ca%2F~bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/index.html">The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950 — Bertrand Russell</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180702151048/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/index.html">Archived</a> 2 July 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 22 March 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9to64vR8RvQ">"British Nobel Prize Winners (1950)"</a>. 13 April 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211123/9to64vR8Rv">Archived</a> from the original on 23 November 2021 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Nobel+Prize+Winners+%281950%29&rft.date=2014-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D9to64vR8RvQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHestler2001" class="citation book cs1">Hestler, Anna (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wales00hest/page/53"><i>Wales</i></a>. Marshall Cavendish. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wales00hest/page/53">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-1195-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-1195-6"><bdi>978-0-7614-1195-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-1195-6&rft.aulast=Hestler&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwales00hest%2Fpage%2F53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sidney Hook, "Lord Russell and the War Crimes Trial", <i>Bertrand Russell: critical assessments</i>, Vol. 1, edited by A. D. Irvine, New York 1999, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1970/02/03/archives/bertrand-russell-is-dead-british-philosopher-97-bertrand-russell.html">"Bertrand Russell Is Dead; British Philosopher, 97"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 3 February 1970. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142030/https://www.nytimes.com/1970/02/03/archives/bertrand-russell-is-dead-british-philosopher-97-bertrand-russell.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+Is+Dead%3B+British+Philosopher%2C+97&rft.date=1970-02-03&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1970%2F02%2F03%2Farchives%2Fbertrand-russell-is-dead-british-philosopher-97-bertrand-russell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/017035b0">"Douglas A. Spalding"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. 8 November 1877. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220518052205/https://www.nature.com/articles/017035b0">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Douglas+A.+Spalding&rft.date=1877-11-08&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2F017035b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-calicut-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-calicut_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-calicut_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul" class="citation web cs1">Paul, Ashley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060501064331/http://www.geocities.com/vu3ash/index.html">"Bertrand Russell: The Man and His Ideas"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com/vu3ash/index.html">the original</a> on 1 May 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell%3A+The+Man+and+His+Ideas&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Ashley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%2Fvu3ash%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Bertrand and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ray_Perkins,_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ray Perkins, Jr. (page does not exist)">Perkins, Ray</a> (ed.) <i>Yours faithfully, Bertrand Russell</i>. Open Court Publishing, 2001, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_R-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_R_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_R_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloy" class="citation web cs1">Bloy, Marjie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/history/pms/russell.html">"Lord John Russell (1792–1878)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120524221142/http://www.victorianweb.org/history/pms/russell.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lord+John+Russell+%281792%E2%80%931878%29&rft.aulast=Bloy&rft.aufirst=Marjie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fhistory%2Fpms%2Frussell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLife_in_the_1800s2022" class="citation cs2">Life in the 1800s (23 April 2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OXtO92x5KA">"My Grandfather Met Napoleon: Bertrand Russell Interview 1952 – Enhanced Video & Audio [60 fps]"</a>, <i>YouTube</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142002/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OXtO92x5KA">archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=My+Grandfather+Met+Napoleon%3A+Bertrand+Russell+Interview+1952+%E2%80%93+Enhanced+Video+%26+Audio+%5B60+fps%5D&rft.date=2022-04-23&rft.au=Life+in+the+1800s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D4OXtO92x5KA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-peerage-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-peerage_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. E. Cokayne; Vicary Gibbs, H. A. Doubleday, Geoffrey H. White, Duncan Warrand and Lord Howard de Walden, eds. The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extant, Extinct or Dormant, new ed. 13 volumes in 14. 1910–1959. Reprint in 6 volumes, Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton Publishing, 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Booth-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Booth_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooth1974" class="citation book cs1">Booth, Wayne C. (1974). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/moderndogmarhet00boot"><i>Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent</i></a></span>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-06572-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-06572-3"><bdi>0-226-06572-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Dogma+and+the+Rhetoric+of+Assent&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-226-06572-3&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Wayne+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmoderndogmarhet00boot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford" class="citation book cs1">Crawford, Elizabeth. <i>The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide, 1866–1928</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Women%27s+Suffrage+Movement%3A+A+Reference+Guide%2C+1866%E2%80%931928&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrink1982" class="citation journal cs1">Brink, Andrew (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24777750">"Death, Depression and Creativity: A Psychobiological Approach to Bertrand Russell"</a>. <i>Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 93. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-1276">0027-1276</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24777750">24777750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mosaic%3A+A+Journal+for+the+Interdisciplinary+Study+of+Literature&rft.atitle=Death%2C+Depression+and+Creativity%3A+A+Psychobiological+Approach+to+Bertrand+Russell&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24777750%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0027-1276&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24777750&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Monk1996-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Monk1996_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monk1996_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monk1996_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonk1996" class="citation book cs1">Monk, Ray (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AzssomBIDRIC"><i>Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1921</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82802-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-82802-2"><bdi>978-0-684-82802-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142455/https://books.google.com/books?id=AzssomBIDRIC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell%3A+The+Spirit+of+Solitude%2C+1872%E2%80%931921&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-684-82802-2&rft.aulast=Monk&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAzssomBIDRIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Exodus#23:2" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Exodus">Exodus 23:2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell</i> (Volume I, 1872–1914) George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1971, page 31;</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel_prize-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nobel_prize_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Nobel Foundation (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/russell-bio.html">Bertrand Russell: The Nobel Prize in Literature 1950</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604131349/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/russell-bio.html">Archived</a> 4 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 11 June 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2000" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2000) [1967]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914</i></a>. New York: Routledge. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-83504-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-83504-2"><bdi>978-1-317-83504-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142454/https://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell%3A+1872%E2%80%931914&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-317-83504-2&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVBpAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul" class="citation web cs1">Paul, Ashley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090101073812/http://www.geocities.com/vu3ash/index.htm2.htm">"Bertrand Russell: The Man and His Ideas – Chapter 2"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geocities.com:80/vu3ash/index.htm2.htm">the original</a> on 1 January 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell%3A+The+Man+and+His+Ideas+%E2%80%93+Chapter+2&rft.aulast=Paul&rft.aufirst=Ashley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geocities.com%3A80%2Fvu3ash%2Findex.htm2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tP4FDLegX9s">"1959 Bertrand Russell CBC interview"</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. 1959. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910142512/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tP4FDLegX9s">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=1959+Bertrand+Russell+CBC+interview&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DtP4FDLegX9s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). "2: Adolescence". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Adolescence&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100126090302/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/4833">"Bertrand Russell on God"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. 1959. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://richarddawkins.net/articles/4833">the original</a> on 26 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+on+God&rft.pub=Canadian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.date=1959&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fricharddawkins.net%2Farticles%2F4833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell1967a-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russell1967a_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2000" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2000) [1967]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914</i></a>. New York: Routledge. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell%3A+1872%E2%80%931914&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVBpAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFACADRSL890BA" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=RSL890BA&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50">"Russell, the Hon. Bertrand Arthur William (RSL890BA)"</a>. <i>A Cambridge Alumni Database</i>. University of Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russell%2C+the+Hon.+Bertrand+Arthur+William+%28RSL890BA%29&rft.btitle=A+Cambridge+Alumni+Database&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvenn.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsearch-2018.pl%3Fsur%3D%26suro%3Dw%26fir%3D%26firo%3Dc%26cit%3D%26cito%3Dc%26c%3Dall%26z%3Dall%26tex%3DRSL890BA%26sye%3D%26eye%3D%26col%3Dall%26maxcount%3D50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitehead-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whitehead_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson,_E._F.2003" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Whitehead.html">"Alfred North Whitehead"</a>. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alfred+North+Whitehead&rft.pub=School+of+Mathematics+and+Statistics%2C+University+of+St+Andrews%2C+Scotland&rft.date=2003-10&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FWhitehead.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JSTOR-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JSTOR_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffinLewis1990" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Griffin_(philosopher)" title="Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)">Griffin, Nicholas</a>; Lewis, Albert C. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1990.0004">"Russell's Mathematical Education"</a>. <i>Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>44</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1990.0004">10.1098/rsnr.1990.0004</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/531585">531585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notes+and+Records+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=Russell%27s+Mathematical+Education&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsnr.1990.0004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F531585%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Albert+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsnr.1990.0004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LSE-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LSE_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LSE_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141015192808/https://www.lse.ac.uk/aboutLSE/keyFacts/nobelPrizeWinners/russell.aspx">"London School of Economics"</a>. London School of Economics. 26 August 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/aboutLSE/keyFacts/nobelPrizeWinners/russell.aspx">the original</a> on 15 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=London+School+of+Economics&rft.pub=London+School+of+Economics&rft.date=2015-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lse.ac.uk%2FaboutLSE%2FkeyFacts%2FnobelPrizeWinners%2Frussell.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LettersPg16-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LettersPg16_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2001" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2001). Ray Perkins (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EayyTTpXL-QC&pg=PA16"><i>Yours Faithfully, Bertrand Russell: Letters to the Editor 1904–1969</i></a>. Chicago: Open Court Publishing. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8126-9449-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8126-9449-X"><bdi>0-8126-9449-X</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yours+Faithfully%2C+Bertrand+Russell%3A+Letters+to+the+Editor+1904%E2%80%931969&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Open+Court+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8126-9449-X&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEayyTTpXL-QC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Bertrand (1897) <i>An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry</i>, p. 32, re-issued 1956 by <a href="/wiki/Dover_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Dover Books">Dover Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/russell-bio.html">"Bertrand Russell, biography"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604131349/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1950/russell-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell%2C+biography&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fliterature%2Flaureates%2F1950%2Frussell-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). "6: Principia Mathematica". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%3A+Principia+Mathematica&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig1974" class="citation book cs1">Craig, F. W. S., ed. (1974). <i>British Parliamentary Election Results: 1885–1918</i>. London: Macmillan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781349022984" title="Special:BookSources/9781349022984"><bdi>9781349022984</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Parliamentary+Election+Results%3A+1885%E2%80%931918&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=9781349022984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wittgenstein-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wittgenstein_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rbjones.com/rbjpub/philos/history/rvw001.htm">"Russell on Wittgenstein"</a>. <i>Rbjones.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rbjones.com&rft.atitle=Russell+on+Wittgenstein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbjones.com%2Frbjpub%2Fphilos%2Fhistory%2Frvw001.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCyril_Pearce2004" class="citation cs2">Cyril Pearce (2004), "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Typical' Conscientious Objectors — A Better Class of Conscience? No-Conscription Fellowship image management and the Manchester contribution 1916–1918", <i>Manchester Region History Review</i>, vol. 17, no. 1, p. 38</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Manchester+Region+History+Review&rft.atitle=%27Typical%27+Conscientious+Objectors+%E2%80%94+A+Better+Class+of+Conscience%3F+No-Conscription+Fellowship+image+management+and+the+Manchester+contribution+1916%E2%80%931918&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=38&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Cyril+Pearce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2011" class="citation news cs1">Hochschild, Adam (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theamericanscholar.org/i-tried-to-stop-the-bloody-thing/">"I Tried to Stop the Bloody Thing"</a>. <i>The American Scholar</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110317162326/http://www.theamericanscholar.org/i-tried-to-stop-the-bloody-thing/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Scholar&rft.atitle=I+Tried+to+Stop+the+Bloody+Thing&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theamericanscholar.org%2Fi-tried-to-stop-the-bloody-thing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moorehead-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moorehead_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Moorehead" title="Caroline Moorehead">Caroline Moorehead</a>, <i>Bertrand Russell: A Life</i> (1992), p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScharfenburger2012" class="citation web cs1">Scharfenburger, Paul (17 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120117062625/http://musicandhistory.com/music-and-history-by-the-year/178-1917.html">"1917"</a>. <i>MusicandHistory.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://musicandhistory.com/music-and-history-by-the-year/178-1917.html">the original</a> on 17 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MusicandHistory.com&rft.atitle=1917&rft.date=2012-10-17&rft.aulast=Scharfenburger&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmusicandhistory.com%2Fmusic-and-history-by-the-year%2F178-1917.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1995" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1995). "A Summer of Hope". <i>Pacifism and Revolution</i>. Routledge. p. xxxiv.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Summer+of+Hope&rft.btitle=Pacifism+and+Revolution&rft.pages=xxxiv&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article15731745">"British Socialists – Peace Terms Discussed"</a>. <i>The Sydney Morning Herald</i>. 5 June 1917. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140359/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/15731745">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=British+Socialists+%E2%80%93+Peace+Terms+Discussed&rft.date=1917-06-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnla.gov.au%2Fnla.news-article15731745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://russell-letters.mcmaster.ca/background">"The Brixton Letters"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144113/https://russell-letters.mcmaster.ca/background">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Brixton+Letters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frussell-letters.mcmaster.ca%2Fbackground&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacifist-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pacifist_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVellacott1980" class="citation book cs1">Vellacott, Jo (1980). <i>Bertrand Russell and the Pacifists in the First World War</i>. Brighton: Harvester Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85527-454-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-85527-454-9"><bdi>0-85527-454-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+and+the+Pacifists+in+the+First+World+War&rft.place=Brighton&rft.pub=Harvester+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-85527-454-9&rft.aulast=Vellacott&rft.aufirst=Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). "8: The First War". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8%3A+The+First+War&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pages=256&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell</i> by Bertrand Russell, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Griffin_(philosopher)" title="Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)">Nicholas Griffin</a> 2002, letter to Gladys Rinder in May 1918</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/about/historical-overview/trinity-in-literature/">"Trinity in Literature"</a>. Trinity College. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140518/https://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/about/historical-overview/trinity-in-literature/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trinity+in+Literature&rft.pub=Trinity+College&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trin.cam.ac.uk%2Fabout%2Fhistorical-overview%2Ftrinity-in-literature%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19240108&id=G28rAAAAIBAJ&pg=3245,1355607">"M. P.'s Who Have Been in Jail To Hold Banquet"</a>. <i>The Reading Eagle</i>. 8 January 1924. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301052221/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19240108&id=G28rAAAAIBAJ&pg=3245,1355607">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Reading+Eagle&rft.atitle=M.+P.%27s+Who+Have+Been+in+Jail+To+Hold+Banquet&rft.date=1924-01-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1955%26dat%3D19240108%26id%3DG28rAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D3245%2C1355607&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG._H._Hardy1970" class="citation book cs1">G. H. Hardy (1970). <i>Bertrand Russell and Trinity</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">57–</span>8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+and+Trinity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E8&rft.date=1970&rft.au=G.+H.+Hardy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FreeLib-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FreeLib_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://russell.thefreelibrary.com/">"Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)"</a>. Farlex. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080512011010/http://russell.thefreelibrary.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+%281872%E2%80%931970%29&rft.pub=Farlex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frussell.thefreelibrary.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nation1-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nation1_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1920" class="citation magazine cs1">Russell, Bertrand (31 July 1920). "Soviet Russia—1920". <i>The Nation</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">121–</span>125.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=Soviet+Russia%E2%80%941920&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E121-%3C%2Fspan%3E125&rft.date=1920-07-31&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sov1920-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sov1920_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2008" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, Bertrand (20 February 2008) [1920]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/lenin-trotzky-and-gorky/">"Lenin, Trotzky and Gorky"</a>. <i>The Nation</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144116/https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/lenin-trotzky-and-gorky/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=Lenin%2C+Trotzky+and+Gorky&rft.date=2008-02-20&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Farchive%2Flenin-trotzky-and-gorky%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Practice_&-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Practice_&_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Practice_&_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Bertrand <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17350"><i>The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism</i> by Bertrand Russell</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120512073021/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17350">Archived</a> 12 May 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 1920</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1972" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1972). <i>The Problem of China</i>. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p. 252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+China&rft.place=London&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=George+Allen+%26+Unwin+Ltd.&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pneumonia-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pneumonia_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pneumonia_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/04/21/107014047.pdf">"Bertrand Russell Reported Dead"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 21 April 1921. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/04/21/107014047.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+Reported+Dead&rft.date=1921-04-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1921%2F04%2F21%2F107014047.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-papers-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-papers_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2000" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2000). "Uncertain Paths to Freedom: Russia and China, 1919–22". In Rempel, Richard A. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qnaqY4gUyrAC&q=mr+bertrand+russell+having+died+according+to+the+japanese+press"><i>The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell</i></a>. Vol. 15. Routledge. lxviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09411-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09411-9"><bdi>0-415-09411-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140336/https://books.google.com/books?id=qnaqY4gUyrAC&q=mr+bertrand+russell+having+died+according+to+the+japanese+press#v=snippet&q=mr%20bertrand%20russell%20having%20died%20according%20to%20the%20japanese%20press&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Uncertain+Paths+to+Freedom%3A+Russia+and+China%2C+1919%E2%80%9322&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Papers+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pages=lxviii&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-09411-9&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqnaqY4gUyrAC%26q%3Dmr%2Bbertrand%2Brussell%2Bhaving%2Bdied%2Baccording%2Bto%2Bthe%2Bjapanese%2Bpress&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1998" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1998). "10: China". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>. <q>It provided me with the pleasure of reading my obituary notices, which I had always desired without expecting my wishes to be fulfilled... As the Japanese papers had refused to contradict the news of my death, Dora gave each of them a type-written slip saying that as I was dead I could not be interviewed</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10%3A+China&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210303155105/https://www.weekinchina.com/2011/07/a-man-ahead-of-his-time/">"A man ahead of his time"</a>. 29 September 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weekinchina.com/2011/07/a-man-ahead-of-his-time/">the original</a> on 3 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+man+ahead+of+his+time&rft.date=2011-09-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weekinchina.com%2F2011%2F07%2Fa-man-ahead-of-his-time%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bertrand. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13940/13940-h/13940-h.htm">"The Problem of China"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230123113623/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13940/13940-h/13940-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+China&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F13940%2F13940-h%2F13940-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 386. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pages=386&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181124210430/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fb3k6tB-Or8">"A Conversation with Bertrand Russell (1952)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fb3k6tB-Or8?t=824">the original</a> on 24 November 2018 – via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Conversation+with+Bertrand+Russell+%281952%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dfb3k6tB-Or8%3Ft%3D824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beacon-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beacon_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Inside Beacon Hill: Bertrand Russell as Schoolmaster". Jespersen, Shirley ERIC# EJ360344, published 1987</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dora-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dora_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dora_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080119030738/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUrussellD.htm">"Dora Russell"</a>. 12 May 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUrussellD.htm">the original</a> on 19 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dora+Russell&rft.date=2007-05-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk%2FTUrussellD.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kranz, D. (2011): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gestalt.de/kranz_stevens_leben.html">"Barry Stevens: Leben Gestalten"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180925150850/http://www.gestalt.de/kranz_stevens_leben.html">Archived</a> 25 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: <i>Gestaltkritik</i>, 2/2011, p. 4–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevens, B. (1970): <i>Don't Push the River</i>. Lafayette, Cal. (Real People Press), p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gorham, D. (2005): "Dora and Bertrand Russell and Beacon Hill School", in: <i>Russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies</i>, n.s. 25, (summer 2005), p. 39–76, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spadoni, C. (1981): "Recent Acquisitions: Correspondence", in: <i>Russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies</i>, Vol 1, Iss. 1, Article 6, 43–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasta" class="citation web cs1">Nasta, Susheila. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/india-league">"India League"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144232/https://www5.open.ac.uk/research-projects/making-britain/content/india-league">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=India+League&rft.aulast=Nasta&rft.aufirst=Susheila&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.open.ac.uk%2Fresearchprojects%2Fmakingbritain%2Fcontent%2Findia-league&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2014/02/19/museum-of-tolerance-acquires-bertrand-russells-nazi-appeasement-letter/">"Museum Of Tolerance Acquires Bertrand Russell's Nazi Appeasement Letter"</a>. <i>Losangeles.cbslocal.com</i>. 19 February 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140852/https://www.cbsnews.com/losangeles/news/museum-of-tolerance-acquires-bertrand-russells-nazi-appeasement-letter/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Losangeles.cbslocal.com&rft.atitle=Museum+Of+Tolerance+Acquires+Bertrand+Russell%27s+Nazi+Appeasement+Letter&rft.date=2014-02-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flosangeles.cbslocal.com%2F2014%2F02%2F19%2Fmuseum-of-tolerance-acquires-bertrand-russells-nazi-appeasement-letter%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell, Bertrand, "The Future of Pacifism", The American Scholar, (1943) 13: 7–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). "12: Later Years of Telegraph House". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>. <q>I found the Nazis utterly revolting – cruel, bigoted, and stupid. Morally and intellectually they were alike odious to me. Although I clung to my pacifist convictions, I did so with increasing difficulty. When, in 1940, England was threatened with invasion, I realised that, throughout the First War, I had never seriously envisaged the possibility of utter defeat. I found this possibility unbearable, and at last consciously and definitely decided that I must support what was necessary for victory in the Second War, however difficult victory might be to achieve, and however painful in its consequences</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12%3A+Later+Years+of+Telegraph+House&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xj8EAAAAMBAJ&dq=bertrand%20russell&pg=PA23">Bertrand Russell Rides Out Collegiate Cyclone</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221230175507/https://books.google.ca/books?id=xj8EAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA23&dq=bertrand%20russell&pg=PA23">Archived</a> 30 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Life_(magazine)" title="Life (magazine)">Life</a></i>, Vol. 8, No. 14, 1 April 1940</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCarthy1993" class="citation book cs1">McCarthy, Joseph M. (May 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED363185.pdf"><i>The Russell Case: Academic Freedom vs. Public Hysteria</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Educational Resources Information Center. p. 9. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED363185.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russell+Case%3A+Academic+Freedom+vs.+Public+Hysteria&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Educational+Resources+Information+Center&rft.date=1993-05&rft.aulast=McCarthy&rft.aufirst=Joseph+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffiles.eric.ed.gov%2Ffulltext%2FED363185.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denied-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Denied_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeberstein,_Stephen2001" class="citation news cs1">Leberstein, Stephen (November–December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150123221826/http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/01/appointment-denied-inquisition-of.html">"Appointment Denied: The Inquisition of Bertrand Russell"</a>. Academe. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/01/appointment-denied-inquisition-of.html">the original</a> on 23 January 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Appointment+Denied%3A+The+Inquisition+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=2001-11%2F2001-12&rft.au=Leberstein%2C+Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.omnilogos.com%2F2015%2F01%2Fappointment-denied-inquisition-of.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asl-associates.com/einsteinquotes.htm">Einstein quotations and sources.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605010050/http://www.asl-associates.com/einsteinquotes.htm">Archived</a> 5 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 9 July 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-professor-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-professor_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080212100048/http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophers/bertrand-russell.php">"Bertrand Russell"</a>. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophers/bertrand-russell.php">the original</a> on 12 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophyprofessor.com%2Fphilosophers%2Fbertrand-russell.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-letters-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-letters_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-letters_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin,_Nicholas2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Griffin_(philosopher)" title="Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)">Griffin, Nicholas</a>, ed. (2002). <i>The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell</i>. Routledge. p. 660. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-26012-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-26012-4"><bdi>0-415-26012-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Selected+Letters+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pages=660&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-415-26012-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiograph y</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 512. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiograph+y&rft.pages=512&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell to Edward Renouf, assistant of <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paalen" title="Wolfgang Paalen">Wolfgang Paalen</a>, 23 March 1942 (Succession Wolfgang Paalen, Berlin); this letter is cited in <i>DYN</i>, No. 2, Mexico, July–August 1942, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040128/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Quote/Russell_On_Zionism.html">"Bertrand Russell On Zionism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Quote/Russell_On_Zionism.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+On+Zionism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FQuote%2FRussell_On_Zionism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305003733/http://www.plymouth.edu/department/history-philosophy/files/2012/10/Bertrand-Russell-and-Preventive-War.pdf">"Bertrand Russell and Preventive War"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Plymouth.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plymouth.edu/department/history-philosophy/files/2012/10/Bertrand-Russell-and-Preventive-War.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 5 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Plymouth.edu&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+and+Preventive+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plymouth.edu%2Fdepartment%2Fhistory-philosophy%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F10%2FBertrand-Russell-and-Preventive-War.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/books/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Story_ID=699582">"A philosopher's letters – Love, Bertie"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 21 July 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090206014335/http://www.economist.com/books/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Story_ID=699582">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=A+philosopher%27s+letters+%E2%80%93+Love%2C+Bertie&rft.date=2001-07-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbooks%2FPrinterFriendly.cfm%3FStory_ID%3D699582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-clark-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-clark_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-clark_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1976" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Ronald William (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofbertrandru00clar"><i>The life of Bertrand Russell</i></a></span>. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0394490595" title="Special:BookSources/978-0394490595"><bdi>978-0394490595</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0394490595&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Ronald+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofbertrandru00clar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">He wrote: "There is reason to think Stalin will insist on a new orthodoxy in atomic physics, since there is much in quantum theory that runs contrary to Communist dogma. An atomic bomb' made on Marxist principles would probably not explode because, after all, Marxist science was that of a hundred years ago. For those who fear the military power of Russia there is, therefore, some reason to rejoice in the muzzling of Russian science." Russell, Bertrand "Stalin Declares War on Science" Review of Langdon-Davies, <i>Russia Puts Back the Clock</i>, <i>Evening Standard</i> (London), 7 September 1949, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00729d9">"Radio 4 Programmes – The Reith Lectures"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160808025444/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00729d9">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio+4+Programmes+%E2%80%93+The+Reith+Lectures&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fb00729d9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00h9lz3">"Radio 4 Programmes – The Reith Lectures: Bertrand Russell: Authority and the Individual: 1948"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144124/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00h9lz3">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio+4+Programmes+%E2%80%93+The+Reith+Lectures%3A+Bertrand+Russell%3A+Authority+and+the+Individual%3A+1948&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fprogrammes%2Fp00h9lz3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. P. Uschanov, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/~tuschano/writings/strange/">The Strange Death of Ordinary Language Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614213110/http://www.helsinki.fi/~tuschano/writings/strange/">Archived</a> 14 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The controversy has been described by the writer <a href="/wiki/Ved_Mehta" title="Ved Mehta">Ved Mehta</a> in <i>Fly and the Fly Bottle</i> (1963).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette38628" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/38628/supplement/2796">"No. 38628"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i> (Supplement). 3 June 1949. p. 2796.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London+Gazette&rft.atitle=No.+38628&rft.pages=2796&rft.date=1949-06-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegazette.co.uk%2FLondon%2Fissue%2F38628%2Fsupplement%2F2796&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald W. Clark, Bertrand Russell and His World, p. 94. (1981) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-13070-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-13070-1">0-500-13070-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frances Stonor Saunders, "The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters." New York Press, 1999. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frances Stonor Saunder, ""The Cultural Cold War: The CIA And the World of Arts and Letters." New York Press, 1999. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1632/1658">Russell and the Cuban missile crisis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200807002427/https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1632/1658">Archived</a> 7 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Al_Seckel" title="Al Seckel">Al Seckel</a>, <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> // <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca/journal.htm">Russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191217134416/https://russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca/journal.htm">Archived</a> 17 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1632">Vol <b>4</b> (1984), Issue 2, Winter 1984–85, pp. 253–261</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191217134416/https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1632">Archived</a> 17 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanderson_Beck2003–2005" class="citation book cs1">Sanderson Beck (2003–2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.san.beck.org/GPJ24-Russell,Muste.html">"Pacifism of Bertrand Russell and A. J. Muste"</a>. <i>World Peace Efforts Since Gandhi</i>. Sanderson Beck. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120624180927/http://www.san.beck.org/GPJ24-Russell%2CMuste.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pacifism+of+Bertrand+Russell+and+A.+J.+Muste&rft.btitle=World+Peace+Efforts+Since+Gandhi&rft.pub=Sanderson+Beck&rft.date=2003%2F2005&rft.au=Sanderson+Beck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.san.beck.org%2FGPJ24-Russell%2CMuste.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_H._Davis" class="citation book cs1">John H. Davis. <i>The Kennedys: Dynasty and Disaster</i>. S. P. Books. p. 437.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kennedys%3A+Dynasty+and+Disaster&rft.pages=437&rft.pub=S.+P.+Books&rft.au=John+H.+Davis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeinbergKasrils1983" class="citation book cs1">Feinberg, Barry; Kasrils, Ronald (1983). <i>Bertrand Russell's America</i>. Vol. 2. Boston: South End Press. p. 211.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell%27s+America&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Feinberg&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=Kasrils%2C+Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Knight, <i>The Kennedy Assassination</i>, Edinburgh University Press Ltd., 2007, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-free-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-free_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-free_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-free_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bertrand. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44932/44932-h/44932-h.htm">"Free Thought and Official Propaganda"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180104073140/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44932/44932-h/44932-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2019</span> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Free+Thought+and+Official+Propaganda&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F44932%2F44932-h%2F44932-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manifesto-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manifesto_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell,_BertrandAlbert_Einstein1955" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bertrand; <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (9 July 1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090801154612/http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/texts/doc_russelleinstein_manif.html">"Russell Einstein Manifesto"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/texts/doc_russelleinstein_manif.html">the original</a> on 1 August 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russell+Einstein+Manifesto&rft.date=1955-07-09&rft.au=Russell%2C+Bertrand&rft.au=Albert+Einstein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ppu.org.uk%2Flearn%2Ftexts%2Fdoc_russelleinstein_manif.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rethinkingsecurity.org.uk/2020/10/16/committee-of-100-and-extinction-rebellion/">"Nonviolent Direct Action: The Committee of 100 and Extinction Rebellion"</a>. 16 October 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144125/https://rethinkingsecurity.org.uk/2020/10/16/committee-of-100-and-extinction-rebellion/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nonviolent+Direct+Action%3A+The+Committee+of+100+and+Extinction+Rebellion&rft.date=2020-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frethinkingsecurity.org.uk%2F2020%2F10%2F16%2Fcommittee-of-100-and-extinction-rebellion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, <i>Bertrand Russell, 1872–1970</i> [1970], p. 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell,_Bertrand1967" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1967). <i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, Vol. 3</i>. Little, Brown. p. 157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell%2C+Vol.+3&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Russell%2C+Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2002" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Nicholas (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hV7bHY0fTCoC&pg=PA125"><i>The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell: The Private Years, 1884–1914</i></a>. Routledge. p. 588. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26014-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26014-5"><bdi>978-0-415-26014-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140918/https://books.google.com/books?id=hV7bHY0fTCoC&pg=PA125#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Selected+Letters+of+Bertrand+Russell%3A+The+Private+Years%2C+1884%E2%80%931914&rft.pages=588&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26014-5&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhV7bHY0fTCoC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1929" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1929). <i>Marriage and Morals</i>. H. Liverwright.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marriage+and+Morals&rft.pub=H.+Liverwright&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPandey2005" class="citation book cs1">Pandey, V. C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_eI5avFlStYC&pg=PA211"><i>Population Education</i></a>. Gyan Publishing House. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8205-176-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-8205-176-8"><bdi>978-81-8205-176-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140853/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eI5avFlStYC&pg=PA211#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Population+Education&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Gyan+Publishing+House&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-8205-176-8&rft.aulast=Pandey&rft.aufirst=V.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_eI5avFlStYC%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1951" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vgafCgAAQBAJ&q=%22Black+Death+could+be+spread+throughout+the+world+once+in+every+generation%2C+survivors+could+procreate+freely+without+making+the+world+too+full%22&pg=PT85"><i>The Impact of Science On Society</i></a>. Lulu.com. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-329-53928-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-329-53928-0"><bdi>978-1-329-53928-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+On+Society&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=1951&rft.isbn=978-1-329-53928-0&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvgafCgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Black%2BDeath%2Bcould%2Bbe%2Bspread%2Bthroughout%2Bthe%2Bworld%2Bonce%2Bin%2Bevery%2Bgeneration%252C%2Bsurvivors%2Bcould%2Bprocreate%2Bfreely%2Bwithout%2Bmaking%2Bthe%2Bworld%2Btoo%2Bfull%2522%26pg%3DPT85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged September 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell</i> (Psychology Press, 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref1-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Yours Faithfully, Bertrand Russell</i> (pp. 212–213).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jerusalem_prize-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jerusalem_prize_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080122165019/http://www.jerusalembookfair.com/main.html">"Jerusalem International Book Fair"</a>. Jerusalembookfair.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jerusalembookfair.com/main.html">the original</a> on 22 January 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jerusalem+International+Book+Fair&rft.pub=Jerusalembookfair.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jerusalembookfair.com%2Fmain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jta.org/1964/02/26/archive/bertrand-russell-appeals-to-arabs-and-israel-on-rocket-weapons">"Bertrand Russell Appeals to Arabs and Israel on Rocket Weapons"</a>. Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 26 February 1964. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144140/https://www.jta.org/archive/bertrand-russell-appeals-to-arabs-and-israel-on-rocket-weapons">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+Appeals+to+Arabs+and+Israel+on+Rocket+Weapons&rft.pub=Jewish+Telegraphic+Agency&rft.date=1964-02-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F1964%2F02%2F26%2Farchive%2Fbertrand-russell-appeals-to-arabs-and-israel-on-rocket-weapons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2012" class="citation book cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russell, Bertrand</a> (2012). Andrew G. Bone (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eogqBgAAQBAJ&pg=iii"><i>The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell Volume 29: Détente Or Destruction, 1955–57</i></a>. Abingdon: Routledge. p. iii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-35837-8"><bdi>978-0-415-35837-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collected+Papers+of+Bertrand+Russell+Volume+29%3A+D%C3%A9tente+Or+Destruction%2C+1955%E2%80%9357&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pages=iii&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-35837-8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeogqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3Diii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bertrand_Russell_in_Bollywood-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bertrand_Russell_in_Bollywood_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0233193/">"Aman (1967)"</a>. IMDb. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020024227/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0233193/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aman+%281967%29&rft.pub=IMDb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Ftitle%2Ftt0233193%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddiqui2021" class="citation web cs1">Siddiqui, M. S. (23 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritagetimes.in/bertrand-russells-last-message-on-israel-and-palestine/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Bertrand Russell's Last Message" on Israel and Palestine"</a>. <i>Heritage Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240814054919/https://www.heritagetimes.in/bertrand-russells-last-message-on-israel-and-palestine">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Heritage+Times&rft.atitle=%22Bertrand+Russell%27s+Last+Message%22+on+Israel+and+Palestine.&rft.date=2021-05-23&rft.aulast=Siddiqui&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritagetimes.in%2Fbertrand-russells-last-message-on-israel-and-palestine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Last_Message-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Last_Message_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.connexions.org/CxLibrary/Docs/CX5576-RussellMidEast.htm">"Bertrand Russell's Last Message"</a>. <i>Connexions.org</i>. 31 January 1970. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721001136/http://www.connexions.org/CxLibrary/Docs/CX5576-RussellMidEast.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Connexions.org&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell%27s+Last+Message&rft.date=1970-01-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.connexions.org%2FCxLibrary%2FDocs%2FCX5576-RussellMidEast.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Guardian – 3 February 1970</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Guardian – Page 7–6 February 1970</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_134-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_134-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Russell&yearOfDeath=1970&page=3#calendar">Russell, 1970, p. </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019022853/https://probatesearch.service.gov.uk/Calendar?surname=Russell&yearOfDeath=1970&page=3#calendar">Archived</a> 19 October 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at probatesearch.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 29 August 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters1983" class="citation book cs1">Waters, Ivor (1983). "The Rise and Fall of Monmouthshire". <i>Chepstow Packets</i>. Moss Rose Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-906134-21-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-906134-21-8"><bdi>0-906134-21-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Monmouthshire&rft.btitle=Chepstow+Packets&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Moss+Rose+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-906134-21-8&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Ivor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2014" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9UlpAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell</i></a>. Routledge. p. 434. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-83503-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-83503-5"><bdi>978-1-317-83503-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pages=434&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-83503-5&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9UlpAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/the-autobiography-of-bertrand-russell.pdf"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1914–1944</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. 184, 253, 292, 380. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507001007/https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/the-autobiography-of-bertrand-russell.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 7 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell+1914%E2%80%931944&rft.pages=184%2C+253%2C+292%2C+380&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com%2F2012%2F01%2Fthe-autobiography-of-bertrand-russell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Bertrand Russell Memorial". <i>Mind</i>. <b>353</b>: 320. 1980.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+Memorial&rft.volume=353&rft.pages=320&rft.date=1980&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/brs-award/">"Bertrand Russell Society Award"</a>. 9 September 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144645/https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/brs-award/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bertrand+Russell+Society+Award&rft.date=2018-09-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbertrandrussellsociety.org%2Fbrs-award%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/">"The Bertrand Russell Society"</a>. <i>The Bertrand Russell Society</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144646/https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Bertrand+Russell+Society&rft.atitle=The+Bertrand+Russell+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbertrandrussellsociety.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/myfatherbertrand00tait"><i>My Father, Bertrand Russell</i></a></span>. National Library of Australia. 1975. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-130432-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-130432-5"><bdi>978-0-15-130432-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Father%2C+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Australia&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-15-130432-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmyfatherbertrand00tait&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipari2022" class="citation news cs1">Lipari, Nicole (12 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512230848/https://dailynews.mcmaster.ca/articles/new-exhibit-celebrates-150-years-of-bertrand-russell/">"New exhibit celebrates 150 years of Bertrand Russell"</a>. <i>Daily News</i>. <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dailynews.mcmaster.ca/articles/new-exhibit-celebrates-150-years-of-bertrand-russell/">the original</a> on 12 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+News&rft.atitle=New+exhibit+celebrates+150+years+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=2022-05-12&rft.aulast=Lipari&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailynews.mcmaster.ca%2Farticles%2Fnew-exhibit-celebrates-150-years-of-bertrand-russell%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spokesmanbooks.org/product/br-150-booklet/">"Bertrand Russell 150 | Celebration of the 150th anniversary of the birth of Bertrand Russell"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Spokesman_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Spokesman Books">Spokesman Books</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell_Peace_Foundation" title="Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation">Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation</a>. 11 May 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220517182804/https://spokesmanbooks.org/product/br-150-booklet/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spokesman+Books&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+150+%7C+Celebration+of+the+150th+anniversary+of+the+birth+of+Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=2022-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspokesmanbooks.org%2Fproduct%2Fbr-150-booklet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDíaz_Montilla2022" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Díaz Montilla, Francisco (18 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220518153812/https://www.laestrella.com.pa/opinion/columnistas/220518/150-anos-bertrand-russell">"150 años con Bertrand Russell"</a> [150 Years with Bertrand Russell]. <i><a href="/wiki/La_Estrella_de_Panam%C3%A1" title="La Estrella de Panamá">La Estrella de Panamá</a></i> (in Spanish). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laestrella.com.pa/opinion/columnistas/220518/150-anos-bertrand-russell">the original</a> on 18 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=La+Estrella+de+Panam%C3%A1&rft.atitle=150+a%C3%B1os+con+Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=2022-05-18&rft.aulast=D%C3%ADaz+Montilla&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laestrella.com.pa%2Fopinion%2Fcolumnistas%2F220518%2F150-anos-bertrand-russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell1967b-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russell1967b_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2000" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2000) [1967]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872–1914</i></a>. New York: Routledge. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-83504-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-83504-2"><bdi>978-1-317-83504-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140855/https://books.google.com/books?id=dVBpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell%3A+1872%E2%80%931914&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-317-83504-2&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdVBpAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertrand_Russell1998" class="citation book cs1">Bertrand Russell (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC"><i>Autobiography</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-18985-9"><bdi>978-0-415-18985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910140331/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlMrmmrNuEoC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Autobiography&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-18985-9&rft.au=Bertrand+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlMrmmrNuEoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-the_Journal_of_the_Bertrand_Russell_Archives-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-the_Journal_of_the_Bertrand_Russell_Archives_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoran1991" class="citation journal cs1">Moran, Margaret (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1807">"Bertrand Russell Meets His Muse: The Impact of Lady Ottoline Morrell (1911–12)"</a>. <i>Russell: The Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies</i>. <b>11</b> (2). McMaster University Library Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15173%2Frussell.v11i2.1807">10.15173/russell.v11i2.1807</a></span> (inactive 2 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:169488672">169488672</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144649/https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/russelljournal/article/view/1807">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russell%3A+The+Journal+of+Bertrand+Russell+Studies&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+Meets+His+Muse%3A+The+Impact+of+Lady+Ottoline+Morrell+%281911%E2%80%9312%29&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15173%2Frussell.v11i2.1807&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A169488672%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Moran&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmulpress.mcmaster.ca%2Frusselljournal%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell2002-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Russell2002_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2002" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2002). <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Griffin_(philosopher)" title="Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)">Griffin, Nicholas</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=97PesXqhNdAC&pg=PA230"><i>The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell: The Public Years, 1914–1970</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 230. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26012-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26012-1"><bdi>978-0-415-26012-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910141003/https://books.google.com/books?id=97PesXqhNdAC&pg=PA230#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Selected+Letters+of+Bertrand+Russell%3A+The+Public+Years%2C+1914%E2%80%931970&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26012-1&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D97PesXqhNdAC%26pg%3DPA230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-private-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-private_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimball1992" class="citation web cs1">Kimball, Roger (September 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061205032455/http://newcriterion.com/archive/11/sept92/brussell.htm">"Love, logic & unbearable pity: The private Bertrand Russell"</a>. <i>The New Criterion</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newcriterion.com:81/archive/11/sept92/brussell.htm">the original</a> on 5 December 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+Criterion&rft.atitle=Love%2C+logic+%26+unbearable+pity%3A+The+private+Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=1992-09&rft.aulast=Kimball&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewcriterion.com%3A81%2Farchive%2F11%2Fsept92%2Fbrussell.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonk2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Monk, Ray (September 2004). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/35875">"Russell, Bertrand Arthur William, third Earl Russell (1872–1970)"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F35875">10.1093/ref:odnb/35875</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russell%2C+Bertrand+Arthur+William%2C+third+Earl+Russell+%281872%E2%80%931970%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F35875&rft.aulast=Monk&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2Farticle%2F35875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2020" class="citation book cs1">Morris, Susan (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=99tHEAAAQBAJ&q=debrett%27s+3rd+earl+russell"><i>Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage 2019</i></a>. eBook Partnership. p. 4218. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1999767051" title="Special:BookSources/978-1999767051"><bdi>978-1999767051</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910141011/https://books.google.com/books?id=99tHEAAAQBAJ&q=debrett%27s+3rd+earl+russell#v=snippet&q=debrett's%203rd%20earl%20russell&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debrett%27s+Peerage+and+Baronetage+2019&rft.pages=4218&rft.pub=eBook+Partnership&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1999767051&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D99tHEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddebrett%2527s%2B3rd%2Bearl%2Brussell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nytimes-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nytimes_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1931/03/05/96184774.pdf?pdf_redirect=true&ip=0">"Earl Russell Dies: British Statesman"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. 5 March 1931. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Earl+Russell+Dies%3A+British+Statesman&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1931-03-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1931%2F03%2F05%2F96184774.pdf%3Fpdf_redirect%3Dtrue%26ip%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/question/Where-was-Bertrand-Russell-educated">"Where Was Bertrand Russell Educated"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144653/https://www.britannica.com/question/Where-was-Bertrand-Russell-educated">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Where+Was+Bertrand+Russell+Educated&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fquestion%2FWhere-was-Bertrand-Russell-educated&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">"Bertrand Russell"</a>. <i>plato.stanford.edu</i>. 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230926044206/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=plato.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frussell%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blanshard, in <a href="/wiki/Paul_Arthur_Schilpp" title="Paul Arthur Schilpp">Paul Arthur Schilpp</a>, ed., <i>The Philosophy of Brand Blanshard</i>, Open Court, 1980, p. 88, quoting a private letter from Russell.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell</i>, London: Routledge, 2000 [London: Allen and Unwin, 1969, Vol. 1], p. 39 ("It appeared to me obvious that the happiness of mankind should be the aim of all action, and I discovered to my surprise that there were those who thought otherwise. Belief in happiness, I found, was called Utilitarianism, and was merely one among a number of ethical theories. I adhered to it after this discovery, and was rash enough to tell my grandmother that I was a utilitarian." In a letter from 1902, in which Russell criticised utilitarianism, he wrote: "I may as well begin by confessing that for many years it seemed to me perfectly self-evident that pleasure is the only good and pain the only evil. Now, however, the opposite seems to me self-evident. This change has been brought about by what I may call moral experience." Ibid, p. 161).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1947" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050622001026/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell8.htm">"Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic?"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Things</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell8.htm">the original</a> on 22 June 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 July</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Am+I+An+Atheist+or+an+Agnostic%3F&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Things&rft.date=1947&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.positiveatheism.org%2Fhist%2Frussell8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span>: "I never know whether I should say 'Agnostic' or whether I should say 'Atheist'.... As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove (sic) that there is not a God. On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://humanists.uk/humanism/the-humanist-tradition/20th-century-humanism/">"20th Century Humanism"</a>. <i>Humanists UK</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231206145444/https://humanists.uk/humanism/the-humanist-tradition/20th-century-humanism/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Humanists+UK&rft.atitle=20th+Century+Humanism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhumanists.uk%2Fhumanism%2Fthe-humanist-tradition%2F20th-century-humanism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Humanist News', March 1970<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The citation is not specific enough to facilitate source verification (January 2020)">not specific enough to verify</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nyupress.org/9780853450580/war-crimes-in-vietnam">"War Crimes in Vietnam"</a>. <i>NYU Press</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144655/https://nyupress.org/9780853450580/war-crimes-in-vietnam/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NYU+Press&rft.atitle=War+Crimes+in+Vietnam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnyupress.org%2F9780853450580%2Fwar-crimes-in-vietnam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1952" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1952). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/impactofscienceo0000russ">"Conclusions"</a></span>. <i>The Impact of Science on Society</i>. New York, Columbia University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conclusions&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimpactofscienceo0000russ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1936" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1936). <i>Which Way to Peace? </i>(Part 12)<i><span></span></i>. M. Joseph Ltd. p. 173.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Which+Way+to+Peace%3F+%28Part+12%29&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=M.+Joseph+Ltd.&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1954" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1954). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humansocietyinet0000russ"><i>Human Society in Ethics and Politics</i></a></span>. London: G. Allen & Unwin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/humansocietyinet0000russ/page/212">212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Society+in+Ethics+and+Politics&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=London%3A+G.+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhumansocietyinet0000russ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">"Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961"</a>. <i>Helen Keller Archive</i>. American Foundation for the Blind. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703034807/https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Helen+Keller+Archive&rft.atitle=Letters+from+Thane+Read+asking+Helen+Keller+to+sign+the+World+Constitution+for+world+peace.+1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afb.org%2FHelenKellerArchive%3Fa%3Dd%26d%3DA-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6">"Letter from World Constitution Coordinating Committee to Helen, enclosing current materials"</a>. <i>Helen Keller Archive</i>. American Foundation for the Blind. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703034812/https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Helen+Keller+Archive&rft.atitle=Letter+from+World+Constitution+Coordinating+Committee+to+Helen%2C+enclosing+current+materials&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afb.org%2FHelenKellerArchive%3Fa%3Dd%26d%3DA-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230719215501/http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465">"Preparing earth constitution | Global Strategies & Solutions | The Encyclopedia of World Problems"</a>. <i>The Encyclopedia of World Problems | Union of International Associations (UIA)</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/strategy/193465">the original</a> on 19 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+Problems+%7C+Union+of+International+Associations+%28UIA%29&rft.atitle=Preparing+earth+constitution+%7C+Global+Strategies+%26+Solutions+%7C+The+Encyclopedia+of+World+Problems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.uia.org%2Fen%2Fstrategy%2F193465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleene,_G._A.1920" class="citation journal cs1">Kleene, G. A. (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1885165">"Bertrand Russell on Socialism"</a>. <i>The Quarterly Journal of Economics</i>. <b>34</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">756–</span>762. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1885165">10.2307/1885165</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1885165">1885165</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Journal+of+Economics&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+on+Socialism&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E756-%3C%2Fspan%3E762&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1885165&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1885165%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Kleene%2C+G.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1885165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBricmontNormEurope2017" class="citation web cs1">Bricmont, Jean; Norm; Europe, BaillargeonTopics: History Marxism Philosophy Socialism Places: Europe Soviet UnionWestern (1 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monthlyreview.org/2017/07/01/bertrand-russell-and-the-socialism-that-wasnt/">"Monthly Review | Bertrand Russell and the Socialism That Wasn't"</a>. <i>Monthly Review</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144656/https://monthlyreview.org/2017/07/01/bertrand-russell-and-the-socialism-that-wasnt/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Review&rft.atitle=Monthly+Review+%7C+Bertrand+Russell+and+the+Socialism+That+Wasn%27t&rft.date=2017-07-01&rft.aulast=Bricmont&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Norm&rft.au=Europe%2C+BaillargeonTopics%3A+History+Marxism+Philosophy+Socialism+Places%3A+Europe+Soviet+UnionWestern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonthlyreview.org%2F2017%2F07%2F01%2Fbertrand-russell-and-the-socialism-that-wasnt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GALHA-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GALHA_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGay_and_Lesbian_Humanist_Association1997" class="citation web cs1">Gay and Lesbian Humanist Association (2 November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020610084110/http://www.galha.org/briefing/lgb_rights.html">"Lesbian and Gay Rights: The Humanist and Religious Stances"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galha.org/briefing/lgb_rights.html">the original</a> on 10 June 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lesbian+and+Gay+Rights%3A+The+Humanist+and+Religious+Stances&rft.date=1997-11-02&rft.au=Gay+and+Lesbian+Humanist+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.galha.org%2Fbriefing%2Flgb_rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lehman.edu/faculty/rcarey/BRSQ/03nov.russell.htm">"The Bertrand Russell Society Quarterly – November 2003"</a>. <i>www.lehman.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144727/https://www.lehman.edu/faculty/rcarey/BRSQ/03nov.russell.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.lehman.edu&rft.atitle=The+Bertrand+Russell+Society+Quarterly+%E2%80%93+November+2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lehman.edu%2Ffaculty%2Frcarey%2FBRSQ%2F03nov.russell.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddiqui2021" class="citation web cs1">Siddiqui, M. S. (23 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heritagetimes.in/bertrand-russells-last-message-on-israel-and-palestine/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Bertrand Russell's Last Message" on Israel and Palestine"</a>. <i>Heritage Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910145202/https://www.heritagetimes.in/bertrand-russells-last-message-on-israel-and-palestine">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Heritage+Times&rft.atitle=%22Bertrand+Russell%27s+Last+Message%22+on+Israel+and+Palestine.&rft.date=2021-05-23&rft.aulast=Siddiqui&rft.aufirst=M.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heritagetimes.in%2Fbertrand-russells-last-message-on-israel-and-palestine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://basicincome.org/history/">"A short history of the Basic Income idea | BIEN — Basic Income Earth Network"</a>. <i>basicincome.org</i>. 22 January 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230103180555/https://basicincome.org/history/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=basicincome.org&rft.atitle=A+short+history+of+the+Basic+Income+idea+%7C+BIEN+%E2%80%94+Basic+Income+Earth+Network&rft.date=2015-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbasicincome.org%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1968" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1968). <i>The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1944–1969</i>. Little, Brown. p. 330.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell%3A+1944%E2%80%931969&rft.pages=330&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span> Published separately as 'Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday' in <i>Portraits from Memory</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Skeptical Essays</i>, 1928, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32508-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32508-0">978-0-415-32508-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Understanding History and other Essays.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1953" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230118175706/https://it.scribd.com/document/558107312/The-Impact-of-Science-on-Society-by-Bertrand-Russell">"General Effects of Scientific Technique"</a>. <i>The Impact of Science on Society</i>. New York, AMS Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://it.scribd.com/document/558107312/The-Impact-of-Science-on-Society-by-Bertrand-Russell">the original</a> on 18 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=General+Effects+of+Scientific+Technique&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society&rft.pub=New+York%2C+AMS+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fit.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F558107312%2FThe-Impact-of-Science-on-Society-by-Bertrand-Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1953" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230118175706/https://it.scribd.com/document/558107312/The-Impact-of-Science-on-Society-by-Bertrand-Russell">"Scientific Technique in an Oligarchy"</a>. <i>The Impact of Science on Society</i>. New York, AMS Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://it.scribd.com/document/558107312/The-Impact-of-Science-on-Society-by-Bertrand-Russell">the original</a> on 18 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Technique+in+an+Oligarchy&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society&rft.pub=New+York%2C+AMS+Press&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fit.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F558107312%2FThe-Impact-of-Science-on-Society-by-Bertrand-Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.237125">https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.237125</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essayfoundations00russrich">"An essay on the foundations of geometry"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. Cambridge, University press. 1897.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=An+essay+on+the+foundations+of+geometry&rft.date=1897&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessayfoundations00russrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics/">"The Principles of Mathematics"</a>. fair-use.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100702210535/http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Principles+of+Mathematics&rft.pub=fair-use.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffair-use.org%2Fbertrand-russell%2Fthe-principles-of-mathematics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Free man's worship, and other essays</i>, London : Unwin Books, 1976, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0048240214" title="Special:BookSources/0048240214">0048240214</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=umhistmath;cc=umhistmath;view=toc;idno=AAT3201.0001.001"><i>Principia mathematica, by Alfred North Whitehead ... and Bertrand Russell</i></a>. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130729204638/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=umhistmath;cc=umhistmath;view=toc;idno=AAT3201.0001.001">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 September</span> 2009</span> – via umich.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principia+mathematica%2C+by+Alfred+North+Whitehead+...+and+Bertrand+Russell.&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Dumhistmath%3Bcc%3Dumhistmath%3Bview%3Dtoc%3Bidno%3DAAT3201.0001.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/russell/russell.html">"The Problems of Philosophy"</a>. ditext.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051025035834/http://www.ditext.com/russell/russell.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Problems+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=ditext.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ditext.com%2Frussell%2Frussell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourknowledgeofth005200mbp">"Our Knowledge of the External World"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. George Allen & Unwin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Our+Knowledge+of+the+External+World&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fourknowledgeofth005200mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/zucchi/NuoviFile/Russell(1914).pdf">"Our Knowledge of the External World"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910141436/http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/zucchi/NuoviFile/Russell(1914).pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Knowledge+of+the+External+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.filosofia.unimi.it%2Fzucchi%2FNuoviFile%2FRussell%281914%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924032577532">"Principles of social reconstruction"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. 1916.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Principles+of+social+reconstruction&rft.date=1916&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924032577532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2019" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bertrand (14 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U45rtgAACAAJ">"The Policy of the Entente 1904–1914: A Reply to Professor Gilbert Murray"</a>. National Labour Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910141435/https://books.google.com/books?id=U45rtgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2019</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Policy+of+the+Entente+1904%E2%80%931914%3A+A+Reply+to+Professor+Gilbert+Murray&rft.pub=National+Labour+Press&rft.date=2019-05-14&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU45rtgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4776"><i>Political Ideals</i></a> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Ideals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F4776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/690"><i>Proposed Roads to Freedom</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200825140215/https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/690">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proposed+Roads+to+Freedom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlement" class="citation web cs1">Klement, Kevin C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://people.umass.edu/klement/russell-imp.html">"Russell's Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy"</a>. <i>umass.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130812152838/http://people.umass.edu/klement/russell-imp.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=umass.edu&rft.atitle=Russell%27s+Introduction+to+Mathematical+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Klement&rft.aufirst=Kevin+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.umass.edu%2Fklement%2Frussell-imp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfeiffer1920" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Adam_Pfeiffer" title="George Adam Pfeiffer">Pfeiffer, G. A.</a> (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1920-27-02/S0002-9904-1920-03365-3/S0002-9904-1920-03365-3.pdf">"Review: <i>Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy</i> by Bertrand Russell"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society" title="Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society">Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society</a></i>. <b>27</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">81–</span>90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1920-03365-3">10.1090/s0002-9904-1920-03365-3</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1920-27-02/S0002-9904-1920-03365-3/S0002-9904-1920-03365-3.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Mathematical+Society&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Introduction+to+Mathematical+Philosophy+by+Bertrand+Russell&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E81-%3C%2Fspan%3E90&rft.date=1920&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1920-03365-3&rft.aulast=Pfeiffer&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ams.org%2Fjournals%2Fbull%2F1920-27-02%2FS0002-9904-1920-03365-3%2FS0002-9904-1920-03365-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoma00russuoft">"Introduction to mathematical philosophy"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. 1920.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+mathematical+philosophy&rft.date=1920&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoma00russuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17350"><i>The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200922162128/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17350">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Practice+and+Theory+of+Bolshevism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F17350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2529"><i>The Analysis of Mind</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201019214317/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2529">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Analysis+of+Mind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13940"><i>The Problem of China</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200909072840/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13940">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span> – via Project Gutenberg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+China&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F13940&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061119081311/http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm">"Why I Am Not A Christian"</a>. positiveatheism.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm">the original</a> on 19 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+I+Am+Not+A+Christian&rft.pub=positiveatheism.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.positiveatheism.org%2Fhist%2Frussell0.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificoutloo030217mbp">"The Scientific Outlook"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. George Allen And Unwin Limited. 1954.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Outlook&rft.date=1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificoutloo030217mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EducationAndTheSocialOrder">"Education and the Social Order"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Education+and+the+Social+Order&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEducationAndTheSocialOrder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190822071656/http://www.zpub.com/notes/idle.html">"In Praise of Idleness By Bertrand Russell"</a>. zpub.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zpub.com/notes/idle.html">the original</a> on 22 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2001</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+Praise+of+Idleness+By+Bertrand+Russell&rft.pub=zpub.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zpub.com%2Fnotes%2Fidle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/BertrandRussell-AnInquaryIntoMeaningAndTruth">An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth</a> at <a href="/wiki/Archive.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Archive.org">archive.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westernphilosoph035502mbp">"Western Philosophy"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Western+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesternphilosoph035502mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/AuthorityAndTheIndividual">"Authority and the individual"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Authority+and+the+individual&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FAuthorityAndTheIndividual&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unpopularessays027477mbp">"Unpopular Essays"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. Simon and Schuster. 1950.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Unpopular+Essays&rft.date=1950&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funpopularessays027477mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nightmaresofemin032011mbp">"Nightmares of Eminent Persons And Other Stories"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. The Bodley Head. 1954.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Nightmares+of+Eminent+Persons+And+Other+Stories&rft.date=1954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnightmaresofemin032011mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/portraitsfrommem013629mbp">"Portraits From Memory And Other Essays"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. Simon and Schuster. 1956.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Portraits+From+Memory+And+Other+Essays&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fportraitsfrommem013629mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commonsenseandnu009377mbp">"Common Sense And Nuclear Warfare"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. Simon and Schuster. 1959.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=Common+Sense+And+Nuclear+Warfare&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommonsenseandnu009377mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/myphilosophicald001521mbp">"My Philosophical Development"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. Simon and Schuster. 1959.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=My+Philosophical+Development&rft.date=1959&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmyphilosophicald001521mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive.org-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-archive.org_208-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-archive.org_208-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofb017701mbp">"The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1872 1914"</a>. <i>Internet Archive</i>. Little, Brown and company. 1951.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Archive&rft.atitle=The+Autobiography+of+Bertrand+Russell+1872+1914&rft.date=1951&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fautobiographyofb017701mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Pigden in Bertrand Russell, <i>Russell on Ethics: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell</i>, Routledge (2013), p. 14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlagge2001" class="citation book cs1">Klagge, James C., ed. (2001). <i>Wittgenstein: Biography and Philosophy</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wittgenstein%3A+Biography+and+Philosophy&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHochschild2011" class="citation book cs1">Hochschild, Adam (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618758289/page/270"><i>To end all wars: a story of loyalty and rebellion, 1914–1918</i></a>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618758289/page/270">270–272</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-75828-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-75828-9"><bdi>978-0-618-75828-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+end+all+wars%3A+a+story+of+loyalty+and+rebellion%2C+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=270-272&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-618-75828-9&rft.aulast=Hochschild&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780618758289%2Fpage%2F270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200701202421/https://russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca/brworks.htm">"McMaster University: The Bertrand Russell Research Centre"</a>. <i>Russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca</i>. 6 March 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca/brworks.htm">the original</a> on 1 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russell.humanities.mcmaster.ca&rft.atitle=McMaster+University%3A+The+Bertrand+Russell+Research+Centre&rft.date=2017-03-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frussell.humanities.mcmaster.ca%2Fbrworks.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bracers.mcmaster.ca/">"Bertrand Russell Archives Catalogue Entry and Research System"</a>. <i>McMaster University Library</i>. The William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240910144704/https://bracers.mcmaster.ca/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=McMaster+University+Library&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell+Archives+Catalogue+Entry+and+Research+System&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbracers.mcmaster.ca%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_sources">General and cited sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: General and cited sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1900, <i>Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries</i>, <i>Rivista di matematica 7</i>: 115–148.</li> <li>1901, <i>On the Notion of Order</i>, <i>Mind (n.s.) 10</i>: 35–51.</li> <li>1902, (with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>), <i>On Cardinal Numbers</i>, <i>American Journal of Mathematics 24</i>: 367–384.</li> <li>1948, BBC Reith Lectures: Authority and the Individual A series of six radio lectures broadcast on the <a href="/wiki/BBC_Home_Service" title="BBC Home Service">BBC Home Service</a> in December 1948.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>John Newsome Crossley. <i>A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox</i>, <i>Australian Journal of Philosophy</i> 51, 1973, 70–71.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivor_Grattan-Guinness" title="Ivor Grattan-Guinness">Ivor Grattan-Guinness</a>. <i>The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.</li> <li>Alan Ryan. <i>Bertrand Russell: A Political Life</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1924" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_Bertrand_Russell#Eugenics" title="Political views of Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/download/icarusorfutureof00russ/icarusorfutureof00russ.pdf"><i>Icarus, or, The future of science</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Icarus%2C+or%2C+The+future+of+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=E.P.+Dutton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdownload%2Ficarusorfutureof00russ%2Ficarusorfutureof00russ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_about_Russell's_philosophy"><span id="Books_about_Russell.27s_philosophy"></span>Books about Russell's philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Books about Russell's philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Alfred Julius Ayer</a>. <i>Russell</i>, London: Fontana, 1972. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-632965-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-632965-9">0-00-632965-9</a>. A lucid summary exposition of Russell's thought.</li> <li>Elizabeth Ramsden Eames. <i>Bertrand Russell's Theory of Knowledge</i>, London: George Allen and Unwin, 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/488496910">488496910</a>. A clear description of Russell's philosophical development.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celia_Green" title="Celia Green">Celia Green</a>. <i>The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem</i>, Oxford: Oxford Forum, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9536772-1-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-9536772-1-4">0-9536772-1-4</a> Contains a sympathetic analysis of Russell's views on <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._C._Grayling" title="A. C. Grayling">A. C. Grayling</a>. <i>Russell: A Very Short Introduction</i>, Oxford University Press, 2002.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Griffin_(philosopher)" title="Nicholas Griffin (philosopher)">Nicholas Griffin</a>. <i>Russell's Idealist Apprenticeship</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.</li> <li>A. D. Irvine, ed. <i>Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments</i>, 4 volumes, London: Routledge, 1999. Consists of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers.</li> <li>Michael K. Potter. <i>Bertrand Russell's Ethics</i>, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2006. A clear and accessible explanation of Russell's moral philosophy.</li> <li>P. A. Schilpp, ed. <i>The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell</i>, Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University, 1944.</li> <li>John Slater. <i>Bertrand Russell</i>, Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical_books">Biographical books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Biographical books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A. J. Ayer. <i><a href="//archive.org/details/bertrandrussell00ayer/page/n9/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:bertrandrussell00ayer/page/n9/mode/2up">Bertrand Russell</a></i>, New York: Viking Press, 1972, reprint ed. London: University of Chicago Press, 1988, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-03343-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-03343-0">0-226-03343-0</a></li> <li>Andrew Brink. <i>Bertrand Russell: A Psychobiography of a Moralist</i>, Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, Inc., 1989, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-391-03600-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-391-03600-9">0-391-03600-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_W._Clark" title="Ronald W. Clark">Ronald W. Clark</a>. <i>The Life of Bertrand Russell</i>, London: Jonathan Cape, 1975, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-49059-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-49059-2">0-394-49059-2</a></li> <li>Ronald W. Clark. <i>Bertrand Russell and His World</i>, London: Thames & Hudson, 1981, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-13070-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-13070-1">0-500-13070-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert_Crawshay-Williams" title="Rupert Crawshay-Williams">Rupert Crawshay-Williams</a>. <i>Russell Remembered</i>, London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Written by a close friend of Russell's</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="John Lewis (philosopher)">John Lewis</a>. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bertrandrussellphilosopherhumanist">Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist</a></i>, London: Lawerence & Wishart, 1968</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Monk" title="Ray Monk">Ray Monk</a>. <i>Bertrand Russell: Mathematics: Dreams and Nightmares</i>, London: Phoenix, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7538-0190-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7538-0190-6">0-7538-0190-6</a></li> <li>Ray Monk. <i>Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1920</i> Vol. I, New York: Routledge, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-973131-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-973131-2">0-09-973131-2</a></li> <li>Ray Monk. <i>Bertrand Russell: The Ghost of Madness, 1921–1970</i> Vol. II, New York: Routledge, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-927275-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-927275-X">0-09-927275-X</a></li> <li>Caroline Moorehead. <i>Bertrand Russell: A Life</i>, New York: Viking, 1993, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-85008-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-85008-X">0-670-85008-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a>. "Bertrand Russell", in <i>Selected Writings of George Santayana</i>, Norman Henfrey (ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I, 1968, pp. 326–329</li> <li>Peter Stone et al. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vernonpress.com/title?id=219">Bertrand Russell's Life and Legacy</a></i>. Wilmington: Vernon Press, 2017.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katharine_Tait" class="mw-redirect" title="Katharine Tait">Katharine Tait</a>. <i>My Father Bertrand Russell</i>, New York: Thoemmes Press, 1975</li> <li>Alan Wood. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.114739">Bertrand Russell: The Passionate Sceptic</a></i>, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1957.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Bertrand Russell</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bertrand_Russell" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Bertrand Russell">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" class="extiw" title="q:Bertrand Russell">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Bertrand_Russell" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Bertrand Russell">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/bertrand-russell">Works by Bertrand Russell in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/355">Works by Bertrand Russell</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Russell%2C%20Bertrand%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Bertrand%20Russell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Russell%2C%20Bertrand%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Bertrand%20Russell%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Bertrand%20Russell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Russell%2C%20Bertrand%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Bertrand%20Russell%22%29%20OR%20%28%221872-1970%22%20AND%20Russell%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Bertrand Russell</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/1508">Works by Bertrand Russell</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/russ-log">"Bertrand Russell's Logic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bertrand+Russell%27s+Logic&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fruss-log&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABertrand+Russell" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bertrandrussellsociety.org/">The Bertrand Russell Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p04qgxlv">BBC <i>Face to Face</i> interview</a> with Bertrand Russell and <a href="/wiki/John_Freeman_(British_politician)" title="John Freeman (British politician)">John Freeman</a>, broadcast 4 March 1959</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/621">Bertrand Russell</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33760#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1950 "What Desires Are Politically Important?"</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m0017cfb">Interview with Ray Monk</a> at <a href="/wiki/Today_(BBC_Radio_4)" title="Today (BBC Radio 4)"><i>Today</i></a>, 18 May 2022 (from 2:58:35)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;"><a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Peerage of the United Kingdom">Peerage of the United Kingdom</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Russell,_2nd_Earl_Russell" title="Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell">Frank Russell</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Earl_Russell" title="Earl Russell">Earl Russell</a> </b><br />1931–1970 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_4th_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 4th Earl Russell">John Russell</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bertrand_Russell260" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bertrand_Russell_(Navigational_box)" title="Template:Bertrand Russell (Navigational box)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bertrand_Russell_(Navigational_box)" title="Template talk:Bertrand Russell (Navigational box)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bertrand_Russell_(Navigational_box)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bertrand Russell (Navigational box)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bertrand_Russell260" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>British philosopher, logician, and social critic</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Views_on_philosophy62" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_philosophical_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's philosophical views">Views on philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copleston%E2%80%93Russell_debate" title="Copleston–Russell debate">Copleston–Russell debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Views_on_society55" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell%27s_political_views" class="mw-redirect" title="Bertrand Russell's political views">Views on society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Tribunal" title="Russell Tribunal">Russell Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Mathematics11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peano%E2%80%93Russell_notation" title="Peano–Russell notation">Peano–Russell notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png/105px-Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png" decoding="async" width="105" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png/158px-Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png/210px-Bertrand_Russell_transparent_bg.png 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="1859" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics" title="The Principles of Mathematics">The Principles of Mathematics</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a></i> (1905)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> (1910–1913)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Problems_of_Philosophy" title="The Problems of Philosophy">The Problems of Philosophy</a></i> (1912)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_Men_Fight_(book)" title="Why Men Fight (book)">Why Men Fight</a></i> (1916)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Mathematical_Philosophy" title="Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy">Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy</a></i> (1919)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Free_Thought_and_Official_Propaganda" title="Free Thought and Official Propaganda">Free Thought and Official Propaganda</a></i> (1922)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_I_Am_Not_a_Christian" title="Why I Am Not a Christian">Why I Am Not a Christian</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marriage_and_Morals" title="Marriage and Morals">Marriage and Morals</a></i> (1929)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Idleness_and_Other_Essays" title="In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays">In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays</a></i> (1935)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Power:_A_New_Social_Analysis" title="Power: A New Social Analysis">Power: A New Social Analysis</a></i> (1938)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a></i> (1945)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/My_Philosophical_Development" title="My Philosophical Development">My Philosophical Development</a></i> (1959)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alys_Pearsall_Smith" title="Alys Pearsall Smith">Alys Pearsall Smith</a> (wife, 1894–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dora_Russell" title="Dora Russell">Dora Russell</a> (wife, 1921–35)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Russell" title="Patricia Russell">Patricia Russell</a> (wife, 1936–51)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Finch_Russell" title="Edith Finch Russell">Edith Finch Russell</a> (wife, 1952–70)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_4th_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 4th Earl Russell">John Russell, 4th Earl Russell</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Russell,_5th_Earl_Russell" title="Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell">Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Russell,_2nd_Earl_Russell" title="Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell">Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_Viscount_Amberley" title="John Russell, Viscount Amberley">John Russell, Viscount Amberley</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katharine_Russell,_Viscountess_Amberley" title="Katharine Russell, Viscountess Amberley">Katharine Russell, Viscountess Amberley</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (godfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">John Russell, 1st Earl Russell</a> (paternal grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Stanley,_Baroness_Stanley_of_Alderley" title="Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley">Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley</a> (maternal grandmother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bertrand_Russell_Case" title="The Bertrand Russell Case">Appointment court case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Russell" title="Earl Russell">Earl Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell_Peace_Foundation" title="Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation">Peace Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell_Professorship_of_Philosophy" title="Bertrand Russell Professorship of Philosophy">Professorship of Philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Works_by_Bertrand_Russell" title="Category:Works by Bertrand Russell">Category: Works by Bertrand Russell</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles92" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles92" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analytic_philosophy286" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytic_philosophy286" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality32" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Metaphysics343" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Metaphysics" title="Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics" title="Template talk:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Metaphysics343" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">Philosophy of self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics" title="Category:Metaphysics">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Guild_socialism101" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Guild_socialism" title="Template:Guild socialism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Guild_socialism" title="Template talk:Guild socialism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Guild_socialism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Guild socialism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Guild_socialism101" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">Guild socialism</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilds" class="mw-redirect" title="Guilds">Guilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_control" title="Workers' control">Workers' control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">Workplace democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._D._H._Cole" title="G. D. H. Cole">G. D. H. Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S._G._Hobson" class="mw-redirect" title="S. G. Hobson">S. G. Hobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Penty" title="Arthur Penty">Arthur Penty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Robbins" title="Lionel Robbins">Lionel Robbins</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._H._Tawney" title="R. H. Tawney">R. H. Tawney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_Uribe_Uribe" title="Rafael Uribe Uribe">Rafael Uribe Uribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Wigforss" title="Ernst Wigforss">Ernst Wigforss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Guilds_League" class="mw-redirect" title="National Guilds League">National Guilds League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Labour" title="Blue Labour">Blue Labour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism (economic theory)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_syndicalism" title="National syndicalism">National syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Epistemology363" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Epistemology" title="Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology" title="Template talk:Epistemology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology363" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta_(prefix)" title="Meta (prefix)">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_language338" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_language" title="Template talk:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_language338" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_language_articles" title="Index of language articles">Index of language articles</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_language" title="List of philosophers of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_religion576" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Template talk:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_religion576" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li>or <a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">religious belief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Conceptions of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_universe" title="Fine-tuned universe">Fine-tuning of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_wager" title="Pascal's wager">Pascal's wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Proper basis and Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" class="mw-redirect" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possibilianism" title="Possibilianism">Possibilianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_game_(philosophy)" title="Language game (philosophy)">Language game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<br />of religion</a></div><br />(by date active)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<br />1850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikan_Spir" title="Afrikan Spir">Afrikan Spir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<br />1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W K Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<br />postwar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frithjof_Schuon" title="Frithjof Schuon">Frithjof Schuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<br />1990<br />2010</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Zacharias" title="Ravi Zacharias">Ravi Zacharias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desacralization_of_knowledge" title="Desacralization of knowledge">Desacralization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophy of religion">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_legitimacy" title="Political legitimacy">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Set_theory409" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Set_theory" title="Template:Set theory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Set_theory" title="Template talk:Set theory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Set_theory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Set theory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Set_theory409" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set theory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set (mathematics)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Venn_diagram" title="Venn diagram"><img alt="Venn diagram of set intersection" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Venn_A_intersect_B.svg/100px-Venn_A_intersect_B.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Venn_A_intersect_B.svg/150px-Venn_A_intersect_B.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Venn_A_intersect_B.svg/200px-Venn_A_intersect_B.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="250" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axioms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_adjunction" title="Axiom of adjunction">Adjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_choice" title="Axiom of choice">Choice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_countable_choice" title="Axiom of countable choice">countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_dependent_choice" title="Axiom of dependent choice">dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_global_choice" title="Axiom of global choice">global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_constructibility" title="Axiom of constructibility">Constructibility (V=L)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_determinacy" title="Axiom of determinacy">Determinacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_projective_determinacy" title="Axiom of projective determinacy">projective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_extensionality" title="Axiom of extensionality">Extensionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_infinity" title="Axiom of infinity">Infinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_limitation_of_size" title="Axiom of limitation of size">Limitation of size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_pairing" title="Axiom of pairing">Pairing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_power_set" title="Axiom of power set">Power set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_regularity" title="Axiom of regularity">Regularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_of_union" title="Axiom of union">Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin%27s_axiom" title="Martin's axiom">Martin's axiom</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_schema" title="Axiom schema">Axiom schema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_schema_of_replacement" title="Axiom schema of replacement">replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiom_schema_of_specification" title="Axiom schema of specification">specification</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)#Basic_operations" title="Set (mathematics)">Operations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_product" title="Cartesian product">Cartesian product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complement_(set_theory)" title="Complement (set theory)">Complement</a> (i.e. set difference)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws" title="De Morgan's laws">De Morgan's laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjoint_union" title="Disjoint union">Disjoint union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_set_identities_and_relations" title="List of set identities and relations">Identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersection_(set_theory)" title="Intersection (set theory)">Intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_set" title="Power set">Power set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_difference" title="Symmetric difference">Symmetric difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_(set_theory)" title="Union (set theory)">Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Concepts</li><li>Methods</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almost" title="Almost">Almost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardinality" title="Cardinality">Cardinality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number" title="Cardinal number">Cardinal number</a> (<a href="/wiki/Large_cardinal" title="Large cardinal">large</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(set_theory)" title="Class (set theory)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructible_universe" title="Constructible universe">Constructible universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis" title="Continuum hypothesis">Continuum hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantor%27s_diagonal_argument" title="Cantor's diagonal argument">Diagonal argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Element_(mathematics)" title="Element (mathematics)">Element</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_pair" title="Ordered pair">ordered pair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuple" title="Tuple">tuple</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_sets" title="Family of sets">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forcing_(mathematics)" title="Forcing (mathematics)">Forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bijection" title="Bijection">One-to-one correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinal_number" title="Ordinal number">Ordinal number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set-builder_notation" title="Set-builder notation">Set-builder notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfinite_induction" title="Transfinite induction">Transfinite induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venn_diagram" title="Venn diagram">Venn diagram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a> types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_set" title="Amorphous set">Amorphous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countable_set" title="Countable set">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_set" title="Empty set">Empty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_set" title="Finite set">Finite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hereditarily_finite_set" title="Hereditarily finite set">hereditarily</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_(set_theory)" title="Filter (set theory)">Filter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filter_(set_theory)" title="Filter (set theory)">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_(set_theory)#Filters_and_prefilters" title="Filter (set theory)">subbase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrafilter_on_a_set" title="Ultrafilter on a set">Ultrafilter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_set" title="Fuzzy set">Fuzzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_set" title="Infinite set">Infinite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dedekind-infinite_set" title="Dedekind-infinite set">Dedekind-infinite</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computable_set" title="Computable set">Recursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singleton_(mathematics)" title="Singleton (mathematics)">Singleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">Subset <b>·</b> Superset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_set" title="Transitive set">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncountable_set" title="Uncountable set">Uncountable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_set" title="Universal set">Universal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_set_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative set theory">Alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory#Formalized_set_theory" title="Set theory">Axiomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naive_set_theory" title="Naive set theory">Naive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantor%27s_theorem" title="Cantor's theorem">Cantor's theorem</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory" title="Zermelo set theory">Zermelo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_set_theory" title="General set theory">General</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Mathematica" title="Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Foundations" title="New Foundations">New Foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory" title="Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory">Zermelo–Fraenkel </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del_set_theory" title="Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory">von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel </a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Morse%E2%80%93Kelley_set_theory" title="Morse–Kelley set theory">Morse–Kelley</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kripke%E2%80%93Platek_set_theory" title="Kripke–Platek set theory">Kripke–Platek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarski%E2%80%93Grothendieck_set_theory" title="Tarski–Grothendieck set theory">Tarski–Grothendieck</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradoxes_of_set_theory" title="Paradoxes of set theory">Paradoxes</a></li><li>Problems</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox" title="Russell's paradox">Russell's paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suslin%27s_problem" title="Suslin's problem">Suslin's problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burali-Forti_paradox" title="Burali-Forti paradox">Burali-Forti paradox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Set_theorists" title="Category:Set theorists">Set theorists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bernays" title="Paul Bernays">Paul Bernays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Cantor" title="Georg Cantor">Georg Cantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cohen" title="Paul Cohen">Paul Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dedekind" title="Richard Dedekind">Richard Dedekind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Fraenkel" title="Abraham Fraenkel">Abraham Fraenkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jech" title="Thomas Jech">Thomas Jech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Quine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoralf_Skolem" title="Thoralf Skolem">Thoralf Skolem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Zermelo" title="Ernst Zermelo">Ernst Zermelo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature168" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature168" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature" title="List of Nobel laureates in Literature">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Nobel Prize in Literature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1920</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1901_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1901 Nobel Prize in Literature">1901</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sully_Prudhomme" title="Sully Prudhomme">Sully Prudhomme</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1902_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1902 Nobel Prize in Literature">1902</a>: <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1903_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1903 Nobel Prize in Literature">1903</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rnstjerne_Bj%C3%B8rnson" title="Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson">Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1904_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1904 Nobel Prize in Literature">1904</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Mistral" title="Frédéric Mistral">Frédéric Mistral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Echegaray" title="José Echegaray">José Echegaray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1905_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1905 Nobel Prize in Literature">1905</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz" title="Henryk Sienkiewicz">Henryk Sienkiewicz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1906_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1906 Nobel Prize in Literature">1906</a>: <a href="/wiki/Giosu%C3%A8_Carducci" title="Giosuè Carducci">Giosuè Carducci</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1907_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1907 Nobel Prize in Literature">1907</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1908_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1908 Nobel Prize in Literature">1908</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Christoph_Eucken" title="Rudolf Christoph Eucken">Rudolf Eucken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1909_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1909 Nobel Prize in Literature">1909</a>: <a href="/wiki/Selma_Lagerl%C3%B6f" title="Selma Lagerlöf">Selma Lagerlöf</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1910_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1910 Nobel Prize in Literature">1910</a>: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Heyse" title="Paul Heyse">Paul Heyse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1911_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1911 Nobel Prize in Literature">1911</a>: <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maurice Maeterlinck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1912_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1912 Nobel Prize in Literature">1912</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gerhart_Hauptmann" title="Gerhart Hauptmann">Gerhart Hauptmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1913_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1913 Nobel Prize in Literature">1913</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1914_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1914 Nobel Prize in Literature">1914</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1915_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1915 Nobel Prize in Literature">1915</a>: <a href="/wiki/Romain_Rolland" title="Romain Rolland">Romain Rolland</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1916_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1916 Nobel Prize in Literature">1916</a>: <a href="/wiki/Verner_von_Heidenstam" title="Verner von Heidenstam">Verner von Heidenstam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1917_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1917 Nobel Prize in Literature">1917</a>: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Adolph_Gjellerup" title="Karl Adolph Gjellerup">Karl Gjellerup</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Pontoppidan" title="Henrik Pontoppidan">Henrik Pontoppidan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1918_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1918 Nobel Prize in Literature">1918</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1919_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1919 Nobel Prize in Literature">1919</a>: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Spitteler" title="Carl Spitteler">Carl Spitteler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1920_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1920 Nobel Prize in Literature">1920</a>: <a href="/wiki/Knut_Hamsun" title="Knut Hamsun">Knut Hamsun</a></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1921–1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1921_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1921 Nobel Prize in Literature">1921</a>: <a href="/wiki/Anatole_France" title="Anatole France">Anatole France</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1922_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1922 Nobel Prize in Literature">1922</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jacinto_Benavente" title="Jacinto Benavente">Jacinto Benavente</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1923_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1923 Nobel Prize in Literature">1923</a>: <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1923_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1923 Nobel Prize in Literature">1924</a>: <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont" title="Władysław Reymont">Władysław Reymont</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1925_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1925 Nobel Prize in Literature">1925</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw" title="George Bernard Shaw">George Bernard Shaw</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1926_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1926 Nobel Prize in Literature">1926</a>: <a href="/wiki/Grazia_Deledda" title="Grazia Deledda">Grazia Deledda</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1927_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1927 Nobel Prize in Literature">1927</a>: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1928_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1928 Nobel Prize in Literature">1928</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sigrid_Undset" title="Sigrid Undset">Sigrid Undset</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1929_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1929 Nobel Prize in Literature">1929</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas Mann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1930_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1930 Nobel Prize in Literature">1930</a>: <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Lewis" title="Sinclair Lewis">Sinclair Lewis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1931_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1931 Nobel Prize in Literature">1931</a>: <a href="/wiki/Erik_Axel_Karlfeldt" title="Erik Axel Karlfeldt">Erik Axel Karlfeldt</a> (<i>posthumously</i>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1932_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1932 Nobel Prize in Literature">1932</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1933_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1933 Nobel Prize in Literature">1933</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Bunin" title="Ivan Bunin">Ivan Bunin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1934_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1934 Nobel Prize in Literature">1934</a>: <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Luigi Pirandello</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1935_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1935 Nobel Prize in Literature">1935</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1936_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1936 Nobel Prize in Literature">1936</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">Eugene O'Neill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1937_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1937 Nobel Prize in Literature">1937</a>: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Martin_du_Gard" title="Roger Martin du Gard">Roger Martin du Gard</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1938_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1938 Nobel Prize in Literature">1938</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pearl_S._Buck" title="Pearl S. Buck">Pearl S. Buck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1939_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1939 Nobel Prize in Literature">1939</a>: <a href="/wiki/Frans_Eemil_Sillanp%C3%A4%C3%A4" title="Frans Eemil Sillanpää">Frans Eemil Sillanpää</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1940_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1940 Nobel Prize in Literature">1940</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1941–1960</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1941_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1941 Nobel Prize in Literature">1941</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1942_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1942 Nobel Prize in Literature">1942</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey"><a href="/wiki/1943_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1943 Nobel Prize in Literature">1943</a></span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1944_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1944 Nobel Prize in Literature">1944</a>: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_V._Jensen" title="Johannes V. Jensen">Johannes V. Jensen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1945_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1945 Nobel Prize in Literature">1945</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gabriela_Mistral" title="Gabriela Mistral">Gabriela Mistral</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1946_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1946 Nobel Prize in Literature">1946</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hesse" title="Hermann Hesse">Hermann Hesse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1947_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1947 Nobel Prize in Literature">1947</a>: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">André Gide</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1948_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1948 Nobel Prize in Literature">1948</a>: <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1949_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1949 Nobel Prize in Literature">1949</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1950_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1950 Nobel Prize in Literature">1950</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1951_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1951 Nobel Prize in Literature">1951</a>: <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A4r_Lagerkvist" title="Pär Lagerkvist">Pär Lagerkvist</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1952_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1952 Nobel Prize in Literature">1952</a>: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mauriac" title="François Mauriac">François Mauriac</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1953_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1953 Nobel Prize in Literature">1953</a>: <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1954_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1954 Nobel Prize in Literature">1954</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Ernest Hemingway</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1955_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1955 Nobel Prize in Literature">1955</a>: <a href="/wiki/Halld%C3%B3r_Laxness" title="Halldór Laxness">Halldór Laxness</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1956_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1956 Nobel Prize in Literature">1956</a>: <a href="/wiki/Juan_Ram%C3%B3n_Jim%C3%A9nez" title="Juan Ramón Jiménez">Juan Ramón Jiménez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1957_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1957 Nobel Prize in Literature">1957</a>: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1958_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1958 Nobel Prize in Literature">1958</a>: <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pasternak" title="Boris Pasternak">Boris Pasternak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1959_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1959 Nobel Prize in Literature">1959</a>: <a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1960_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1960 Nobel Prize in Literature">1960</a>: <a href="/wiki/Saint-John_Perse" title="Saint-John Perse">Saint-John Perse</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1961–1980</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1961_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1961 Nobel Prize in Literature">1961</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ivo_Andri%C4%87" title="Ivo Andrić">Ivo Andrić</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1962_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1962 Nobel Prize in Literature">1962</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_Steinbeck" title="John Steinbeck">John Steinbeck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1963_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1963 Nobel Prize in Literature">1963</a>: <a href="/wiki/Giorgos_Seferis" title="Giorgos Seferis">Giorgos Seferis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1964_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1964 Nobel Prize in Literature">1964</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> (declined award)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1965_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1965 Nobel Prize in Literature">1965</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Sholokhov" title="Mikhail Sholokhov">Mikhail Sholokhov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1966_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1966 Nobel Prize in Literature">1966</a>: <a href="/wiki/Shmuel_Yosef_Agnon" title="Shmuel Yosef Agnon">Shmuel Yosef Agnon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelly_Sachs" title="Nelly Sachs">Nelly Sachs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1967_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1967 Nobel Prize in Literature">1967</a>: <a href="/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Asturias" title="Miguel Ángel Asturias">Miguel Ángel Asturias</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1968_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1968 Nobel Prize in Literature">1968</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yasunari_Kawabata" title="Yasunari Kawabata">Yasunari Kawabata</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1969_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1969 Nobel Prize in Literature">1969</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1970_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1970 Nobel Prize in Literature">1970</a>: <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1971_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1971 Nobel Prize in Literature">1971</a>: <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Neruda" title="Pablo Neruda">Pablo Neruda</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1972_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1972 Nobel Prize in Literature">1972</a>: <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll" title="Heinrich Böll">Heinrich Böll</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1973_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1973 Nobel Prize in Literature">1973</a>: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_White" title="Patrick White">Patrick White</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1974_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1974 Nobel Prize in Literature">1974</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eyvind_Johnson" title="Eyvind Johnson">Eyvind Johnson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harry_Martinson" title="Harry Martinson">Harry Martinson</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1975_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1975 Nobel Prize in Literature">1975</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Montale" title="Eugenio Montale">Eugenio Montale</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1976_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1976 Nobel Prize in Literature">1976</a>: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Bellow" title="Saul Bellow">Saul Bellow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1977_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1977 Nobel Prize in Literature">1977</a>: <a href="/wiki/Vicente_Aleixandre" title="Vicente Aleixandre">Vicente Aleixandre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1978_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1978 Nobel Prize in Literature">1978</a>: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Bashevis_Singer" title="Isaac Bashevis Singer">Isaac Bashevis Singer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1979_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1979 Nobel Prize in Literature">1979</a>: <a href="/wiki/Odysseas_Elytis" title="Odysseas Elytis">Odysseas Elytis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1980_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1980 Nobel Prize in Literature">1980</a>: <a href="/wiki/Czes%C5%82aw_Mi%C5%82osz" title="Czesław Miłosz">Czesław Miłosz</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1981–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1981_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1981 Nobel Prize in Literature">1981</a>: <a href="/wiki/Elias_Canetti" title="Elias Canetti">Elias Canetti</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1982_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1982 Nobel Prize in Literature">1982</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Garc%C3%ADa_M%C3%A1rquez" title="Gabriel García Márquez">Gabriel García Márquez</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1983_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1983 Nobel Prize in Literature">1983</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Golding" title="William Golding">William Golding</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1984_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1984 Nobel Prize in Literature">1984</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Seifert" title="Jaroslav Seifert">Jaroslav Seifert</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1985_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1985 Nobel Prize in Literature">1985</a>: <a href="/wiki/Claude_Simon" title="Claude Simon">Claude Simon</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1986_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1986 Nobel Prize in Literature">1986</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1987_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1987 Nobel Prize in Literature">1987</a>: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Brodsky" title="Joseph Brodsky">Joseph Brodsky</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1988_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1988 Nobel Prize in Literature">1988</a>: <a href="/wiki/Naguib_Mahfouz" title="Naguib Mahfouz">Naguib Mahfouz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1989_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1989 Nobel Prize in Literature">1989</a>: <a href="/wiki/Camilo_Jos%C3%A9_Cela" title="Camilo José Cela">Camilo José Cela</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1990 Nobel Prize in Literature">1990</a>: <a href="/wiki/Octavio_Paz" title="Octavio Paz">Octavio Paz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1991_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1991 Nobel Prize in Literature">1991</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nadine_Gordimer" title="Nadine Gordimer">Nadine Gordimer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1992_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1992 Nobel Prize in Literature">1992</a>: <a href="/wiki/Derek_Walcott" title="Derek Walcott">Derek Walcott</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1993_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1993 Nobel Prize in Literature">1993</a>: <a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1994_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1994 Nobel Prize in Literature">1994</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kenzabur%C5%8D_%C5%8Ce" title="Kenzaburō Ōe">Kenzaburō Ōe</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1995_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1995 Nobel Prize in Literature">1995</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seamus_Heaney" title="Seamus Heaney">Seamus Heaney</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1996_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1996 Nobel Prize in Literature">1996</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wis%C5%82awa_Szymborska" title="Wisława Szymborska">Wisława Szymborska</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1997_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1997 Nobel Prize in Literature">1997</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1998_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1998 Nobel Prize in Literature">1998</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Saramago" title="José Saramago">José Saramago</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1999_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1999 Nobel Prize in Literature">1999</a>: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass" title="Günter Grass">Günter Grass</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2000_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2000 Nobel Prize in Literature">2000</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gao_Xingjian" title="Gao Xingjian">Gao Xingjian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–2020</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2001_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2001 Nobel Prize in Literature">2001</a>: <a href="/wiki/V._S._Naipaul" title="V. S. Naipaul">V. S. Naipaul</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2002 Nobel Prize in Literature">2002</a>: <a href="/wiki/Imre_Kert%C3%A9sz" title="Imre Kertész">Imre Kertész</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2003_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2003 Nobel Prize in Literature">2003</a>: <a href="/wiki/J._M._Coetzee" title="J. M. Coetzee">J. M. Coetzee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2004_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2004 Nobel Prize in Literature">2004</a>: <a href="/wiki/Elfriede_Jelinek" title="Elfriede Jelinek">Elfriede Jelinek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2005_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2005 Nobel Prize in Literature">2005</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2006_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2006 Nobel Prize in Literature">2006</a>: <a href="/wiki/Orhan_Pamuk" title="Orhan Pamuk">Orhan Pamuk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2007_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2007 Nobel Prize in Literature">2007</a>: <a href="/wiki/Doris_Lessing" title="Doris Lessing">Doris Lessing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2008_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2008 Nobel Prize in Literature">2008</a>: <a href="/wiki/J._M._G._Le_Cl%C3%A9zio" title="J. M. G. Le Clézio">J. M. G. Le Clézio</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2009_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2009 Nobel Prize in Literature">2009</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herta_M%C3%BCller" title="Herta Müller">Herta Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2010_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2010 Nobel Prize in Literature">2010</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Vargas_Llosa" title="Mario Vargas Llosa">Mario Vargas Llosa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2011_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2011 Nobel Prize in Literature">2011</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Transtr%C3%B6mer" title="Tomas Tranströmer">Tomas Tranströmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2012_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2012 Nobel Prize in Literature">2012</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mo_Yan" title="Mo Yan">Mo Yan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2013_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2013 Nobel Prize in Literature">2013</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alice_Munro" title="Alice Munro">Alice Munro</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2014 Nobel Prize in Literature">2014</a>: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Modiano" title="Patrick Modiano">Patrick Modiano</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2015_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2015 Nobel Prize in Literature">2015</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alexievich" title="Svetlana Alexievich">Svetlana Alexievich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2016_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2016 Nobel Prize in Literature">2016</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2017_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2017 Nobel Prize in Literature">2017</a>: <a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Ishiguro" title="Kazuo Ishiguro">Kazuo Ishiguro</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2018_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2018 Nobel Prize in Literature">2018</a>: <a href="/wiki/Olga_Tokarczuk" title="Olga Tokarczuk">Olga Tokarczuk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2019_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2019 Nobel Prize in Literature">2019</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peter_Handke" title="Peter Handke">Peter Handke</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Literature">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Louise_Gl%C3%BCck" title="Louise Glück">Louise Glück</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2021–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Literature">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abdulrazak_Gurnah" title="Abdulrazak Gurnah">Abdulrazak Gurnah</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Literature">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Annie_Ernaux" title="Annie Ernaux">Annie Ernaux</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Literature">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jon_Fosse" title="Jon Fosse">Jon Fosse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2024_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2024 Nobel Prize in Literature">2024</a>: <a href="/wiki/Han_Kang" title="Han Kang">Han Kang</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2025_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2025 Nobel Prize in Literature">2025</a>: <i>to be determined</i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1950_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1950 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1950 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1950_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1950 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1950_Nobel_Prize_laureates913" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1950 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Diels" title="Otto Diels">Otto Diels</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Alder" title="Kurt Alder">Kurt Alder</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1950_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1950 Nobel Prize in Literature">1950</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">C. F. Powell</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Showalter Hench</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Calvin Kendall</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> (Poland/Switzerland)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1945_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1945 Nobel Prize winners">1945</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1946_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1946 Nobel Prize winners">1946</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1947_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1947 Nobel Prize winners">1947</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1948_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1948 Nobel Prize winners">1948</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1949_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1949 Nobel Prize winners">1949</a></dd> <dd><b>1950 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1951_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1951 Nobel Prize winners">1951</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1952_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1952 Nobel Prize winners">1952</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1953_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1953 Nobel Prize winners">1953</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1954_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1954 Nobel Prize winners">1954</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1955_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1955 Nobel Prize winners">1955</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="De_Morgan_Medallists24" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:De_Morgan_Medallists" title="Template:De Morgan Medallists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:De_Morgan_Medallists" title="Template talk:De Morgan Medallists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:De_Morgan_Medallists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:De Morgan Medallists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="De_Morgan_Medallists24" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/De_Morgan_Medal" title="De Morgan Medal">De Morgan Medallists</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Cayley" title="Arthur Cayley">Arthur Cayley</a> (1884)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester" title="James Joseph Sylvester">James Joseph Sylvester</a> (1887)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> (1890)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Felix Klein</a> (1893)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Roberts_(mathematician)" title="Samuel Roberts (mathematician)">S. Roberts</a> (1896)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Burnside" title="William Burnside">William Burnside</a> (1899)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/A._G._Greenhill" class="mw-redirect" title="A. G. Greenhill">A. G. Greenhill</a> (1902)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/H._F._Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="H. F. Baker">H. F. Baker</a> (1905)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J._W._L._Glaisher" class="mw-redirect" title="J. W. L. Glaisher">J. W. L. Glaisher</a> (1908)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Lamb" title="Horace Lamb">Horace Lamb</a> (1911)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J._Larmor" class="mw-redirect" title="J. Larmor">J. Larmor</a> (1914)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._H._Young" class="mw-redirect" title="W. H. Young">W. H. Young</a> (1917)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._W._Hobson" title="E. W. Hobson">E. W. Hobson</a> (1920)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/P._A._MacMahon" class="mw-redirect" title="P. A. MacMahon">P. A. MacMahon</a> (1923)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Edward_Hough_Love" title="Augustus Edward Hough Love">A. E. H. Love</a> (1926)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Harold_Hardy" class="mw-redirect" title="Godfrey Harold Hardy">Godfrey Harold Hardy</a> (1929)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a> (1932)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a> (1935)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Edensor_Littlewood" title="John Edensor Littlewood">J. E. Littlewood</a> (1938)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Mordell" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mordell">Louis Mordell</a> (1941)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> (1944)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Neville_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="George Neville Watson">George Neville Watson</a> (1947)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/A._S._Besicovitch" class="mw-redirect" title="A. S. Besicovitch">A. S. Besicovitch</a> (1950)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Charles_Titchmarsh" title="Edward Charles Titchmarsh">E. C. Titchmarsh</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G._I._Taylor" title="G. I. Taylor">G. I. Taylor</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._V._D._Hodge" title="W. V. D. Hodge">W. V. D. Hodge</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Newman" title="Max Newman">Max Newman</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Hall" title="Philip Hall">Philip Hall</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Mahler" title="Kurt Mahler">Kurt Mahler</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Graham_Higman" title="Graham Higman">Graham Higman</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Ambrose_Rogers" title="Claude Ambrose Rogers">C. Ambrose Rogers</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/K._F._Roth" class="mw-redirect" title="K. F. Roth">K. F. Roth</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J._W._S._Cassels" title="J. W. S. Cassels">J. W. S. Cassels</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/D._G._Kendall" class="mw-redirect" title="D. G. Kendall">D. G. Kendall</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Fr%C3%B6hlich" title="Albrecht Fröhlich">Albrecht Fröhlich</a> (1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._K._Hayman" class="mw-redirect" title="W. K. Hayman">W. K. Hayman</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R._A._Rankin" class="mw-redirect" title="R. A. Rankin">R. A. Rankin</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Green_(mathematician)" title="Sandy Green (mathematician)">J. A. Green</a> (2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Roger Penrose</a> (2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bryan_John_Birch" title="Bryan John Birch">Bryan John Birch</a> (2007)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Keith_William_Morton" title="Keith William Morton">Keith William Morton</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Griggs_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="John Griggs Thompson">John Griggs Thompson</a> (2013)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Gowers" title="Timothy Gowers">Timothy Gowers</a> (2016)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wiles" title="Andrew Wiles">Andrew Wiles</a> (2019)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Recipients_of_the_Sonning_Prize35" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sonning_Prize_laureates" title="Template:Sonning Prize laureates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sonning_Prize_laureates" title="Template talk:Sonning Prize laureates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sonning_Prize_laureates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sonning Prize laureates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Recipients_of_the_Sonning_Prize35" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Recipients of the <a href="/wiki/Sonning_Prize" title="Sonning Prize">Sonning Prize</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1950)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer" title="Albert Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alvar_Aalto" title="Alvar Aalto">Alvar Aalto</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Pire" title="Dominique Pire">Dominique Pire</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Richard_von_Coudenhove-Kalergi" title="Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi">Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Laurence_Olivier" title="Laurence Olivier">Laurence Olivier</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Willem_Visser_%27t_Hooft" title="Willem Visser 't Hooft">Willem Visser 't Hooft</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Halld%C3%B3r_Laxness" title="Halldór Laxness">Halldór Laxness</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Tau" title="Max Tau">Max Tau</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Danilo_Dolci" title="Danilo Dolci">Danilo Dolci</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arne_N%C3%A6ss" title="Arne Næss">Arne Næss</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Gmeiner" title="Hermann Gmeiner">Hermann Gmeiner</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Heinesen" title="William Heinesen">William Heinesen</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman" title="Ingmar Bergman">Ingmar Bergman</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Kie%C5%9Blowski" title="Krzysztof Kieślowski">Krzysztof Kieślowski</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass" title="Günter Grass">Günter Grass</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B8rn_Utzon" title="Jørn Utzon">Jørn Utzon</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Barba" title="Eugenio Barba">Eugenio Barba</a> (2000)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Robinson" title="Mary Robinson">Mary Robinson</a> (2002)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mona_Hatoum" title="Mona Hatoum">Mona Hatoum</a> (2004)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%81gnes_Heller" title="Ágnes Heller">Ágnes Heller</a> (2006)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Renzo_Piano" title="Renzo Piano">Renzo Piano</a> (2008)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Magnus_Enzensberger" title="Hans Magnus Enzensberger">Hans Magnus Enzensberger</a> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orhan_Pamuk" title="Orhan Pamuk">Orhan Pamuk</a> (2012)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Haneke" title="Michael Haneke">Michael Haneke</a> (2014)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lars_von_Trier" title="Lars von Trier">Lars von Trier</a> (2018)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alexievich" title="Svetlana Alexievich">Svetlana Alexievich</a> (2021)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marina_Abramovi%C4%87" title="Marina Abramović">Marina Abramović</a> (2023)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-nuclear_movement217" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Template:Anti-nuclear movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Template talk:Anti-nuclear movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-nuclear movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-nuclear_movement217" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protests <br /> and groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_organizations" title="Anti-nuclear organizations">Anti-nuclear organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti%E2%80%93nuclear_power_groups" title="List of anti–nuclear power groups">Anti-nuclear power groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_protests" title="Anti-nuclear protests">Anti-nuclear protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament" title="Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament">Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Lawyers_against_Nuclear_Arms" title="International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms">International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Campaign_to_Abolish_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons">International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Total_Elimination_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons">International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Physicians_for_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War" title="International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War">International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayors_for_Peace" title="Mayors for Peace">Mayors for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Information_and_Resource_Service" title="Nuclear Information and Resource Service">Nuclear Information and Resource Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Desert_Experience" title="Nevada Desert Experience">Nevada Desert Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Action#Nuclear_Weapons_Freeze_Campaign" title="Peace Action">Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_Action" title="Peace Action">Peace Action and SANE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicians_for_Social_Responsibility" title="Physicians for Social Responsibility">Physicians for Social Responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pembina_Institute" title="Pembina Institute">Pembina Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sortir_du_nucl%C3%A9aire_(France)" title="Sortir du nucléaire (France)">Sortir du nucléaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Uranium_Hearing" title="World Uranium Hearing">World Uranium Hearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Australia" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Austria" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Canada" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_France" title="Anti-nuclear movement in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Germany" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India#Anti-nuclear_protests" title="Nuclear power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_power_movement_in_Japan" title="Anti-nuclear power movement in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Kazakhstan" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_nuclear-free_zone" title="New Zealand nuclear-free zone">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_Philippines" title="Anti-nuclear movement in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Russia" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koeberg_Alert" title="Koeberg Alert">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_South_Korea" title="Anti-nuclear movement in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Spain" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Switzerland" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan#Post-Fukushima" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_against_nuclear_plant_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Human chain against nuclear plant in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Anti-nuclear movement in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-nuclear movement in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tadatoshi_Akiba" title="Tadatoshi Akiba">Tadatoshi Akiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Berrigan" title="Daniel Berrigan">Daniel Berrigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Bigelow" title="Albert Bigelow">Albert Bigelow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Caldicott" title="Helen Caldicott">Helen Caldicott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Cousins" title="Norman Cousins">Norman Cousins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Edwards_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon Edwards (scientist)">Gordon Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Forsberg" title="Randall Forsberg">Randall Forsberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gofman" title="John Gofman">John Gofman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Green_(activist)" title="Jim Green (activist)">Jim Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gunter" title="Paul Gunter">Paul Gunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuto_Hosaka" title="Nobuto Hosaka">Nobuto Hosaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Hudson" title="Jackie Hudson">Jackie Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Hudson_(activist)" title="Kate Hudson (activist)">Kate Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Kopreitan" title="Ole Kopreitan">Ole Kopreitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lange" title="David Lange">David Lange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amory_Lovins" title="Amory Lovins">Amory Lovins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lown" title="Bernard Lown">Bernard Lown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Caroline Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freda_Meissner-Blau" title="Freda Meissner-Blau">Freda Meissner-Blau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Minor" title="Gregory Minor">Gregory Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenzabur%C5%8D_%C5%8Ce" title="Kenzaburō Ōe">Kenzaburō Ōe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Pentz" title="Mike Pentz">Mike Pentz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">C. F. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Roche" title="Adi Roche">Adi Roche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Scheer" title="Jens Scheer">Jens Scheer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Schell" title="Jonathan Schell">Jonathan Schell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer" title="Albert Schweitzer">Albert Schweitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Weeramantry" title="Christopher Weeramantry">Christopher Weeramantry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">Books about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">Films about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_holocaust_fiction" title="List of nuclear holocaust fiction">Nuclear holocaust fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_in_popular_culture" title="Nuclear weapons in popular culture">Nuclear weapons in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Songs_about_nuclear_war_and_weapons" title="Category:Songs about nuclear war and weapons">Songs about nuclear war and weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related <br /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Secretariat_19" title="Defence Secretariat 19">Defence Secretariat 19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">France and weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_Manifesto" title="Göttingen Manifesto">Göttingen Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_opinion_on_the_Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons">Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainau_Declaration" title="Mainau Declaration">Mainau Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-Free_Future_Award" title="Nuclear-Free Future Award">Nuclear-Free Future Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-free_zone" title="Nuclear-free zone">Nuclear-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_convention" title="Nuclear weapons convention">Nuclear weapons convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">Peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn_Peace_Medal" title="Otto Hahn Peace Medal">Otto Hahn Peace Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_camp" title="Peace camp">Peace camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockholm_International_Peace_Research_Institute" title="Stockholm International Peace Research Institute">Stockholm International Peace Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Sun" title="Smiling Sun">Smiling Sun</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bomb_(film)" title="The Bomb (film)">The Bomb</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Category:Anti-nuclear movement">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Critique_of_work208" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Critique_of_work" title="Template:Critique of work"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Critique_of_work" title="Template talk:Critique of work"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Critique_of_work" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Critique of work"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Critique_of_work208" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical persons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman" title="Abbie Hoffman">Abbie Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Edward Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_M._Bonanno" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfredo M. Bonanno">Alfredo M. Bonanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gorz" title="André Gorz">André Gorz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Abolition_of_Work" title="The Abolition of Work">Bob Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Anders" title="Günther Anders">Günther Anders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll" title="Heinrich Böll">Heinrich Böll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Illich" title="Ivan Illich">Ivan Illich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Paul Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rubin" title="Jerry Rubin">Jerry Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Pieper" title="Josef Pieper">Josef Pieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Vaneigem" title="Raoul Vaneigem">Raoul Vaneigem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renzo_Novatore" title="Renzo Novatore">Renzo Novatore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zo_d%27Axa" title="Zo d'Axa">Zo d'Axa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary persons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Berardi" title="Franco Berardi">Franco Berardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Susan_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="L. Susan Brown">L. Susan Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madeleine_Bunting" title="Madeleine Bunting">Madeleine Bunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurizio_Lazzarato" title="Maurizio Lazzarato">Maurizio Lazzarato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_Peter_Ortlieb" title="Claus Peter Ortlieb">Claus Peter Ortlieb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Paulsen" title="Roland Paulsen">Roland Paulsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Rifkin" title="Jeremy Rifkin">Jeremy Rifkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelope_Rosemont" title="Penelope Rosemont">Penelope Rosemont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Slouka" title="Mark Slouka">Mark Slouka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Srnicek" title="Nick Srnicek">Nick Srnicek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Wolfe" title="Claire Wolfe">Claire Wolfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">John Zerzan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology and related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/996_working_hour_system" title="996 working hour system">996 working hour system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absenteeism" title="Absenteeism">Absenteeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abusive_supervision" title="Abusive supervision">Abusive supervision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_Arbeitsscheu_Reich" title="Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich">Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_work_and_no_play_makes_Jack_a_dull_boy" title="All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy">All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_minimum_Monday" title="Bare minimum Monday">Bare minimum Monday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_job" title="Bullshit job">Bullshit job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_catfishing" title="Career catfishing">Career catfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_badging" title="Coffee badging">Coffee badging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatocracy" title="Corporatocracy">Corporatocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscious_quitting" title="Conscious quitting">Conscious quitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty" title="Cycle of poverty">Cycle of poverty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dolce_far_niente" title="Dolce far niente">Dolce far niente</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_overtime" title="Effects of overtime">Effects of overtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_ghosting" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee ghosting">Employee ghosting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Career_cushioning" title="Career cushioning">Career cushioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careerism" title="Careerism">Careerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flextime" title="Flextime">Flextime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-day_workweek" title="Four-day workweek">Four-day workweek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funemployment" title="Funemployment">Funemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_job" title="Ghost job">Ghost job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uberisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Uberisation">Uberisation</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gig_worker" title="Gig worker">Gig worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cliff" title="Glass cliff">Glass cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness_economics" title="Happiness economics">Happiness economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeymoon-hangover_effect" title="Honeymoon-hangover effect">Honeymoon-hangover effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hush_trip" title="Hush trip">Hush trip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_crafting" title="Job crafting">Job crafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_cuffing" title="Job cuffing">Job cuffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jobless_employed" title="Jobless employed">Jobless employed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loud_quitting" title="Loud quitting">Loud quitting</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neijuan" title="Neijuan">Neijuan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Occupational burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_S.A._suicides" title="Orange S.A. suicides">Orange S.A. suicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwork" title="Overwork">Overwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_punishment" title="Performance punishment">Performance punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-work_society" title="Post-work society">Post-work society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presenteeism" title="Presenteeism">Presenteeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_presenteeism" title="Digital presenteeism">Digital presenteeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_theater" title="Productivity theater">Productivity theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_abuse" title="Professional abuse">Professional abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_safety" title="Psychological safety">Psychological safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quick_quitting" class="mw-redirect" title="Quick quitting">Quick quitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_hiring" title="Quiet hiring">Quiet hiring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_promotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Quiet promotion">Quiet promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_quitting" class="mw-redirect" title="Quiet quitting">Quiet quitting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiet_thriving" title="Quiet thriving">Quiet thriving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lazy_girl_job" title="Lazy girl job">Lazy girl job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rage_applying" title="Rage applying">Rage applying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resenteeism" title="Resenteeism">Resenteeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampo_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sampo generation">Sampo generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunday_scaries" title="Sunday scaries">Sunday scaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-hour_day" title="Six-hour day">Six-hour day</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tang_ping" title="Tang ping">Tang ping</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_workplace" title="Toxic workplace">Toxic workplace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace" title="Narcissism in the workplace">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy_in_the_workplace" title="Psychopathy in the workplace">Psychopathy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">Work ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">Workaholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Work–life interface">Work–life interface</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theater, movies, music and art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%80_Nous_la_Libert%C3%A9" title="À Nous la Liberté">À Nous la Liberté</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Office_Space" title="Office Space">Office Space</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Public_Freedom_Service" title="Swedish Public Freedom Service">Swedish Public Freedom Service</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Take_This_Job_and_Shove_It" title="Take This Job and Shove It">Take This Job and Shove It</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_Work_and_Death" title="The Future of Work and Death">The Future of Work and Death</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Main_Thing_Is_Work!" title="The Main Thing Is Work!">The Main Thing Is Work!</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Working_Class_Goes_to_Heaven" title="The Working Class Goes to Heaven">The Working Class Goes to Heaven</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yama%E2%80%94Attack_to_Attack" title="Yama—Attack to Attack">Yama—Attack to Attack</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Literature_critical_of_work_and_the_work_ethic" title="Category:Literature critical of work and the work ethic">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anekdote_zur_Senkung_der_Arbeitsmoral" title="Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral">Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bartleby,_the_Scrivener" title="Bartleby, the Scrivener">Bartleby, the Scrivener</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bonjour_paresse" title="Bonjour paresse">Bonjour paresse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_Jobs" title="Bullshit Jobs">Bullshit Jobs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conquest_of_Bread" title="The Conquest of Bread">The Conquest of Bread</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason" title="Critique of Economic Reason">Critique of Economic Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fight_Club_(novel)" title="Fight Club (novel)">Fight Club</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Future_Primitive_and_Other_Essays" title="Future Primitive and Other Essays">Future Primitive and Other Essays</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Idleness_and_Other_Essays" title="In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays">In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventing_the_Future:_Postcapitalism_and_a_World_Without_Work" title="Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work">Inventing the Future</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_Against_Work" title="Manifesto Against Work">Manifesto Against Work</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Escapologist" title="New Escapologist">New Escapologist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Poverty_of_Student_Life" title="On the Poverty of Student Life">On the Poverty of Student Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Steal_This_Book" title="Steal This Book">Steal This Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Abolition_of_Work" title="The Abolition of Work">The Abolition of Work</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Work" title="The End of Work">The End of Work</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Use_of_Human_Beings" title="The Human Use of Human Beings">The Human Use of Human Beings</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Idler_(1993)" title="The Idler (1993)">The Idler</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolution_of_Everyday_Life" title="The Revolution of Everyday Life">The Revolution of Everyday Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Right_to_Be_Lazy" title="The Right to Be Lazy">The Right to Be Lazy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Soul_at_Work:_From_Alienation_to_Autonomy" title="The Soul at Work: From Alienation to Autonomy">The Soul at Work: From Alienation to Autonomy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R/antiwork" title="R/antiwork">R/antiwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CrimethInc." title="CrimethInc.">CrimethInc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationist International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_strain" title="Job strain">Job strain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_democracy499" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_democracy" title="Template:Social democracy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Social democracy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_democracy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social democracy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_democracy499" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_social_democracy" title="History of social democracy">History</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_Declaration" title="Frankfurt Declaration">Frankfurt Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godesberg_Program" title="Godesberg Program">Godesberg Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalist%E2%80%93defencist_schism" title="Internationalist–defencist schism">Internationalist–defencist schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">Labor movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy#Second_International_era_and_reform_or_revolution_dispute_(1889–1914)" title="Social democracy">Reformist–revolutionary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopian_socialism" title="Utopian socialism">Utopian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare capitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding: 0.5em;"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Rose_(symbolism)#Socialism_and_social_democracy" title="Rose (symbolism)"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg/75px-Red_rose_02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg/113px-Red_rose_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg/150px-Red_rose_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="579" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">Representative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxism" title="Democracy in Marxism">Marxist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gradualism" title="Gradualism">Gradualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)#Socialism" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_nationalism" title="Left-wing nationalism">Left-wing nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformist_Left" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformist Left">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_corporatism" title="Social corporatism">Social corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_market_economy" title="Social market economy">Social market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">Socialist state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_socialism" title="State socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Trade union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartisme" title="Tripartisme">Tripartisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_spending" title="Welfare spending">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;">Variants</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_socialism" title="Ethical socialism">Ethical socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein#Opinions" title="Eduard Bernstein">Evolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_of_the_21st_century" title="Socialism of the 21st century">Socialism of the 21st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_democrats" title="List of social democrats">People</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Allende" title="Salvador Allende">Allende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern" title="Jacinda Ardern">Ardern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Attlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obafemi_Awolowo" title="Obafemi Awolowo">Awolowo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Batlle_y_Ord%C3%B3%C3%B1ez" title="José Batlle y Ordóñez">Batlle y Ordóñez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Bebel" title="August Bebel">Bebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3mulo_Betancourt" title="Rómulo Betancourt">Betancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto" title="Zulfikar Ali Bhutto">Bhutto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Blanc" title="Louis Blanc">Blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Brandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjalmar_Branting" title="Hjalmar Branting">Branting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Brown" title="Gordon Brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Callaghan" title="James Callaghan">Callaghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1zaro_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="Lázaro Cárdenas">Cárdenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ch%C3%A1vez" title="Hugo Chávez">Chávez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Clark" title="Helen Clark">Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bettino_Craxi" title="Bettino Craxi">Craxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Crosland" title="Anthony Crosland">Crosland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Corbyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Curtin" title="John Curtin">Curtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignacy_Daszy%C5%84ski" title="Ignacy Daszyński">Daszyński</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Debs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommy_Douglas" title="Tommy Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Drees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ebert" title="Friedrich Ebert">Ebert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BClent_Ecevit" title="Bülent Ecevit">Ecevit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Fraser" title="Peter Fraser">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Gaitskell" title="Hugh Gaitskell">Gaitskell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indira_Gandhi" title="Indira Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Felipe González">González</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Goulart" title="João Goulart">Goulart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keir_Hardie" title="Keir Hardie">Hardie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Hilferding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jaur%C3%A8s" title="Jean Jaurès">Jaurès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Junmai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Katayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kerensky" title="Alexander Kerensky">Kerensky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_K%C3%A9thly" title="Anna Kéthly">Kéthly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Kirk" title="Norman Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Lagos" title="Ricardo Lagos">Lagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle" title="Ferdinand Lassalle">Lassalle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Layton" title="Jack Layton">Layton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_L%C3%A9vesque" title="René Lévesque">Lévesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Liebknecht" title="Wilhelm Liebknecht">Liebknecht (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">MacDonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evo_Morales" title="Evo Morales">Morales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_Myrdal" title="Alva Myrdal">Myrdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olof_Palme" title="Olof Palme">Palme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano_Prodi" title="Romano Prodi">Prodi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Joseph_Savage" title="Michael Joseph Savage">Savage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorvald_Stauning" title="Thorvald Stauning">Stauning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Thomas" title="Norman Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joop_den_Uyl" title="Joop den Uyl">Den Uyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb,_1st_Baron_Passfield" title="Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield">Webb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gough_Whitlam" title="Gough Whitlam">Whitlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Wilson" title="Harold Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._S._Woodsworth" title="J. S. Woodsworth">Woodsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noe_Zhordania" title="Noe Zhordania">Zhordania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_democratic_parties" title="List of social democratic parties">Organizations</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Union_Confederation" title="International Trade Union Confederation">International Trade Union Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Socialist_Youth" title="International Union of Socialist Youth">International Union of Socialist Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_of_European_Socialists" title="Party of European Socialists">Party of European Socialists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Alliance" title="Progressive Alliance">Progressive Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_International" title="Socialist International">Socialist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_European_Socialists" title="Young European Socialists">Young European Socialists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria" title="History of the Social Democratic Party of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany" title="History of the Social Democratic Party of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Social democracy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Internationale" title="The Internationale">The Internationale</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Types_of_socialism" title="Types of socialism">Types of socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Economics" title="Portal:Economics">Economics portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories1029" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Template talk:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World Constitutional Convention call signatories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories1029" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention" title="World Constitutional Convention">World Constitutional Convention</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Constitutional_Convention_call" class="mw-redirect" title="World Constitutional Convention call">call</a> signatories</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"> <b><a href="/wiki/Constitution_for_the_Federation_of_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution for the Federation of Earth">Constitution for the Federation of Earth</a></b> </span></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Constitution_Coordinating_Committee" title="World Constitution Coordinating Committee">World Constitution Coordinating Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thane_Read" title="Thane Read">Thane Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Isely" title="Philip Isely">Philip Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Isely" title="Margaret Isely">Margaret Isely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Lloyd" title="Georgia Lloyd">Georgia Lloyd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">Head of governments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_presidents" title="Lists of presidents">Presidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Orlich_Bolmarcich" title="Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich">Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Figueres_Ferrer" title="José Figueres Ferrer">José Figueres Ferrer</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania"><img alt="Tanzania" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Flag_of_Tanzania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tanzania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nyerere" title="Julius Nyerere">Julius Nyerere</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Flag_of_Senegal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Senegal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Léopold Sédar Senghor</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ayub_Khan" title="Ayub Khan">Muhammad Ayub Khan</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica"><img alt="Costa Rica" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Otilio_Ulate_Blanco" title="Otilio Ulate Blanco">Otilio Ulate Blanco</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vice-presidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya"><img alt="Kenya" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jaramogi_Oginga_Odinga" title="Jaramogi Oginga Odinga">Jaramogi Oginga Odinga</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Ministers" class="mw-redirect" title="Prime Ministers">Prime Ministers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Clement_Attlee" title="Clement Attlee">Clement Attlee</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone"><img alt="Sierra Leone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg/45px-Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Milton_Margai" title="Milton Margai">Milton Margai</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Tetsu_Katayama" title="Tetsu Katayama">Tetsu Katayama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Governors" class="mw-redirect" title="Governors">Governors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/California" title="California"><img alt="California" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/23px-Flag_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/35px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Flag_of_California.svg/45px-Flag_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Culbert_Olson" title="Culbert Olson">Culbert Olson</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hiroo_%C5%8Chara" title="Hiroo Ōhara">Hiroo Ōhara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mayors" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayors">Mayors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Accra_Region" title="Greater Accra Region"><img alt="Greater Accra Region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greater_Accra_Region.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="202" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/E.C._Quaye" class="mw-redirect" title="E.C. Quaye">E.C. Quaye</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Setsuo_Yamada" title="Setsuo Yamada">Setsuo Yamada</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Prefecture" title="Hiroshima Prefecture"><img alt="Hiroshima Prefecture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg/45px-Flag_of_Hiroshima_Prefecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Shinzo_Hamai" title="Shinzo Hamai">Shinzo Hamai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicians">Politicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/23px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/35px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg/45px-Flag_of_Europe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="540" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Berkhouwer" title="Cornelis Berkhouwer">Cornelis Berkhouwer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><img alt="Pakistan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ebrahim_Haroon_Jaffer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer">Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Akira_Kazami" title="Akira Kazami">Akira Kazami</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/B._Satya_Narayan_Reddy" title="B. Satya Narayan Reddy">B. Satya Narayan Reddy</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chiyo_Sakakibara" title="Chiyo Sakakibara">Chiyo Sakakibara</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Diwan_Chaman_Lall" title="Diwan Chaman Lall">Diwan Chaman Lall</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ezequiel_Padilla_Pe%C3%B1aloza" title="Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza">Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Jahn" title="Gerhard Jahn">Gerhard Jahn</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hisato_Ichimada" title="Hisato Ichimada">Hisato Ichimada</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Usborne" title="Henry Usborne">Henry Usborne</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ichir%C5%8D_Kiyose" title="Ichirō Kiyose">Ichirō Kiyose</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Inder_Kumar_Gujral" title="Inder Kumar Gujral">Inder Kumar Gujral</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_de_Lipkowski" title="Irène de Lipkowski">Irène de Lipkowski</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_(MP_for_Northwich)" title="John Foster (MP for Northwich)">John Foster</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kanaiyalal_Maneklal_Munshi" title="Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi">Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kenz%C5%8D_Matsumura" title="Kenzō Matsumura">Kenzō Matsumura</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ghana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Komla_Agbeli_Gbedemah" title="Komla Agbeli Gbedemah">Komla Agbeli Gbedemah</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Silkin,_1st_Baron_Silkin" title="Lewis Silkin, 1st Baron Silkin">Lewis Silkin</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/N._G._Ranga" title="N. G. Ranga">N. G. Ranga</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pascoal_Ranieri_Mazzilli" title="Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli">Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland"><img alt="Scotland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_Scotland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Scotland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wolrige-Gordon" title="Patrick Wolrige-Gordon">Patrick Wolrige-Gordon</a></li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/William_Beveridge" title="William Beveridge">William Beveridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_leader" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious leader">Religious leaders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Pierre" title="Abbé Pierre">Abbé Pierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dana_McLean_Greeley" title="Dana McLean Greeley">Dana McLean Greeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_MacLeod" title="George MacLeod">George MacLeod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(priest)" title="John Collins (priest)">John Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Niem%C3%B6ller" title="Martin Niemöller">Martin Niemöller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Scott_(priest)" title="Michael Scott (priest)">Michael Scott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Alfred Kastler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">C. F. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> <small>(twice)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physiology or Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Quasimodo" title="Salvatore Quasimodo">Salvatore Quasimodo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Boyd_Orr" title="John Boyd Orr">John Boyd Orr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rotblat" title="Joseph Rotblat">Joseph Rotblat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> <small>(Chemistry & Peace)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_C._Price" title="Charles C. Price">Charles C. Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edris_Rice-Wray_Carson" title="Edris Rice-Wray Carson">Edris Rice-Wray Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Orcel" title="Jean Orcel">Jean Orcel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitirim_Sorokin" title="Pitirim Sorokin">Pitirim Sorokin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priyadaranjan_Ray" title="Priyadaranjan Ray">Priyadaranjan Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Dumont" title="René Dumont">René Dumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilder_Penfield" title="Wilder Penfield">Wilder Penfield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_activists" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights activists">Human rights activists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Humanitarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitarians">Humanitarians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_and_Magda_Trocm%C3%A9" title="André and Magda Trocmé">André and Magda Trocmé</a> <small>(Righteous Among the Nations)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brock_Chisholm" title="Brock Chisholm">Brock Chisholm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Veterans" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterans">Veterans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Hester" title="Hugh B. Hester">Hugh B. Hester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varied Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ernest_Bishop" title="Arthur Ernest Bishop">Arthur Ernest Bishop</a> <small>(inventor)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Alfaro_Siqueiros" title="David Alfaro Siqueiros">David Alfaro Siqueiros</a> <small>(Social realist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._M._L._Odjidja" title="E. M. L. Odjidja">E. M. L. Odjidja</a> <small>(teacher)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._Sparling" title="Edward J. Sparling">Edward J. Sparling</a> <small>(educator)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Kahler" title="Erich Kahler">Erich Kahler</a> <small>(scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorio_Bermann" title="Gregorio Bermann">Gregorio Bermann</a> <small>(humanist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Piel" title="Gerard Piel">Gerard Piel</a> <small>(science editor)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Laugier" title="Henri Laugier">Henri Laugier</a> <small>(scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_J._Schonfield" title="Hugh J. Schonfield">Hugh J. Schonfield</a> <small>(scholar & pacifist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaoru_%C5%8Cta" title="Kaoru Ōta">Kaoru Ōta</a> <small>(union leader)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Boyle" title="Kay Boyle">Kay Boyle</a> <small>(writer)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_Morain" title="Lloyd Morain">Lloyd Morain</a> <small>(humanist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Van_Doren" title="Mark Van Doren">Mark Van Doren</a> <small>(writer & scholar)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maur%C3%ADcio_Campos_de_Medeiros" title="Maurício Campos de Medeiros">Maurício Campos de Medeiros</a> <small>(teacher)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Oscar Niemeyer</a> <small>(architect)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cuchi_Hy%C5%8Dei" title="Ōuchi Hyōei">Ōuchi Hyōei</a> <small>(economist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rameshwari_Nehru" title="Rameshwari Nehru">Rameshwari Nehru</a> <small>(social worker)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satish_Gujral" title="Satish Gujral">Satish Gujral</a> <small>(artist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigeri_Yamataka" title="Shigeri Yamataka">Shigeri Yamataka</a> <small>(feminist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophia_Wadia" title="Sophia Wadia">Sophia Wadia</a> <small>(theosophist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Slotkin" title="Stanley Slotkin">Stanley Slotkin</a> <small>(businessman)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> <small>(cultural theorist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamaki_Uemura" title="Tamaki Uemura">Tamaki Uemura</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/YWCA" title="YWCA">YWCA</a> executive)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tano_J%C5%8Ddai" title="Tano Jōdai">Tano Jōdai</a> <small>(teacher & pacifist)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyohiko_Kagawa" title="Toyohiko Kagawa">Toyohiko Kagawa</a> <small>(pacifist)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Committee_for_a_World_Constitutional_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention">World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_World_Parliament" title="Provisional World Parliament">Provisional World Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_constitution" title="World constitution">World constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_government" title="World government">World government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_federalism" class="mw-redirect" title="World federalism">World federalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Source: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B154-F05-028.1.4">[1]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.3">[2]</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.afb.org/HelenKellerArchive?a=d&d=A-HK01-07-B149-F04-022.1.8">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Emerging_World_Law.html?id=Qw-IOgAACAAJ">[4]</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33760#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4789" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33760#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4789" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33760#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121006514">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/36924137">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/35776/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJdWHHp4wmT6Yh4RkthmBP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118604287">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79056054">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11923140h">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11923140h">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00454997">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Russell, Bertrand"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV000585">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35468761">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000604734&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX986609">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleph.bibnat.ro:8991/F/?func=direct&local_base=NLR10&doc_number=000194375">Romania</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/24066">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068213352">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90052932">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000015245&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000041225">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=289003">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000046696">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199623789">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/0xbd9svj0fm8knh">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810555232405606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/111591">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007267335805171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058523396706706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14229858">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00236823?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=66811">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=36498489200">Scopus</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:russell.bertrand">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k7YH-i4AAAAJ">Google Scholar</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/151945">MathSciNet</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/d90bd17d-7720-4c93-b386-ec8080672241">MusicBrainz</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.performing-arts.eu/discovery/agent/gnd_118604287">FID</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/964251">Trove</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/964252">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/964248">3</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118604287.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118604287">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027419762">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w62r3qbb">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&oldid=1276353951">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&oldid=1276353951</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bertrand_Russell" title="Category:Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1872_births" title="Category:1872 births">1872 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1970_deaths" title="Category:1970 deaths">1970 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_atheists" title="Category:19th-century atheists">19th-century atheists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_mathematicians" title="Category:19th-century English mathematicians">19th-century English mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_philosophers" title="Category:19th-century English philosophers">19th-century English philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_English_essayists" title="Category:19th-century English essayists">19th-century English essayists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_atheists" title="Category:20th-century atheists">20th-century atheists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_mathematicians" title="Category:20th-century English mathematicians">20th-century English mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_philosophers" title="Category:20th-century English philosophers">20th-century English philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_English_essayists" title="Category:20th-century English essayists">20th-century English essayists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academics_of_the_London_School_of_Economics" title="Category:Academics of the London School of Economics">Academics of the London School of Economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge">Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophers" title="Category:Analytic philosophers">Analytic philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_anti%E2%80%93Vietnam_War_activists" title="Category:British anti–Vietnam War activists">British anti–Vietnam War activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotelian_philosophers" title="Category:Aristotelian philosophers">Aristotelian philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atheist_philosophers" title="Category:Atheist philosophers">Atheist philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_anti%E2%80%93World_War_I_activists" title="Category:British anti–World War I activists">British anti–World War I activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_atheism_activists" title="Category:British atheism activists">British atheism activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_ethicists" title="Category:British ethicists">British ethicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament_activists" title="Category:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists">Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_consciousness_researchers_and_theorists" title="Category:British consciousness researchers and theorists">British consciousness researchers and theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Consequentialists" title="Category:Consequentialists">Consequentialists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_critics_of_Christianity" title="Category:British critics of Christianity">British critics of Christianity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_critics_of_religions" title="Category:British critics of religions">British critics of religions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Category:Critics of the Catholic Church">Critics of the Catholic Church</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_work_and_the_work_ethic" title="Category:Critics of work and the work ethic">Critics of work and the work ethic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:De_Morgan_Medallists" title="Category:De Morgan Medallists">De Morgan Medallists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_influenza_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Deaths from influenza in the United Kingdom">Deaths from influenza in the United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Earls_Russell" title="Category:Earls Russell">Earls Russell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Empiricists" title="Category:Empiricists">Empiricists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_agnostics" title="Category:English agnostics">English agnostics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_anti-fascists" title="Category:English anti-fascists">English anti-fascists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_anti%E2%80%93nuclear_weapons_activists" title="Category:English anti–nuclear weapons activists">English anti–nuclear weapons activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_writers_on_atheism" title="Category:British writers on atheism">British writers on atheism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_essayists" title="Category:English essayists">English essayists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_historians_of_philosophy" title="Category:British historians of philosophy">British historians of philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_humanists" title="Category:English humanists">English humanists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_logicians" title="Category:English logicians">English logicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_male_non-fiction_writers" title="Category:English male non-fiction writers">English male non-fiction writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_Nobel_laureates" title="Category:English Nobel laureates">English Nobel laureates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_pacifists" title="Category:English pacifists">English pacifists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Scottish_descent" title="Category:English people of Scottish descent">English people of Scottish descent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_people_of_Welsh_descent" title="Category:English people of Welsh descent">English people of Welsh descent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_political_commentators" title="Category:English political commentators">English political commentators</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_political_philosophers" title="Category:English political philosophers">English political philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_political_writers" title="Category:English political writers">English political writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_prisoners_and_detainees" title="Category:English prisoners and detainees">English prisoners and detainees</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_sceptics" title="Category:English sceptics">English sceptics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_socialists" title="Category:English socialists">English socialists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_epistemologists" title="Category:British epistemologists">British epistemologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:European_democratic_socialists" title="Category:European democratic socialists">European democratic socialists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Category:Fellows of the Royal Society">Fellows of the Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Category:Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge">Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Free_love_advocates" title="Category:Free love advocates">Free love advocates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_free_speech_activists" title="Category:British free speech activists">British free speech activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freethought_writers" title="Category:Freethought writers">Freethought writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Georgists" title="Category:Georgists">Georgists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Honorary_Fellows_of_the_British_Academy" title="Category:Honorary Fellows of the British Academy">Honorary Fellows of the British Academy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Infectious_disease_deaths_in_Wales" title="Category:Infectious disease deaths in Wales">Infectious disease deaths in Wales</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Intellectual_historians" title="Category:Intellectual historians">Intellectual historians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jerusalem_Prize_recipients" title="Category:Jerusalem Prize recipients">Jerusalem Prize recipients</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kalinga_Prize_recipients" title="Category:Kalinga Prize recipients">Kalinga Prize recipients</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:English_LGBTQ_rights_activists" title="Category:English LGBTQ rights activists">English LGBTQ rights activists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_socialism" title="Category:Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistic_turn" title="Category:Linguistic turn">Linguistic turn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Logicians" title="Category:Logicians">Logicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mathematical_logicians" title="Category:Mathematical logicians">Mathematical logicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Order_of_Merit" title="Category:Members of the Order of Merit">Members of the Order of Merit</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphilosophers" title="Category:Metaphilosophers">Metaphilosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_metaphysicians" title="Category:British metaphysicians">British metaphysicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Metaphysics_writers" title="Category:Metaphysics writers">Metaphysics writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nobel_laureates_in_Literature" title="Category:Nobel laureates in Literature">Nobel laureates in Literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_nonviolence_advocates" title="Category:British nonviolence advocates">British nonviolence advocates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ontologists" title="Category:Ontologists">Ontologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_Harting" title="Category:People from Harting">People from Harting</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_Monmouthshire" title="Category:People from Monmouthshire">People from Monmouthshire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_culture" title="Category:British philosophers of culture">British philosophers of culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_economics" title="Category:Philosophers of economics">Philosophers of economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_education" title="Category:British philosophers of education">British philosophers of education</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_history" title="Category:Philosophers of history">Philosophers of history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_language" title="Category:British philosophers of language">British philosophers of language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers of law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_literature" title="Category:Philosophers of literature">Philosophers of literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_logic" title="Category:British philosophers of logic">British philosophers of logic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_love" title="Category:Philosophers of love">Philosophers of love</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mathematics" title="Category:Philosophers of mathematics">Philosophers of mathematics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:British philosophers of mind">British philosophers of mind</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:British philosophers of religion">British philosophers of religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_philosophers_of_science" title="Category:British philosophers of science">British philosophers of science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_sexuality" title="Category:Philosophers of sexuality">Philosophers of sexuality</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_social_science" title="Category:Philosophers of social science">Philosophers of social science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_technology" title="Category:Philosophers of technology">Philosophers of technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_political_philosophers" title="Category:British political philosophers">British political philosophers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_Aristotelian_Society" title="Category:Presidents of the Aristotelian Society">Presidents of the Aristotelian Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Residents_of_Pembroke_Lodge,_Richmond_Park" title="Category:Residents of Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park">Residents of Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric_theorists" title="Category:Rhetoric theorists">Rhetoric theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russell_family" title="Category:Russell family">Russell family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Secular_humanists" title="Category:Secular humanists">Secular humanists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Set_theorists" title="Category:Set theorists">Set theorists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:The_Nation_(U.S._magazine)_people" title="Category:The Nation (U.S. magazine) people">The Nation (U.S. magazine) people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Theorists_on_Western_civilization" title="Category:Theorists on Western civilization">Theorists on Western civilization</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Universal_basic_income_writers" title="Category:Universal basic income writers">Universal basic income writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:University_of_California,_Los_Angeles_faculty" title="Category:University of California, Los Angeles faculty">University of California, Los Angeles faculty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:University_of_Chicago_faculty" title="Category:University of Chicago faculty">University of Chicago faculty</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Utilitarians" title="Category:Utilitarians">Utilitarians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Writers_about_activism_and_social_change" title="Category:Writers about activism and social change">Writers about activism and social change</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Writers_about_communism" title="Category:Writers about communism">Writers about communism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Writers_about_globalization" title="Category:Writers about globalization">Writers about globalization</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Writers_about_religion_and_science" title="Category:Writers about religion and science">Writers about religion and science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Writers_about_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Writers about the Soviet Union">Writers about the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_from_Penrhyndeudraeth" title="Category:People from Penrhyndeudraeth">People from Penrhyndeudraeth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-nationalists" title="Category:Anti-nationalists">Anti-nationalists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Labour_Party_(UK)_parliamentary_candidates" title="Category:Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates">Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Labour_Party_(UK)_hereditary_peers" title="Category:Labour Party (UK) hereditary peers">Labour Party (UK) hereditary peers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories" title="Category:World Constitutional Convention call signatories">World Constitutional Convention call signatories</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_London_Gazette_template_with_parameter_supp_set_to_y" title="Category:Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y">Pages containing London Gazette template with parameter supp set to y</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_September_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2023">Articles with dead external links from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_ODNB" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_January_2020" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2020">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from January 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_British_English_from_November_2020" title="Category:Use British English from November 2020">Use British English from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_July_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from July 2023">Use dmy dates from July 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biography_with_signature" title="Category:Biography with signature">Biography with signature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2014" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_references_cleanup_from_September_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia references cleanup from September 2023">Wikipedia references cleanup from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_references_cleanup" title="Category:All articles needing references cleanup">All articles needing references cleanup</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_covered_by_WikiProject_Wikify_from_September_2023" title="Category:Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2023">Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from September 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_covered_by_WikiProject_Wikify" title="Category:All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify">All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_wikidata_namespace_mismatch" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch">Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_wikidata_mismatch" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch">Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatch</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_hidden_wikidata" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata">Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Project_Gutenberg_links" title="Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links">Articles with Project Gutenberg links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Archive_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Archive links">Articles with Internet Archive links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_LibriVox_links" title="Category:Articles with LibriVox links">Articles with LibriVox links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links">Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nobelprize_template_using_Wikidata_property_P8024" title="Category:Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024">Nobelprize template using Wikidata property P8024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 February 2025, at 10:18<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bertrand Russell</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>124 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-65b64b4b74-gzk54","wgBackendResponseTime":206,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.317","walltime":"4.026","ppvisitednodes":{"value":38665,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1154611,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":306745,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":32,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":834736,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3207.226 1 -total"," 33.36% 1069.776 2 Template:Reflist"," 21.89% 702.163 1 Template:Navboxes"," 15.91% 510.127 1 Template:Infobox_philosopher"," 12.92% 414.281 1 Template:World_Constitutional_Convention_call_signatories"," 11.59% 371.728 62 Template:Cite_book"," 10.37% 332.634 76 Template:Cite_web"," 8.02% 257.282 26 Template:Navbox"," 4.06% 130.236 1 Template:Infobox_officeholder"," 3.58% 114.791 2 Template:Unbulleted_list"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.840","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":26454521,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","520","23.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::expandTemplate","220","10.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","200","9.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","160","7.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","160","7.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","140","6.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","60","2.8"],["(for generator)","60","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","2.8"],["[others]","520","23.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-65b64b4b74-x76hb","timestamp":"20250219122620","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Bertrand Russell","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bertrand_Russell","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q33760","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q33760","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-04T12:53:11Z","dateModified":"2025-02-18T10:18:02Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/7\/71\/Bertrand_Russell_smoking_in_1936.jpg","headline":"British philosopher and logician (1872\u20131970)"}</script> </body> </html>