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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contemporary uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Business_and_finance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_and_finance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Business and finance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_and_finance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Governance and law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Science and scholarship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Journalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_educational_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_educational_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Education and educational institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_educational_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Writing systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Writing systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Logographies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logographies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Logographies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logographies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllabaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllabaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Syllabaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllabaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alphabets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Alphabets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abjads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abjads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Abjads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abjads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abugidas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abugidas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Abugidas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abugidas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>History and origins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History and origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Mesopotamia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Mesoamerica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Central Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elamite_scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elamite_scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Elamite scripts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elamite_scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crete_and_Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crete_and_Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>Crete and Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crete_and_Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indus_Valley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indus_Valley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Indus Valley</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indus_Valley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phoenician_writing_system_and_descendants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phoenician_writing_system_and_descendants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Phoenician writing system and descendants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phoenician_writing_system_and_descendants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Religious texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Writing</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 137 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-137" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">137 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skryfkuns" title="Skryfkuns – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Skryfkuns" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8" title="लेखन – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="लेखन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="كتابة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كتابة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escritura" title="Escritura – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Escritura" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9F%DC%AC%DC%92%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܟܬܒܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܟܬܒܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escritura" title="Escritura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Escritura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8" title="लेखन – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="लेखन" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipy" title="Taipy – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Taipy" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qillqa" title="Qillqa – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Qillqa" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1" title="Yazı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yazı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="یازی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یازی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8" title="লিখন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিখন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manulis" title="Manulis – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Manulis" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A1-j%C4%AB" title="Siá-jī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siá-jī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BB%D3%99" title="Имлә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Имлә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Пісьмо – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пісьмо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Пісьмо – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пісьмо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsurat" title="Pagsurat – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagsurat" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Писане – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Писане" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisanje" title="Pisanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pisanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriva%C3%B1" title="Skrivañ – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skrivañ" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escriptura" title="Escriptura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escriptura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83_(%C3%A7%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85)" title="Çыру (çырулăх) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çыру (çырулăх)" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsulat" title="Pagsulat – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pagsulat" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psan%C3%AD" title="Psaní – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Psaní" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunyora" title="Kunyora – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Kunyora" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ysgrifen" title="Ysgrifen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ysgrifen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrivning" title="Skrivning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Skrivning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schreiben" title="Schreiben – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schreiben" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjutamine" title="Kirjutamine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kirjutamine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE" title="Γραφή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γραφή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escritura" title="Escritura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Escritura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skribo" title="Skribo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Skribo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escreviura" title="Escreviura – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Escreviura" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idazte" title="Idazte – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Idazte" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%86" title="نوشتن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوشتن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing" title="Writing – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Writing" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89criture" title="Écriture – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Écriture" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriuwen" title="Skriuwen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skriuwen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escrita" title="Escrita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Escrita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E5%AF%AB" title="書寫 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="書寫" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%93%B0%EA%B8%B0" title="쓰기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="쓰기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubutu" title="Rubutu – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Rubutu" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8" title="लेखन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लेखन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisanje" title="Pisanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pisanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriburo" title="Skriburo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Skriburo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panagsurat" title="Panagsurat – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Panagsurat" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menulis" title="Menulis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Menulis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptura" title="Scriptura – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Scriptura" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrift" title="Skrift – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skrift" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrittura" title="Scrittura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scrittura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%91%D7%94" title="כתיבה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כתיבה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nulis" title="Nulis – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Nulis" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%A3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%86" title="ಬರವಣಿಗೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬರವಣಿಗೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="წერა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="წერა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrifa" title="Skrifa – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Skrifa" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uandishi" title="Uandishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uandishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekri" title="Ekri – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekri" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89kritir" title="Ékritir – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ékritir" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%83" title="Жазуу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жазуу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrit" title="Scrit – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Scrit" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptura" title="Scriptura – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scriptura" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakst%C4%AB%C5%A1ana" title="Rakstīšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Rakstīšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C5%A1ymas" title="Rašymas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rašymas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjrieve" title="Sjrieve – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sjrieve" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokomi" title="Bokomi – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Bokomi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjutus" title="Kirjutus – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Kirjutus" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ciska" title="ciska – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ciska" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dr%C3%A1s" title="Írás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Írás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nol%C3%A8s" title="Nolès – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Nolès" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Пишување – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Пишување" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soratra" title="Soratra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Soratra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="എഴുത്ത് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="എഴുത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90" title="ჭარუა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჭარუა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penulisan" title="Penulisan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penulisan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrita" title="Scrita – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Scrita" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%85" title="Бичих – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бичих" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="အရေးအသား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အရေးအသား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volavola" title="Volavola – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Volavola" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schrijven" title="Schrijven – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Schrijven" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A8" title="लेखन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लेखन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81" title="च्वेगु – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="च्वेगु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AD%86%E8%A8%98" title="筆記 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="筆記" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skriving" title="Skriving – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Skriving" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrift" title="Skrift – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Skrift" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escritura" title="Escritura – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Escritura" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88" title="ਲਿਖਾਈ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲਿਖਾਈ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DA%A9%DA%BE%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="لکھائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لکھائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raitn" title="Raitn – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Raitn" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9A" title="ការសរសេរ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ការសរសេរ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scritura" title="Scritura – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Scritura" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pismo" title="Pismo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pismo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escrita" title="Escrita – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Escrita" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriere" title="Scriere – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Scriere" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qillqa" title="Qillqa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Qillqa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Писаня – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Писаня" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE_(%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C)" title="Письмо (письменность) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Письмо (письменность)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Сурук – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сурук" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9E" title="ᱚᱞ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱚᱞ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrievin" title="Scrievin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Scrievin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkrimi" title="Shkrimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkrimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrittura" title="Scrittura – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Scrittura" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%9B%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="ලේඛන කලාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ලේඛන කලාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing" title="Writing – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Writing" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81" title="تصنيف – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تصنيف" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisanje" title="Pisanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pisanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szrajb%C5%AFnek" title="Szrajbůnek – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Szrajbůnek" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qoraal" title="Qoraal – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Qoraal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="نووسین – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نووسین" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Писање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Писање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisanje" title="Pisanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pisanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nulis" title="Nulis – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Nulis" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirjoitus" title="Kirjoitus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kirjoitus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrivkonst" title="Skrivkonst – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Skrivkonst" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsusulat" title="Pagsusulat – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagsusulat" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="எழுத்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எழுத்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tira" title="Tira – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tira" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%83" title="Язу – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Язу" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4" title="వ్రాత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వ్రాత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99" title="การเขียน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การเขียน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaz%C4%B1" title="Yazı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yazı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyuut" title="Lyuut – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Lyuut" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Письмо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Письмо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="تحریر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تحریر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%DB%90%D8%B2%D9%89%D9%82" title="يېزىق – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يېزىق" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scritura" title="Scritura – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Scritura" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_vi%E1%BA%BFt" title="Chữ viết – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chữ viết" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirotamin%C3%B5" title="Kirotaminõ – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kirotaminõ" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicrijhaedje" title="Sicrijhaedje – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Sicrijhaedje" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panurat" title="Panurat – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Panurat" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%A6%E5%86%99" title="书写 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="书写" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%91%D7%9F" title="שרייבן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שרייבן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%AB%E5%AD%97" title="寫字 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="寫字" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu%C5%9Fte" title="Nuşte – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Nuşte" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C5%A1ts" title="Rašts – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Rašts" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8%E5%AF%AB" title="書寫 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="書寫" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37260#sitelinks-wikipedia" 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id="mw-indicator-pp-autoreview" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#pending" title="All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users"><img alt="Page protected with pending changes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b7/Pending-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Pending-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div id="mw-fr-revision-details" class="mw-fr-revision-details-dialog" style="display:none;"><div tabindex="0"></div><div class="cdx-dialog cdx-dialog--horizontal-actions"><header class="cdx-dialog__header cdx-dialog__header--default"><div class="cdx-dialog__header__title-group"><h2 class="cdx-dialog__header__title">Page version status</h2><p class="cdx-dialog__header__subtitle">This is an accepted version of this page</p></div><button class="cdx-button cdx-button--action-default cdx-button--weight-quiet
							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"><span class="cdx-icon cdx-icon--medium
							cdx-fr-css-icon--close"></span></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Writing">reviewed</a> on <i>14 February 2025</i>.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Persistent representation of language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Write" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Write_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Write (disambiguation)">Write (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosetta_Stone.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/260px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/390px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Rosetta_Stone.JPG/520px-Rosetta_Stone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3665" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> (196 BC) bears writing using three different scripts: <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demotic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Demotic script">Demotic script</a> record the same text in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a>, while an equivalent passage in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> uses the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>. These correspondences proved instrumental in the <a href="/wiki/Decipherment_of_Egyptian_hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs">decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> during the early 19th century.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Writing</b> is the act of creating a persistent representation of human <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a> uses a set of symbols and rules to encode aspects of spoken language, such as its <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. However, <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a> may take on characteristics distinct from those of any spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Writing is a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">social</a> activity involving <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropsychological">neuropsychological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Writing_process" title="Writing process">physical processes</a>. The outcome of this activity, also called "writing", and sometimes a "<a href="/wiki/Text_(literary_theory)" title="Text (literary theory)">text</a>", is a series of <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">physically inscribed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">mechanically transferred</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digitally represented</a> symbols. The interpreter or activator of a text is called a "reader".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In general, writing systems do not constitute languages in and of themselves, but rather a means of encoding language such that it can be read by others across time and space.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not all languages use a writing system, those that do can complement and extend the capacities of <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> by creating durable forms of language that can be transmitted across space (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Letter_(message)" title="Letter (message)">written correspondence</a>) and stored over time (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Libraries" class="mw-redirect" title="Libraries">libraries</a> or other public records).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writing can also have knowledge-transforming effects, since it allows humans to externalize their thinking in forms that are easier to reflect on, elaborate on, reconsider, and revise.<sup id="cite_ref-Emig_(1994)_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emig_(1994)-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools,_materials,_and_motivations_to_write"><span id="Tools.2C_materials.2C_and_motivations_to_write"></span>Tools, materials, and motivations to write</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Tools, materials, and motivations to write"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Writing_implement" title="Writing implement">Writing implement</a></div> <p>Any instance of writing involves a complex interaction among available tools, intentions, cultural customs, cognitive routines, genres, tacit and explicit knowledge, and the constraints and limitations of the writing system(s) deployed.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inscriptions have been made with <a href="/wiki/Finger" title="Finger">fingers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">styluses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quill" title="Quill">quills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ink_brush" title="Ink brush">ink brushes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pencil" title="Pencil">pencils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pen" title="Pen">pens</a>, and many styles of <a href="/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a>; surfaces used for these inscriptions include <a href="/wiki/Stone_tablet" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone tablet">stone tablets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a>, bamboo slats, <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">wax tablets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_printing" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio printing">copperplate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blackboard" title="Blackboard">slate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Porcelain" title="Porcelain">porcelain</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Whiteboard" title="Whiteboard">enameled surfaces</a>. The Incas used knotted cords known as <a href="/wiki/Quipu" title="Quipu">quipu</a> (or khipu) for keeping records.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">typewriter</a> and subsequently various digital <a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">word processors</a> have recently become widespread writing tools, and studies have compared the ways in which <a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writers</a> have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Advancements in <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_generation" title="Natural language generation">natural language generation</a> have resulted in software capable of producing certain forms of formulaic writing (e.g., weather forecasts and brief sports reporting) without the direct involvement of humans<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after initial configuration or, more commonly, to be used to support writing processes such as generating initial drafts, producing feedback with the help of a rubric, copy-editing, and <a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">helping translation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg/260px-Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg" decoding="async" width="260" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg/390px-Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg/520px-Olin-Warner-LoC-tympanum-Highsmith.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="6999" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption>Bronze <a href="/wiki/Tympanum_(architecture)" title="Tympanum (architecture)">tympanum</a> representing 'Writing', sculpted by <a href="/wiki/Olin_Levi_Warner" title="Olin Levi Warner">Olin Levi Warner</a> in 1896;<br />situated above main entrance doors of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Building" title="Thomas Jefferson Building">Thomas Jefferson Building</a>, Washington D.C.</figcaption></figure> <p>Writing technologies from different eras coexist easily in many homes and workplaces. During the course of a day or even a single episode of writing, for example, a writer might instinctively switch among a pencil, a touchscreen, a text-editor, a whiteboard, a legal pad, and adhesive notes as different purposes arise.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivations_and_purposes">Motivations and purposes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Motivations and purposes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As human societies emerged, collective motivations for the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of writing">development of writing</a> were driven by pragmatic exigencies like keeping track of produce and other wealth, recording <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, maintaining <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, codifying knowledge through <a href="/wiki/Curricula" class="mw-redirect" title="Curricula">curricula</a> and lists of texts deemed to contain foundational knowledge (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i>) or artistic value (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Literary_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary canon">literary canon</a>), organizing and governing societies through texts including <a href="/wiki/Legal_codes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal codes">legal codes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> records, <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">deeds</a> of ownership, <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_agreement" title="Trade agreement">trade agreements</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaties">treaties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Charles_Bazerman" title="Charles Bazerman">Charles Bazerman</a> explains, the "marking of signs on stones, clay, paper, and now digital memories—each more portable and rapidly traveling than the previous—provided means for increasingly coordinated and extended action as well as memory across larger groups of people over time and space."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method for creating permanent records of transactions.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, writing in both <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> may have evolved through the political necessity to manage the <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a> for recording historical and environmental events.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further innovations included more uniform, predictable, and widely dispersed legal systems, the distribution of accessible versions of <a href="/wiki/Sacred_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred texts">sacred texts</a>, and furthering practices of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_inquiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific inquiry">scientific inquiry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">knowledge management</a>, all of which were largely reliant on portable and easily reproducible forms of inscribed language. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">history of writing</a> is co-extensive with uses of writing and the elaboration of <a href="/wiki/Soft_systems_methodology#Human_activity_system" title="Soft systems methodology">activity systems</a> that give rise to and circulate writing. </p><p>Individual motivations for writing include improvised additional capacity for the limitations of human <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Time_management" title="Time management">to-do lists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recipe" title="Recipe">recipes</a>, reminders, <a href="/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">logbooks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a>, the proper sequence for a complicated task or important <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>), dissemination of ideas and coordination (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Essay" title="Essay">essays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monographs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadside_(printing)" title="Broadside (printing)">broadsides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plan" title="Plan">plans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">petitions</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Manifesto" title="Manifesto">manifestos</a>), creativity and <a href="/wiki/Storytelling" title="Storytelling">storytelling</a>, maintaining <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and other social networks,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Business_correspondence" title="Business correspondence">business correspondence</a> regarding goods and services, and <a href="/wiki/Life_writing" title="Life writing">life writing</a> (e.g. a <a href="/wiki/Diary" title="Diary">diary</a> or journal).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The global spread of digital <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> systems such as <a href="/wiki/E-mail" class="mw-redirect" title="E-mail">e-mail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> has made writing an increasingly important feature of daily life, where these systems mix with older technologies like paper, pencils, whiteboards, printers, and copiers.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substantial amounts of everyday writing characterize most workplaces in <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many occupations (e.g. law, <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_resources" title="Human resources">human resources</a>), written documentation is not only the main deliverable but also the mode of work itself.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in occupations not typically associated with writing, routine <a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">records management</a> has most employees writing at least some of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_uses">Contemporary uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Contemporary uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some professions are typically associated with writing, such as literary authors, journalists, and technical writers, but writing is pervasive in most modern forms of work, civic participation, household management, and leisure activities.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business_and_finance">Business and finance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Business and finance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Professional_writing" title="Professional writing">Professional writing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Professional_communication" title="Professional communication">Professional communication</a></div> <p>Writing permeates everyday commerce. For example, in the course of an afternoon, a wholesaler might receive a written inquiry about the availability of a product line, then communicate with suppliers and fabricators through work orders and purchase agreements, correspond via email to affirm shipping availability with a <a href="/wiki/Drayage" title="Drayage">drayage</a> company, write an invoice, and request proof of receipt in the form of a written signature. At a much larger scale, modern systems of finances, banking, and business rest on many forms of written documents—including written regulations, policies, and procedures; the creation of reports and other monitoring documents to make, evaluate, and provide accountability for decisions and operations; the creation and maintenance of records; internal written communications within departments to coordinate work; written communications that comprise work products presented to other departments and to clients; and external communications to clients and the public.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Business and financial organizations also rely on many written legal documents, such as contracts, reports to government agencies, tax records, and accounting reports.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Financial institutions and markets that hold, transmit, trade, insure, or regulate holdings for clients or other institutions are particularly dependent on written records (though now often in digital form) to maintain the integrity of their roles.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance_and_law">Governance and law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Governance and law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many modern systems of government are organized and sanctified through written <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitutions</a> at the national and sometimes state or other organizational levels. Written rules and procedures typically guide the operations of the various branches, departments, and other bodies of government, which regularly produce reports and other documents as work products and to account for their actions. In addition to <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislatures</a> that draft and pass laws, these laws are administered by an <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a>, which can present further written regulations specifying the laws and how they are carried out.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governments at different levels also typically maintain written records on citizens concerning identities, life events such as births, deaths, marriages, and divorces, the granting of licenses for controlled activities, criminal charges, traffic offenses, and other penalties small and large, and tax liability and payments.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_scholarship">Science and scholarship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Science and scholarship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research undertaken in <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a> is typically published as articles in journals or within book-length <a href="/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monographs</a>. Arguments, experiments, observational data, and other evidence collated in the course of research is represented in writing, and serves as the basis for later work. Data collection and drafting of <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a> may be supported by grants, which usually require proposals establishing the value of such work and the need for funding.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The data and procedures are also typically collected in <a href="/wiki/Lab_notebook" title="Lab notebook">lab notebooks</a> or other preliminary files.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Preprint" title="Preprint">Preprints</a> of potential publications may also be presented at academic or disciplinary conferences or on publicly accessible web servers to gain peer feedback and build interest in the work. Prior to official publication, these documents are typically read and evaluated by <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> from appropriate experts, who determine whether the work is of sufficient value and quality to be published.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Publication does not establish the claims or findings of work as being authoritatively true, only that they are worth the attention of other specialists. As the work appears in review articles, handbooks, textbooks, or other aggregations, and others cite it in the advancement of their own research, does it become codified as contingently reliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journalism">Journalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Journalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></div> <p>News and news reporting are central to citizen engagement and knowledge of many spheres of activity people may be interested in about the state of their community, including the actions and integrity of their governments and government officials, economic trends, natural disasters and responses to them, international geopolitical events, including conflicts, but also sports, entertainment, books, and other leisure activities. While news and newspapers have grown rapidly from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries, the changing economics and ability to produce and distribute news have brought about radical and rapid challenges to journalism and the consequent organization of citizen knowledge and engagement.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These changes have also created challenges for <a href="/wiki/Journalism_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism ethics">journalism ethics</a> that have been developed over the past century.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_educational_institutions">Education and educational institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Education and educational institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Formal education is the social context most strongly associated with the learning of writing, and students may carry these particular associations long after leaving school.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alongside the writing that students read (in the forms of textbooks, assigned books, and other instructional materials as well as self-selected books) students do much writing within schools at all levels, on subject exams, in essays, in taking notes, in doing homework, and in <a href="/wiki/Writing_assessment" title="Writing assessment">formative and summative assessments</a>.  Some of this is explicitly directed toward the learning of writing, but much is focused more on subject learning.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Williams_et_al._(2019)_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams_et_al._(2019)-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_systems">Writing systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Writing systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div> <p>Writing systems may be broadly classified according to what units of language are represented by its symbols: <i><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabaries">syllabaries</a></i> generally represent a language's sounds of speech (<a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> respectively)—while <i><a href="/wiki/Logographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographies">logographies</a></i> represent a language's units of meaning (<a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>), though these are still associated by readers with their given pronunciations in the corresponding spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logographies">Logographies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Logographies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform,_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/220px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/330px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg/440px-Comparative_evolution_of_Cuneiform%2C_Egyptian_and_Chinese_characters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>Comparative evolution from pictograms to abstract shapes, in Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiforms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian hieroglyph">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A logography is written using <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a>—written characters which represent individual <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced <i>ka</i>, was also used to represent the syllable <i>ka</i> whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated. Many logograms have an <a href="/wiki/Ideographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideographic">ideographic</a> component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of a semantic (meaning) element called a <i>radical</i> with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation, called a <i>phonetic</i>. However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The main logographic system in use today is <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>, used with some modification for the various languages or dialects of <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_China" title="Languages of China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Japan" title="Languages of Japan">Japan</a>, and sometimes in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, although in <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, the phonetic <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> system is mainly used. Other logographic systems include <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllabaries">Syllabaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Syllabaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabary</a> is a set of written symbols that represent <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> typically a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone. In some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically similar syllables are not written similarly.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Ndyuka_language" title="Ndyuka language">Ndjuka</a> creole language of <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Vai_language" title="Vai language">Vai language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabets">Alphabets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alphabets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> is a set of written symbols that represent <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a perfectly <a href="/wiki/Phonological" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonological">phonological</a> alphabet, the letters would correspond perfectly to the language's <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>. Thus, a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. However, as languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abjads">Abjads</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Abjads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most of the alphabets of the Middle East, it is usually only the consonants of a word that are written, although vowels may be indicated by the addition of various diacritical marks. Writing systems based primarily on writing just consonants phonemes date back to the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt. Such systems are called <i><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a></i>, derived from the Arabic word for 'alphabet', or <i>consonantaries</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abugidas">Abugidas</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Abugidas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In most of the alphabets of India and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called <i><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugidas</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some abugidas, such as <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal syllabics</a>, are learned by children as syllabaries, and so are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_origins">History and origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History and origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Writings" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While research into the development of writing during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> is ongoing, the current consensus is that it first evolved from economic necessity in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">ancient Near East</a>. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of trade and administration outgrew the power of memory, and writing became a more dependable method of recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson200336_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson200336-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the emergence of civilisations and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> during the late 4th millennium BC. <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a> used to write the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a> are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of ancestral proto-writing systems between 3400 and 3300 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with earliest coherent texts from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600 BC</span>. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diffusion" title="Cultural diffusion">cultural diffusion</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg/170px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg/255px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg/340px-Accountancy_clay_envelope_Louvre_Sb1932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Globular envelope with a cluster of accountancy tokens, Uruk period, from <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> – <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Denise_Schmandt-Besserat" title="Denise Schmandt-Besserat">Denise Schmandt-Besserat</a> determined the link between previously uncategorized clay "tokens", the oldest of which have been found in the Zagros region of Iran, and cuneiform, the first known writing.<sup id="cite_ref-Rudgley_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rudgley-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 8000 BC, Mesopotamians began using clay tokens to count their agricultural and manufactured goods. Later they began placing these tokens inside large, hollow clay containers (bulla, or globular envelopes) which were then sealed. The quantity of tokens in each container came to be expressed by impressing, on the container's surface, one picture for each instance of the token inside. They next dispensed with the tokens, relying solely on symbols for the tokens, drawn on clay surfaces. To avoid making a picture for each instance of the same object (for example: 100 pictures of a hat to represent 100 hats), they counted the objects by using various small marks. In this way the Sumerians added "a system for enumerating objects to their incipient system of symbols".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation"><span title="The text near this tag needs a citation. (June 2023)">This quote needs a citation</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The original <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> writing system was derived <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3200 BC</span> from this method of keeping accounts. By the end of the 4th millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Mesopotamians were using a triangular-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay to record numbers. This system was gradually augmented with using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted by means of <a href="/wiki/Pictographs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictographs">pictographs</a>. Round and sharp styluses were gradually replaced for writing by wedge-shaped styluses (hence the term <i>cuneiform</i>), at first only for <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logograms</a>, but by the 29th century BC also for phonetic elements. Around 2700 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken Sumerian. About that time, Mesopotamian cuneiform became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. This script was adapted to another Mesopotamian language, the East Semitic <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a>) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2600 BC</span>, and then to others such as <a href="/wiki/Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite">Elamite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hattian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hattian language">Hattian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a>. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a>. With the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> as the lingua franca of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–609 BC), Old Aramaic was also adapted to Mesopotamian cuneiform. The last cuneiform scripts in Akkadian discovered thus far date from the 1st century AD.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg/180px-Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg/270px-Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg/360px-Narmer_Palette_serpopard_side.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1155" data-file-height="1705" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>, with the two <a href="/wiki/Serpopard" title="Serpopard">Serpopards</a> representing unification of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100 BC</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest known <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> are about 5,200 years old, such as the clay labels of a Predynastic ruler called "Scorpion I" (Naqada IIIA period, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 32nd century BC</span>) recovered at Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) in 1998 or the <a href="/wiki/Narmer_Palette" title="Narmer Palette">Narmer Palette</a>, dating to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3100 BC</span>, and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though these glyphs were based on a much older artistic rather than written tradition. The hieroglyphic script was <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a> with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyph#Script" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian hieroglyph">alphabet</a>. The world's oldest deciphered sentence was found on a seal impression found in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> at Abydos, which dates from the Second Dynasty (28th or 27th century BC). There are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Writing was very important in maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian empire">Egyptian empire</a>, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The world's <a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age_alphabets" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age alphabets">oldest known alphabet</a> appears to have been developed by Canaanite turquoise miners in the Sinai desert around the mid-19th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 30 crude inscriptions have been found at a mountainous Egyptian mining site known as Serabit el-Khadem. This site was also home to a temple of Hathor, the "Mistress of turquoise". A later, two line inscription has also been found at <a href="/wiki/Wadi_el-Hol" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadi el-Hol">Wadi el-Hol</a> in Central Egypt. Based on hieroglyphic prototypes, but also including entirely new symbols, each sign apparently stood for a consonant rather than a word: the basis of an alphabetic system. It was not until the 12th to 9th centuries, however, that the alphabet took hold and became widely used.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cascajal_Block" title="Cascajal Block">Cascajal Block</a>, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old proto-writing, was discovered in the Mexican state of <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> and is an example of the oldest script in the Western Hemisphere, preceding the oldest <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapotec writing">Zapotec writing</a> by approximately 500 years.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thought to be <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a>. </p><p>Of several <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> scripts in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the only one to be deciphered, is the <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya script</a>. The earliest inscription identified as Maya dates to the 3rd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Saturno2006_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saturno2006-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs, somewhat similar in function to modern Japanese writing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Asia">Central Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Central Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2001, archaeologists discovered that there was a civilization in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> that used writing <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2000 BC</span>. An excavation near <a href="/wiki/Ashgabat" title="Ashgabat">Ashgabat</a>, the capital of <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that was used as a stamp seal.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronzeware_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronzeware script">Bronzeware script</a></div> <p>The earliest surviving examples of writing in China—inscriptions on <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bones</a>, usually tortoise <a href="/wiki/Plastron" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastron">plastrons</a> and ox <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapulae</a> which were used for divination—date from around 1200 BC, during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Shang" title="Late Shang">Late Shang</a> period. A small number of bronze inscriptions from the same period have also survived.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003, archaeologists reported discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Jiahu_symbols" title="Jiahu symbols">isolated tortoise-shell carvings</a> dating back to the 7th millennium BC, but whether or not these symbols are related to the characters of the later oracle bone script is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elamite_scripts">Elamite scripts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Elamite scripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the centuries, three distinct Elamite scripts developed. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a> is the oldest known writing system from Iran. In use only briefly (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3200</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2900 BC</span>), clay tablets with Proto-Elamite writing have been found at different sites across Iran, with the majority having been excavated at <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>, an ancient city located east of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Proto-Elamite script is thought to have developed from early <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> (proto-cuneiform). The Proto-Elamite script consists of more than 1,000 signs and is thought to be partly <a href="/wiki/Logographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Logographic">logographic</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a> is a writing system attested in a few monumental inscriptions in Iran. It was used for a very brief period during the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. It is often claimed that Linear Elamite is a syllabic writing system derived from Proto-Elamite, although this cannot be proven since Linear-Elamite has not been deciphered. Several scholars have attempted to decipher the script, most notably <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walther_Hinz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walther Hinz (page does not exist)">Walther Hinz</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Hinz" class="extiw" title="de:Walther Hinz">de</a>]</span><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero_Meriggi" class="extiw" title="it:Piero Meriggi">Piero Meriggi</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite cuneiform</a> script was used from about 2500 to 331 BC, and was adapted from the Akkadian cuneiform. At any given point within this period, the Elamite cuneiform script consisted of about 130 symbols, and over this entire period only 206 total signs were used. This is far fewer than most other cuneiform scripts.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crete_and_Greece">Crete and Greece</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Crete and Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan hieroglyphs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan hieroglyphs</a> are found on artifacts of <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> (early-to-mid-2nd millennium BC, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). <a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a>, the writing system of the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaean Greeks">Mycenaean Greeks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Olivier_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olivier-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has been deciphered while <a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a> has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct writing systems can be summarized as follows (beginning date refers to first attestations, the assumed origins of all scripts lie further back in the past): Cretan hieroglyphs were used in Crete from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1625</span> to 1500 BC; Linear A was used in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean Islands</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kea_(island)" title="Kea (island)">Kea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kythera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kythera">Kythera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melos" class="mw-redirect" title="Melos">Melos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thera">Thera</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Greek_mainland" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek mainland">Greek mainland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a>) from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 18th century</span> to 1450 BC; and Linear B was used in Crete (<a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a>), and mainland (<a href="/wiki/Pylos" title="Pylos">Pylos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiryns" title="Tiryns">Tiryns</a>) from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1375</span> to 1200 BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indus_Valley">Indus Valley</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Indus Valley"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a></div> <p>Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> (which spanned modern-day <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_India" title="North India">North India</a>) used between 2600 and 1900 BC. Despite attempts at <a href="/wiki/Decipherment" title="Decipherment">decipherments</a> and claims, it is as yet undeciphered. The term 'Indus script' is mainly applied to that used in the mature Harappan phase, which perhaps evolved from a few signs found in early <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a> after 3500 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The script is written from right to left,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukhopadhyay20192_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukhopadhyay20192-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sometimes follows a <a href="/wiki/Boustrophedonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boustrophedonic">boustrophedonic</a> style. In 2015, the epigrapher Bryan Wells estimated there were around 694 distinct signs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells201513_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells201513-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is above 400, so scholars accept the script to be logo-syllabic<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2018104–105_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2018104–105-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (typically syllabic scripts have about 50–100 signs whereas logographic scripts have a very large number of principal signs). Several scholars maintain that structural analysis indicates an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a> language underlies the script.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phoenician_writing_system_and_descendants">Phoenician writing system and descendants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Phoenician writing system and descendants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sinaitic">Proto-Sinaitic</a> script, in which <a href="/wiki/Proto-Canaanite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Canaanite">Proto-Canaanite</a> is believed to have been first written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_writing_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician writing system">Phoenician writing system</a> was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greeks</a>, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The <a href="/wiki/Cumae_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumae alphabet">Cumae alphabet</a>, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a> and its own descendants, such as the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rune" class="mw-redirect" title="Rune">Runes</a>. Other descendants from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> include <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a>, used to write <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic script">Aramaic script</a>, from which the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew script">Hebrew</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic scripts</a> are descended.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a> script (Berber languages) is descended from the <a href="/wiki/Libyco-Berber_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Libyco-Berber script">Libyco-Berber script</a>, which is assumed to be of Phoenician origin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_texts">Religious texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Religious texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing#Writing_and_religion" title="History of writing">History of writing § Writing and religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">Myth</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">history of writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_texts" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious texts">religious texts</a> or writing have played a special role. For example, some religious text compilations have been some of the earliest popular texts, or even the only written texts in some languages, and in some cases are still highly popular around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first books printed widely using the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">were bibles</a>. Such texts enabled rapid spread and maintenance of societal cohesion, <a href="/wiki/Collective_identity" title="Collective identity">collective identity</a>, motivations, justifications and <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a> that e.g. notably <a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">historically supported or enabled large-scale warfare between modern humans</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_kmessedwords.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Writing" title="Portal:Writing">Writing portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_writing" title="Collaborative writing">Collaborative writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_(language)" title="Composition (language)">Composition (language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphonomics" title="Graphonomics">Graphonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">Scriptorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_scholarship" title="Textual scholarship">Textual scholarship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typography" title="Typography">Typography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writer%27s_block" title="Writer's block">Writer's block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_circle" title="Writing circle">Writing circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_slate" class="mw-redirect" title="Writing slate">Writing slate</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarris2000" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Roy (2000). <i>Rethinking Writing</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33776-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33776-4"><bdi>978-0-253-33776-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Writing&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33776-4&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2005" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Dorothy E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105"><i>Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People</i></a>. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/institutionaleth0000smit/page/105">105–108</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0502-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0502-7"><bdi>978-0-7591-0502-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutional+Ethnography%3A+A+Sociology+for+People&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pages=105-108&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0502-7&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finstitutionaleth0000smit%2Fpage%2F105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOng1982" class="citation book cs1">Ong, Walter (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oralityliteracyt00ongw"><i>Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word</i></a></span>. London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02796-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02796-0"><bdi>978-0-415-02796-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orality+and+Literacy%3A+The+Technologizing+of+the+Word&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02796-0&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foralityliteracyt00ongw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaas1996" class="citation book cs1">Haas, Christina (1996). <i>Writing technology: Studies on the Materiality of Literacy</i>. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-1306-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-1306-7"><bdi>978-0-8058-1306-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+technology%3A+Studies+on+the+Materiality+of+Literacy&rft.place=Mahwah%2C+NJ&rft.pub=L.+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-1306-7&rft.aulast=Haas&rft.aufirst=Christina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmandt-BesseratErard2007" class="citation book cs1">Schmandt-Besserat, Denise; Erard, Erard (2007). "Origins and Forms of Writing". In Bazerman, Charles (ed.). <i>Handbook of Research on Writing: History, Society, School, Individual, Text</i>. New York: L. Erlbaum Associates. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25111-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-25111-6"><bdi>978-1-135-25111-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origins+and+Forms+of+Writing&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Research+on+Writing%3A+History%2C+Society%2C+School%2C+Individual%2C+Text&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=L.+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-135-25111-6&rft.aulast=Schmandt-Besserat&rft.aufirst=Denise&rft.au=Erard%2C+Erard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Emig_(1994)-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Emig_(1994)_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBazermanRussell1994" class="citation book cs1">Bazerman, Charles; Russell, David, eds. (1994). "Writing as a mode of learning". <i>Landmark Essays: On Writing Across the Curriculum</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003059219">10.4324/9781003059219</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-05921-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-05921-9"><bdi>978-1-003-05921-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+as+a+mode+of+learning&rft.btitle=Landmark+Essays%3A+On+Writing+Across+the+Curriculum&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003059219&rft.isbn=978-1-003-05921-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdler-KassnerWardle2015" class="citation book cs1">Adler-Kassner, Linda; Wardle, Elizabeth A., eds. (2015). <i>Naming What We Know: Threshold Concepts of Writing Studies</i>. Logan: Utah State University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">55–</span>56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-989-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87421-989-0"><bdi>978-0-87421-989-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt15nmjt7">j.ctt15nmjt7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naming+What+We+Know%3A+Threshold+Concepts+of+Writing+Studies&rft.place=Logan&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.pub=Utah+State+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt15nmjt7%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-87421-989-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinsor1994" class="citation journal cs1">Winsor, Dorothy A. (1994). "Invention and Writing in Technical Work: Representing the Object". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>11</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">227–</span>250. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088394011002003">10.1177/0741088394011002003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145645219">145645219</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Communication&rft.atitle=Invention+and+Writing+in+Technical+Work%3A+Representing+the+Object&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E250&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0741088394011002003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145645219%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Winsor&rft.aufirst=Dorothy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014" class="citation book cs1">Jakobs, Eva-Maria; Perrin, Daniel (2014). "Introduction and research roadmap: Writing and text production". <i>Handbook of writing and text production</i>. De Gruyter / Mouton. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022063-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-022063-6"><bdi>978-3-11-022063-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+and+research+roadmap%3A+Writing+and+text+production&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+writing+and+text+production&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+%2F+Mouton&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-11-022063-6&rft.aulast=Jakobs&rft.aufirst=Eva-Maria&rft.au=Perrin%2C+Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/index.html">"The Khipu Database Project"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722135315/http://khipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Khipu+Database+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkhipukamayuq.fas.harvard.edu%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindgrenSullivan2019" class="citation book cs1">Lindgren, E.; Sullivan, K., eds. (2019). <i>Observing Writing: Insights from Keystroke Logging and Handwriting</i>. 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Affordances of Paper-Based Literacy in Medical Practice and Its Persistence in the Transition to Digital Technology". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>34</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">359–</span>386. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088317723304">10.1177/0741088317723304</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149050969">149050969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Communication&rft.atitle=Endangered+Literacies%3F+Affordances+of+Paper-Based+Literacy+in+Medical+Practice+and+Its+Persistence+in+the+Transition+to+Digital+Technology&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E359-%3C%2Fspan%3E386&rft.date=2017-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0741088317723304&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149050969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sterponi&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Zucchermaglio%2C+Cristina&rft.au=Alby%2C+Francesca&rft.au=Fatigante%2C+Marilena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt2015" class="citation book cs1">Brandt, Deborah (2015). <i>The Rise of Writing</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-46211-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-46211-3"><bdi>978-1-107-46211-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Writing&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-46211-3&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakobsSpinuzzi2014" class="citation book cs1">Jakobs, Eva-Marie; Spinuzzi, Clay (2014). "Professional Domains: Writing as Creation of Economic Value". <i>Handbook of Writing and Text Production</i>. 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(June 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smart, G. (2006). <i>Writing the economy: Activity, genre and technology in the world of banking.</i> London: Equinox.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevitt1991" class="citation book cs1">Devitt, Amy J. (1991). 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(June 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerwinFurlong2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_M._Kerwin" title="Cornelius M. Kerwin">Kerwin, Cornelius M.</a>; Furlong, Scott R. (2019). <i>Rulemaking: How Government Agencies Write Law and Make Policy</i> (5th ed.). 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(May 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/research/vital-records">"Vital Records"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. 15 August 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230224225956/https://www.archives.gov/research/vital-records">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">201–</span>216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-4869-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-4869-4"><bdi>978-0-8058-4869-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+and+Journalism%3A+Politics%2C+Social+Movements%2C+and+the+Public+Sphere&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Research+on+Writing%3A+History%2C+Society%2C+School%2C+Individual%2C+Text&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E201-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8058-4869-4&rft.au=Conboy%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerrin2013" class="citation book cs1">Perrin, Daniel (2013). <i>The Linguistics of Newswriting</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-05278" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-05278"><bdi>978-90-272-05278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Linguistics+of+Newswriting&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-90-272-05278&rft.aulast=Perrin&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavlik2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_V._Pavlik" title="John V. Pavlik">Pavlik, John V.</a> (2001). <i>Journalism and New Media</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2311-1482-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2311-1482-0"><bdi>978-0-2311-1482-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journalism+and+New+Media&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-2311-1482-0&rft.aulast=Pavlik&rft.aufirst=John+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWingate2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wingate, Ursula (2012). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Argument!' helping students understand what essay writing is about". <i>Journal of English for Academic Purposes</i>. <b>11</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">145–</span>154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jeap.2011.11.001">10.1016/j.jeap.2011.11.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73669683">73669683</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+English+for+Academic+Purposes&rft.atitle=%27Argument%21%27+helping+students+understand+what+essay+writing+is+about&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E154&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jeap.2011.11.001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73669683%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wingate&rft.aufirst=Ursula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinArconBaker2016" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Perry D.; Arcon, Nina; Baker, Samanta (2016). "Writing to Learn". <i>Handbook of Writing Research</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford. pp. <span class="nowrap">245–</span>246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4625-2243-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4625-2243-9"><bdi>978-1-4625-2243-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Writing+to+Learn&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Writing+Research&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E245-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Guilford&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4625-2243-9&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Perry+D.&rft.au=Arcon%2C+Nina&rft.au=Baker%2C+Samanta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_et_al._(2019)-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams_et_al._(2019)_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsBeam2019" class="citation journal cs1">Williams C, Beam S (2019). "Technology and writing: review of research". <i>Computers & Education</i>. <b>128</b>: <span class="nowrap">227–</span>242. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.compedu.2018.09.024">10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53746020">53746020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+%26+Education&rft.atitle=Technology+and+writing%3A+review+of+research&rft.volume=128&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E227-%3C%2Fspan%3E242&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.compedu.2018.09.024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53746020%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Beam%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanielsBright1996" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (1996). <i>The World's Writing Systems</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507993-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507993-0"><bdi>0-19-507993-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Writing+Systems&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-507993-0&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Peter+T.&rft.au=Bright%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers200513–15_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2005">Rogers 2005</a>, pp. 13–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushman2011" class="citation journal cs1">Cushman, Ellen (2011). "The Cherokee Syllabary: A Writing System in its Own Right". <i>Written Communication</i>. <b>28</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">255–</span>281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0741088311410172">10.1177/0741088311410172</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144180867">144180867</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Written+Communication&rft.atitle=The+Cherokee+Syllabary%3A+A+Writing+System+in+its+Own+Right&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E255-%3C%2Fspan%3E281&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0741088311410172&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144180867%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cushman&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson200336-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobinson200336_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinson2003">Robinson 2003</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/where-did-writing-begin">"Where did writing begin?"</a>. British Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220311085214/https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/where-did-writing-begin">Archived</a> from the original on 11 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Where+did+writing+begin%3F&rft.pub=British+Library&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fhistory-of-writing%2Farticles%2Fwhere-did-writing-begin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rudgley-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rudgley_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudgley2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rudgley" title="Richard Rudgley">Rudgley, Richard</a> (2000). <i>The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. <span class="nowrap">48–</span>57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+Civilizations+of+the+Stone+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Rudgley&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Noah_Kramer" title="Samuel Noah Kramer">Kramer, Samuel Noah</a> (1981). "The Origin and Development of the Cuneiform System of Writing". <i>History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine Firsts in Recorded History</i> (3rd ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">381–</span>383. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7812-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7812-5"><bdi>978-0-8122-7812-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+Development+of+the+Cuneiform+System+of+Writing&rft.btitle=History+Begins+at+Sumer%3A+Thirty-Nine+Firsts+in+Recorded+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E381-%3C%2Fspan%3E383&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-7812-5&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Noah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipson2004" class="citation book cs1">Lipson, Carol (2004). "Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric: It All Comes Down to Maat". In Lipson, Carol S.; Binkley, Roberta A. (eds.). <i>Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks</i>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6099-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6099-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-6099-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Rhetoric%3A+It+All+Comes+Down+to+Maat&rft.btitle=Rhetoric+before+and+beyond+the+Greeks&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6099-3&rft.aulast=Lipson&rft.aufirst=Carol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Orly_Goldwasser" title="Orly Goldwasser">Goldwasser, Orly</a>. "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology Review, Mar/Apr 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilford2006" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Noble_Wilford" title="John Noble Wilford">Wilford, John Noble</a> (15 September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/15/science/15writing.html">"Writing May Be Oldest in Western Hemisphere"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180727145612/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/15/science/15writing.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2008</span>. <q>A stone slab bearing 3,000-year-old writing previously unknown to scholars has been found in the Mexican state of Veracruz, and archaeologists say it is an example of the oldest script ever discovered in the Western Hemisphere.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Writing+May+Be+Oldest+in+Western+Hemisphere&rft.date=2006-09-15&rft.aulast=Wilford&rft.aufirst=John+Noble&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2006%2F09%2F15%2Fscience%2F15writing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBriggs2006" class="citation news cs1">Briggs, Helen (14 September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5347080.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Oldest' New World writing found"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080403005953/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5347080.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2008</span>. <q>Ancient civilisations in Mexico developed a writing system as early as 900 BC, new evidence suggests.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Oldest%27+New+World+writing+found&rft.date=2006-09-14&rft.aulast=Briggs&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F5347080.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_MartínezCeballosCoeDiehl2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rodríguez Martínez, Maria del Carmen; Ceballos, Ponciano Ortíz; Coe, Michael D.; Diehl, Richard A.; Houston, Stephen D.; Taube, Karl A.; Calderón, Alfredo Delgado (15 September 2006). "Oldest Writing in the New World". <i>Science</i>. <b>313</b> (5793): <span class="nowrap">1610–</span>1614. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...313.1610R">2006Sci...313.1610R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1131492">10.1126/science.1131492</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16973873">16973873</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:35140904">35140904</a>. <q>A block with a hitherto unknown system of writing has been found in the Olmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the block places it in the early first millennium before the common era, the oldest writing in the New World, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Oldest+Writing+in+the+New+World&rft.volume=313&rft.issue=5793&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1610-%3C%2Fspan%3E1614&rft.date=2006-09-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1131492&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A35140904%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16973873&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...313.1610R&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.aufirst=Maria+del+Carmen&rft.au=Ceballos%2C+Ponciano+Ort%C3%ADz&rft.au=Coe%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Diehl%2C+Richard+A.&rft.au=Houston%2C+Stephen+D.&rft.au=Taube%2C+Karl+A.&rft.au=Calder%C3%B3n%2C+Alfredo+Delgado&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saturno2006-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saturno2006_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaturnoStuartBeltrán2006" class="citation journal cs1">Saturno, William A.; Stuart, David; Beltrán, Boris (3 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121745">"Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>311</b> (5765): <span class="nowrap">1281–</span>1283. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Sci...311.1281S">2006Sci...311.1281S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121745">10.1126/science.1121745</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16400112">16400112</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46351994">46351994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Early+Maya+Writing+at+San+Bartolo%2C+Guatemala&rft.volume=311&rft.issue=5765&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1281-%3C%2Fspan%3E1283&rft.date=2006-03-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1121745&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46351994%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16400112&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Sci...311.1281S&rft.aulast=Saturno&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft.au=Stuart%2C+David&rft.au=Beltr%C3%A1n%2C+Boris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1121745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1330705.stm">"Ancient writing found in Turkmenistan"</a>. BBC. 15 May 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081207141534/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1330705.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2008</span>. <q>A previously unknown civilisation was using writing in Central Asia 4,000 years ago, hundreds of years before Chinese writing developed, archaeologists have discovered. An excavation near Ashgabat, the capital of Turkmenistan, revealed an inscription on a piece of stone that seems to have been used as a stamp seal.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ancient+writing+found+in+Turkmenistan&rft.date=2001-05-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fasia-pacific%2F1330705.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoltz1999" class="citation book cs1">Boltz, William (1999). "Language and Writing". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cambridge History of Ancient China"><i>The Cambridge History of Ancient China</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">74–</span>123. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47030-8"><bdi>978-0-521-47030-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+and+Writing&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Ancient+China&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47030-8&rft.aulast=Boltz&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm">"Archaeologists Rewrite History"</a>. <i>China Daily</i>. 12 June 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181026123513/http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Daily&rft.atitle=Archaeologists+Rewrite+History&rft.date=2003-06-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china.org.cn%2Fenglish%2F2003%2FJun%2F66806.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRincon2003" class="citation news cs1">Rincon, Paul (17 April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Earliest writing' found in China"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120320140538/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2012</span>. <q>Signs carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells found in China may be the earliest written words, say archaeologists</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Earliest+writing%27+found+in+China&rft.date=2003-04-17&rft.aulast=Rincon&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F2956925.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahl2018" class="citation book cs1">Dahl, Jacob L. (2018). "The proto-Elamite writing system". <i>The Elamite World</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">383–</span>396. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315658032-20">10.4324/9781315658032-20</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-65803-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-65803-2"><bdi>978-1-315-65803-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+proto-Elamite+writing+system&rft.btitle=The+Elamite+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E383-%3C%2Fspan%3E396&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315658032-20&rft.isbn=978-1-315-65803-2&rft.aulast=Dahl&rft.aufirst=Jacob+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinz1975" class="citation journal cs1">Hinz, Walther (1975). "Problems of Linear Elamite". <i>The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland</i>. <b>107</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">106–</span>115. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0035869X00132782">10.1017/S0035869X00132782</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25203649">25203649</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.atitle=Problems+of+Linear+Elamite&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E106-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0035869X00132782&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25203649%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hinz&rft.aufirst=Walther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olivier-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Olivier_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivier1986" class="citation journal cs1">Olivier, J.-P. (February 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dipot.ulb.ac.be/dspace/bitstream/2013/248436/4/53a239ae-5319-44a5-b013-69ca027964b7.txt">"Cretan writing in the second millennium B.C."</a> <i>World Archaeology</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">377–</span>389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979977">10.1080/00438243.1986.9979977</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163509308">163509308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Cretan+writing+in+the+second+millennium+B.C.&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E377-%3C%2Fspan%3E389&rft.date=1986-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00438243.1986.9979977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163509308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Olivier&rft.aufirst=J.-P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdipot.ulb.ac.be%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2013%2F248436%2F4%2F53a239ae-5319-44a5-b013-69ca027964b7.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehouse1999" class="citation news cs1">Whitehouse, David (4 May 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/334517.stm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Earliest writing' found"</a>. BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Earliest+writing%27+found&rft.date=1999-05-04&rft.aulast=Whitehouse&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F334517.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukhopadhyay20192-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukhopadhyay20192_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMukhopadhyay2019">Mukhopadhyay 2019</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells201513-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells201513_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2015">Wells 2015</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2018104–105-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStiebingHelft2018104–105_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStiebingHelft2018">Stiebing & Helft 2018</a>, p. 104–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1994" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Henri-Jean (1994). <i>The History and Power of Writing</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50836-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-50836-8"><bdi>978-0-226-50836-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Power+of+Writing&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-226-50836-8&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Henri-Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston2007" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, Sarah Iles (30 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FSEsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133"><i>Ancient Religions</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26477-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26477-9"><bdi>978-0-674-26477-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230426224052/https://books.google.com/books?id=FSEsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Religions&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007-09-30&rft.isbn=978-0-674-26477-9&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Sarah+Iles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFSEsEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2009" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Barry B. (2009). <i>Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization</i>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6256-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6256-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-6256-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing%3A+Theory+and+History+of+the+Technology+of+Civilization&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6256-2&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Barry+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDooley2017" class="citation book cs1">Dooley, John F. (2017). <i>Software Development, Design and Coding: With Patterns, Debugging, Unit Testing, and Refactoring</i> (2nd ed.). Apress. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4842-3153-1">10.1007/978-1-4842-3153-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3152-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3152-4"><bdi>978-1-4842-3152-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Development%2C+Design+and+Coding%3A+With+Patterns%2C+Debugging%2C+Unit+Testing%2C+and+Refactoring&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4842-3153-1&rft.isbn=978-1-4842-3152-4&rft.aulast=Dooley&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukhopadhyay2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mukhopadhyay, Bahata Ansumali (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0274-1">"Interrogating Indus inscriptions to unravel their mechanisms of meaning conveyance"</a>. <i>Palgrave</i>. <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0274-1">10.1057/s41599-019-0274-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2055-1045">2055-1045</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palgrave&rft.atitle=Interrogating+Indus+inscriptions+to+unravel+their+mechanisms+of+meaning+conveyance&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fs41599-019-0274-1&rft.issn=2055-1045&rft.aulast=Mukhopadhyay&rft.aufirst=Bahata+Ansumali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%252Fs41599-019-0274-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2003" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2003). "The Origins of Writing". In Crowley, David; Heyer, Paul (eds.). <i>Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society</i>. Allyn and Bacon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Writing&rft.btitle=Communication+in+History%3A+Technology%2C+Culture%2C+Society&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2005" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Henry (2005). <i>Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23463-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23463-0"><bdi>978-0-631-23463-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+Systems%3A+A+Linguistic+Approach&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23463-0&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiebingHelft2018" class="citation book cs1">Stiebing, William H. Jr.; Helft, Susan N. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C4U0DwAAQBAJ"><i>Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture</i></a> (3rd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-88083-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-88083-6"><bdi>978-1-134-88083-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Near+Eastern+History+and+Culture&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-134-88083-6&rft.aulast=Stiebing&rft.aufirst=William+H.+Jr.&rft.au=Helft%2C+Susan+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC4U0DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2015" class="citation book cs1">Wells, B. K. (2015). <i>The Archaeology and Epigraphy of Indus Writing</i>. Oxford: Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78491-046-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78491-046-4"><bdi>978-1-78491-046-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+and+Epigraphy+of+Indus+Writing&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-78491-046-4&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=B.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristinBacon2002" class="citation book cs1">Christin, Anne-Marie; Bacon, Josephine (2002). <i>A History of Writing: From Hieroglyph to Multimedia</i>. Paris: Flammarion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-08-010887-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-08-010887-6"><bdi>978-2-08-010887-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Writing%3A+From+Hieroglyph+to+Multimedia&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Flammarion&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-2-08-010887-6&rft.aulast=Christin&rft.aufirst=Anne-Marie&rft.au=Bacon%2C+Josephine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>"The Art of Writing" (1974). <i>The Book Collector</i> 23 no 3 (autumn):319–338.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=momIk7nVNdkC"><i>In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language.</i></a> By Joel M. Hoffman, 2004. Chapter 3 covers the invention of writing and its various stages.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museumofwriting.co.uk/">Museum of Writing</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060424070220/http://www.museumofwriting.co.uk/">Archived</a> 24 April 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: UK Museum of Writing with information on writing history and implements</li> <li>On ERIC Digests: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/writing.htm"><i>Writing Instruction: Current Practices in the Classroom</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054304/http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/writing.htm">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm"><i>Writing Development</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040415092322/http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/development.htm">Archived</a> 15 April 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/views.htm"><i>Writing Instruction: Changing Views over the Years</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052125/http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/views.htm">Archived</a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2009" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Barry B. (2009). <i>Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization</i>. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6256-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6256-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-6256-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing%3A+Theory+and+History+of+the+Technology+of+Civilization&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6256-2&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Barry+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Reynolds, Jack 2004. <i>Merleau-Ponty And Derrida: Intertwining Embodiment And Alterity</i>, Ohio University Press</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnkerl2000" class="citation book cs1">Ankerl, Guy (2000). Pereboom, Dirk (ed.). <i>Global Communication without Universal Civilization, Volume 1: Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations – Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western</i>. INU societal research. Geneva, Switzerland: INU Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">59–</span>66, 235s. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1"><bdi>978-2-88155-004-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Communication+without+Universal+Civilization%2C+Volume+1%3A+Coexisting+Contemporary+Civilizations+%E2%80%93+Arabo-Muslim%2C+Bharati%2C+Chinese%2C+and+Western&rft.place=Geneva%2C+Switzerland&rft.series=INU+societal+research&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E66%2C+235s&rft.pub=INU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-2-88155-004-1&rft.aulast=Ankerl&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWriting" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Writing&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Writing" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Writing">Writing</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link 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class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Collaborative_play_writing" class="extiw" title="v:Collaborative play writing">Collaborative play writing</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Fiction_technique" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Fiction technique">Fiction technique</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/writing" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/writing">writing</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf">Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqatum" title="Damqatum">Damqatum</a> 3 (2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mediengeschichte.dnb.de/DBSMZBN/Web/EN/Navigation/SoundsSymbolsScript/sounds_symbols_script_doorpage.html">"Signs – Books – Networks", virtual exhibition of the German Museum of Books and Writing i.a. with a thematic module on sounds, symbols and script</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wac.colostate.edu">Writing Across the Curriculum Clearinghouse</a> – open access books, journals, teaching resources on research and practice.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amate" title="Amate">Amate</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Trema_micrantha" class="mw-redirect" title="Trema micrantha">Trema micrantha</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ficus_aurea" title="Ficus aurea">Ficus aurea</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">Bamboo and wooden slips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birch_bark_manuscript" title="Birch bark manuscript">Birch bark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark"><i>Betula</i></a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folding-book_manuscript" title="Folding-book manuscript">Folding-book manuscript</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Streblus_asper" title="Streblus asper">Streblus asper</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paper_mulberry" title="Paper mulberry">Broussonetia papyrifera</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ola_leaf" title="Ola leaf">Ola leaf</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Corypha_umbraculifera" title="Corypha umbraculifera">Corypha umbraculifera</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript" title="Palm-leaf manuscript">Palm leaf</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Borassus" title="Borassus">Borassus</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyrus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">Cyperus papyrus</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Animal skin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">Vellum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">Ink</a></li> <li>Metals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(printmaking)" title="Intaglio (printmaking)">Intaglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamping_(metalworking)" title="Stamping (metalworking)">Stamping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">Oracle bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Photographic film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Stone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">Geoglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">Petroglyph</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tablets <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">Clay tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_(writing)" title="Slate (writing)">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">Wax tablet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile_printing" title="Textile printing">Textile printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts" title="Mawangdui Silk Texts">Silk text</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impermanent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_paper" title="Electronic paper">Electronic paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skywriting" title="Skywriting">Skywriting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carrier objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Book</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notebook" title="Notebook">Notebook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_(ritual_baton)" title="Hu (ritual baton)"><i>Hu</i>/<i>Shaku</i> (baton)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">Inscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">Bas-relief</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscript</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palimpsest" title="Palimpsest">Palimpsest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microform" title="Microform">Microform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scroll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign" title="Sign">Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">List of writing systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">Written language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Paper_data_storage_media43" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> (c. 3000 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a> (105 CE)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_card" title="Index card">Index card</a> (1640s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punched_tape" title="Punched tape">Punched tape</a> (mid-1800s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">Punched card</a> (1880s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge-notched_card" title="Edge-notched card">Edge-notched card</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_mark_recognition" title="Optical mark recognition">Optical mark recognition</a> (1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcode" title="Barcode">Barcode</a> (1948)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Communication_studies358" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communication_studies" title="Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication_studies" title="Template talk:Communication studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communication studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Communication_studies358" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Topics and<br /> terminology</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)" title="Biocommunication (science)">Biocommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation" title="Conversation">Conversation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" title="Interpersonal communication">Interpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication" title="Intrapersonal communication">Intrapersonal </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Writing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (philosophy of language)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_communication" title="Models of communication">Models of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolent_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent communication">Nonviolent communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_symbols" title="List of symbols">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_and_conversation_theory" title="Text and conversation theory">Text and conversation theory</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Encoding_communication.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encoding communication"><img alt="Encoding communication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/120px-Encoding_communication.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/180px-Encoding_communication.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Encoding_communication.jpg/240px-Encoding_communication.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="345" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed-loop_communication" title="Closed-loop communication">Closed-loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_design" title="Communication design">Communication design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communicology" title="Communicology">Communicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_communication" title="Crisis communication">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_communication" title="Development communication">Developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Study_of_global_communication" title="Study of global communication">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_communication" title="International communication">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_cross-border_communication" title="Mediated cross-border communication">Mediated cross-border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_communication" title="Political communication">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_communication" title="Risk communication">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_communication" title="Technical communication">Technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_communication" title="Visual communication">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Barthes" title="Roland Barthes">Barthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_T._Craig" title="Robert T. Craig">Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ellul" title="Jacques Ellul">Ellul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fisher_(professor)" title="Walter Fisher (professor)">Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vil%C3%A9m_Flusser" title="Vilém Flusser">Flusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gerbner" title="George Gerbner">Gerbner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldous_Huxley" title="Aldous Huxley">Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Innis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irving_Janis" title="Irving Janis">Janis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Johnson" title="Wendell Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Lawrence_Kincaid" title="D. Lawrence Kincaid">Kincaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Lippman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Morgan" title="Nick Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vance_Packard" title="Vance Packard">Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Postman" title="Neil Postman">Postman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_C._Quebral" title="Nora C. Quebral">Quebral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Rogers" title="Everett Rogers">Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm" title="Wilbur Schramm">Schramm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_W._Tankard_Jr." title="James W. Tankard Jr.">Tankard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Wertheimer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication_studies" title="Category:Communication studies">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Literacy65" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Literacy" title="Template:Literacy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Literacy" title="Template talk:Literacy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Literacy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Literacy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Literacy65" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">Literacy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Learning</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_literacy" title="Adolescent literacy">Adolescent literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent literacy">Emergent literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_literacy" title="Family literacy">Family literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_illiteracy" title="Functional illiteracy">Functional illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonics" title="Phonics">Phonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-literacy" title="Post-literacy">Post-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_language" title="Whole language">Whole language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_literacy_rate" title="List of countries by literacy rate">List of countries by literacy rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_Canada" title="Literacy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_India" title="Literacy in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_Bihar" title="Literacy in Bihar">Bihar</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Zealand <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_Tokelau" title="Literacy in Tokelau">Tokelau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_Romania" title="Literacy in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Literacy_Association" title="International Literacy Association">International Literacy Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Literacy_Day" title="International Literacy Day">International Literacy Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Teachers_of_English" title="National Council of Teachers of English">National Council of Teachers of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind_Act" title="No Child Left Behind Act">No Child Left Behind Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Clay" title="Marie Clay">Marie Clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Johnson_Colvin" title="Ruth Johnson Colvin">Ruth Johnson Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Paul_Gee" title="James Paul Gee">James Paul Gee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griffith_Jones_(priest)" title="Griffith Jones (priest)">Griffith Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Laubach" title="Frank Laubach">Frank Laubach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Street" title="Brian Street">Brian Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI_literacy" title="AI literacy">AI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_literacy" title="Agricultural literacy">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_literacy" title="Carbon literacy">Carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_literacy" title="Computational literacy">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_literacy" title="Computer literacy">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_literacy" title="Critical literacy">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_literacy" title="Data literacy">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_literacy" title="Digital literacy">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_literacy" title="Diaspora literacy">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_literacy" title="Ecological literacy">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electracy" title="Electracy">Electracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_literacy" title="Emotional literacy">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Faith literacy">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_literacy" title="Financial literacy">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geo-literacy" title="Geo-literacy">Geo-literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_literacy" title="Graph literacy">Graph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_literacy" title="Mental health literacy">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Literacy">Occupational Safety and Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_literacy" title="Information literacy">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_literacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Information literacies">Information literacies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_and_media_literacy" title="Information and media literacy">Information and media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal literacy">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaliteracy" title="Metaliteracy">Metaliteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiliteracies" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiliteracies">Multiliteracies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_literacy" title="Musical literacy">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeracy" title="Numeracy">Numeracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_Literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Object Literacy">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracy" title="Oracy">Oracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_literacy" title="Political literacy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_literacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Power literacy">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_literacy" title="Physical literacy">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_literacy" title="Psychological literacy">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_literacy" title="Racial literacy">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_literacy" title="Religious literacy">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_literacy" title="Social literacy">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_literacy" title="Statistical literacy">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_literacy" title="Technological literacy">Technological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transliteracy" title="Transliteracy">Transliteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_literacy" title="Visual literacy">Visual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_literacy" title="Web literacy">Web</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliteracy" title="Aliteracy">Aliteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asemic_writing" title="Asemic writing">Asemic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_literature" title="Children's literature">Children's literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_and_Jane" title="Dick and Jane">Dick and Jane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">Dyslexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">Literacy test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_consumption" title="Media consumption">Media consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orality" title="Orality">Orality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">Oral literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-literate_society" title="Post-literate society">Post-literate society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading" title="Reading">Reading</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37260#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2385" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37260#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2385" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37260#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1181638/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Schreiben"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4116418-0">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Writing"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85148637">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Écriture"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11936326f">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Écriture"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11936326f">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="psaní"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115938&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Escritura"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX524426">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000052212&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Writing"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007529633305171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10641060">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Writing&oldid=1275697840">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Writing&oldid=1275697840</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-8z6v7","wgBackendResponseTime":181,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.230","walltime":"1.473","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11655,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":267469,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":17585,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":32,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":311500,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1284.815 1 -total"," 37.74% 484.835 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.04% 257.470 44 Template:Cite_book"," 13.39% 172.098 22 Template:Fix"," 9.16% 117.739 5 Template:Navbox"," 8.13% 104.412 13 Template:Citation_needed"," 8.09% 103.930 30 Template:Delink"," 7.47% 95.941 20 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.14% 91.717 8 Template:Page_needed"," 7.13% 91.591 1 Template:Writing"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.814","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":8940288,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdler-KassnerWardle2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnkerl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBazerman1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBazerman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBazermanRussell1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeaufort2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoltz1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandt2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBriggs2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristiansen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristinBacon2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConboy,_M.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCushman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDahl2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanielsBright1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevitt1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDooley2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDzieza2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaas1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinz1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchins1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyland2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakobsPerrin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJakobsSpinuzzi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnston2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJusteson1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatsnelson2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerwinFurlong2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinArconBaker2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLatourWoolgar1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindenmanDriscollEfthymiouPavesich2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindgrenSullivan2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukhopadhyay2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;HaraTaylorNewmanSellen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlivier1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOng1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavlik2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRay1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReiterDale2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRincon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodríguez_MartínezCeballosCoeDiehl2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogers2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudgley2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaturnoStuartBeltrán2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-BesseratErard2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSterponiZucchermaglioAlbyFatigante2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStiebingHelft2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTardy2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitehouse1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilford2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsBeam2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWingate2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinsor1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYates1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYates2005\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 11,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite journal\"] 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