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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Integrity questioned (1957–1958)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Integrity_questioned_(1957–1958)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Integrity questioned (1957–1958) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Integrity_questioned_(1957–1958)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Twenty-One" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twenty-One"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span><i>Twenty-One</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twenty-One-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Big_Surprise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Big_Surprise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span><i>The Big 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Revelations that contestants on TV quiz shows were secretly assisted by producers</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg/260px-Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg/390px-Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg/520px-Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Host <a href="/wiki/Jack_Barry_(game_show_host)" title="Jack Barry (game show host)">Jack Barry</a> and contestant <a href="/wiki/Charles_Van_Doren" title="Charles Van Doren">Charles Van Doren</a> on the set of <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_(game_show)" title="Twenty-One (game show)">Twenty-One</a></i> in 1957. <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> took the show off the air after the scandals made headlines; its production was dramatized in the 1994 film <i><a href="/wiki/Quiz_Show_(film)" title="Quiz Show (film)">Quiz Show</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>1950s quiz show scandals</b> were a series of scandals involving the <a href="/wiki/Television_producer" title="Television producer">producers</a> and contestants of several popular American <a href="/wiki/Game_show" title="Game show">television quiz shows</a>. These shows' producers secretly gave assistance to certain contestants in order to prearrange the shows' outcomes while still attempting to deceive the public into believing that these shows were objective and fair competitions. Producers fixed the shows sometimes with the free consent of contestants and out of various motives: improving <a href="/wiki/Audience_measurement" title="Audience measurement">ratings</a>, greed, and the lack of regulations prohibiting such conspiracy in game show productions.<sup id="cite_ref-Venanzi_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venanzi-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The scandals took place at a time when television was still emerging as a medium and had yet to become the established cultural force in American society that it is today. When the behavior of the producers and contestants was exposed, the public reacted with shock. Many expressed concern about the potential for the young medium of television to harm society. </p><p>In response to the scandals, the government was widely pressured to impose stricter regulations on broadcasters. As a direct consequence, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> amended the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act of 1934</a> to prohibit networks from prearranging the outcomes of quiz shows. In the United States, it has since become standard industry practice for game show producers to monitor their own shows closely for cheating and to ensure fairness in play and compliance with broadcasting law to the highest degree possible. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary">Summary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The popularity of radio <a href="/wiki/Game_show" title="Game show">quiz shows</a> between 1938 and 1956 led to the creation of television quiz shows. <sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> ruled that radio and television quiz shows could give prizes to contestants, provided the contestants did not contribute any of their own money.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In September 1956, the game show <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_(game_show)" title="Twenty-One (game show)">Twenty-One</a></i>, hosted by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Barry_(television_personality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jack Barry (television personality)">Jack Barry</a>, premiered on <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a>, its first show being played legitimately with no manipulation of the game by the producers at all. That initial broadcast was, in the words of co-producer <a href="/wiki/Dan_Enright" title="Dan Enright">Dan Enright</a>, "a dismal failure", as the two contestants were so lacking in the required knowledge that they answered a large number of the questions incorrectly. Show sponsor <a href="/wiki/Geritol" title="Geritol">Geritol</a>, upon seeing this opening-night performance, reportedly became furious with the results and said in no uncertain terms that they did not want to see a repeat performance.<sup id="cite_ref-MuseumTV_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MuseumTV-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three months into its run, <i>Twenty-One</i> featured a contestant, <a href="/wiki/Herb_Stempel" title="Herb Stempel">Herb Stempel</a>, who had been coached by Enright to allow his opponent, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Van_Doren" title="Charles Van Doren">Charles Van Doren</a>, to win the game. Stempel took the fall as requested. A year later, Stempel told the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Journal-American" title="New York Journal-American">New York Journal-American</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s <a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Brian" title="Jack O'Brian">Jack O'Brian</a> that his winning run as champion on the series had been choreographed to his advantage, and that the show's producer then ordered him to purposely lose his championship to Van Doren. With no proof, an article was never printed.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stempel's statements gained more credibility when fixing in another game, <i><a href="/wiki/Dotto" title="Dotto">Dotto</a>,</i> was publicized in August 1958. Quiz show ratings across the networks plummeted and several were cancelled amid allegations of fixing. The revelations were sufficient to initiate a nine-month-long <a href="/wiki/County_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="County of New York">New York County</a> <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MuseumTV_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MuseumTV-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although contest-rigging was not a criminal offense, several producers and dozens of contestants chose, rather than publicly admit they were frauds, to perjure themselves before the grand jury by denying they participated in fixing the shows. No indictments were handed down, but, in an unusual move, the judge ordered the findings and testimony sealed. This aroused public suspicion that corruption was involved, which in turn attracted the attention of the US Congress. A formal congressional subcommittee investigation began in August 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The producers and contestants did not dare to perjure themselves before Congress. Enright was revealed to have rigged <i>Twenty-One</i>; Van Doren also eventually came forth with revelations about how he was persuaded to accept specific answers during his time on the show.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross-EMedia_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross-EMedia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1960, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> amended the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act of 1934</a> to prohibit the fixing of quiz shows. As a result of that action, many networks canceled their existing quiz shows and replaced them—at <a href="/wiki/Television_and_the_Public_Interest" title="Television and the Public Interest">the prodding</a> of incoming FCC commissioner <a href="/wiki/Newton_Minow" class="mw-redirect" title="Newton Minow">Newton Minow</a><sup id="cite_ref-wastelandspeechtext_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wastelandspeechtext-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—with a higher number of <a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">public service</a> programs.<sup id="cite_ref-Gross-EMedia_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gross-EMedia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Integrity_questioned_(1957–1958)"><span id="Integrity_questioned_.281957.E2.80.931958.29"></span>Integrity questioned (1957–1958)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Integrity questioned (1957–1958)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twenty-One"><i>Twenty-One</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Twenty-One"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In late 1956, Herb Stempel, a contestant on NBC's <i>Twenty-One</i>, was coached by Enright. While Stempel was in the midst of his winning streak, both of the $64,000 quiz shows (<i><a href="/wiki/The_$64,000_Question" title="The $64,000 Question">The $64,000 Question</a></i> and its spin-off, <i>The $64,000 Challenge</i>) were in the top-ten rated programs but <i>Twenty-One</i> did not have the same popularity. Enright and his partner, Albert Freedman, were searching for a new champion to replace Stempel to boost ratings. They soon found what they were looking for in Charles Van Doren, an English teacher at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. Van Doren decided to try out for the NBC quiz show <i><a href="/wiki/Tic-Tac-Dough" title="Tic-Tac-Dough">Tic-Tac-Dough</a>.</i> Enright, who produced both <i>Tic-Tac-Dough</i> and <i>Twenty-One,</i> saw his tryout and was familiar with his prestigious family background that included multiple <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" title="Pulitzer Prize">Pulitzer Prize</a>-winning authors and highly respected professors at Columbia. As a result, Enright felt that Van Doren would be perfect as the new face of <i>Twenty-One.</i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After achieving winnings of $69,500, Stempel's scripted loss to the more popular Van Doren occurred on December 5, 1956. One of the questions Stempel answered incorrectly involved the winner of the <a href="/wiki/28th_Academy_Awards" title="28th Academy Awards">1955</a> <a href="/wiki/Academy_Awards" title="Academy Awards">Academy Award</a> for <a href="/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture" title="Academy Award for Best Picture">Best Motion Picture</a>. The correct answer was <i><a href="/wiki/Marty_(film)" title="Marty (film)">Marty</a>,</i> one of Stempel's favorite movies. As instructed by Enright, however, he gave the incorrect answer <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Waterfront" title="On the Waterfront">On the Waterfront</a>,</i> which had won the <a href="/wiki/27th_Academy_Awards" title="27th Academy Awards">previous year</a>. Although the manipulation of the contestants helped the producers maintain viewer interest and ratings, the producers had not anticipated the extent of Stempel's resentment at being required to lose the contest against Van Doren.<sup id="cite_ref-KAnderson-TVFraud_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KAnderson-TVFraud-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another former contestant, James Snodgrass, made lists of all the questions and answers on which he was coached and mailed them to his own home in a series of registered letters before his games aired. The dates on these letters served as indisputable proof that the show had been rigged, and Snodgrass testified before Congress on this matter in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Big_Surprise"><i>The Big Surprise</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Big Surprise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In December 1956, Dale Logue, a contestant on NBC's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Surprise" title="The Big Surprise">The Big Surprise</a></i>, filed a lawsuit against the show's production company, Entertainment Productions, Inc., seeking either $103,000 in <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">damages</a> or reinstatement on the show as a contestant. Her claim was that, after being asked a question she did not know in a "warm-up" session, that she was asked the same question again during the televised show. Her assertion was that this was done intentionally with the express purpose of eliminating her as a contestant. At the time Logue's lawsuit was filed, Steve Carlin, executive producer of Entertainment Productions, Inc., called her claim "ridiculous and hopeless".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Assertions that Logue had been offered $10,000 to <a href="/wiki/Legal_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal settlement">settle</a> in January 1957 were called baseless.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Revson" title="Charles Revson">Charles Revson</a>, head of <a href="/wiki/Revlon" title="Revlon">Revlon</a> and <i>The Big Surprise's</i> primary sponsor, asked the producers if Logue's accusation was true, and was told that it was not.<sup id="cite_ref-LossOfInnocence_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LossOfInnocence-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1957, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)"><i>Time</i></a> magazine published an article detailing the depths to which producers managed game shows, just short of involving the contestants themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by the August 20, 1957, <a href="/wiki/Look_(American_magazine)" title="Look (American magazine)"><i>Look</i> magazine</a> article "Are TV Quiz Shows Fixed?", which concluded "it may be more accurate to say they are controlled or partially controlled."<sup id="cite_ref-LossOfInnocence_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LossOfInnocence-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dotto"><i>Dotto</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dotto"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 1958, Stempel and Logue's credibility was bolstered when Edward Hilgemeier, Jr, a stand-by contestant on <i>Dotto</i> three months earlier, sent an <a href="/wiki/Affidavit" title="Affidavit">affidavit</a> to the FCC claiming that while backstage, he had found a notebook on set containing the answers contestant <a href="/wiki/Marie_Winn" title="Marie Winn">Marie Winn</a> was to deliver.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Backlash">Backlash</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Backlash"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American public's reaction was swift and dramatic when the fraud became public; between 87% and 95% knew about the scandals as measured by industry-sponsored polls.<sup id="cite_ref-BoddyFiftiesTelevision_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoddyFiftiesTelevision-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through late 1958 and early 1959, quiz shows implicated by the scandal were quickly cancelled. Among them, with their last-aired dates, were: </p> <ul><li><i>Dotto</i> (August 15, 1958)</li> <li><i>The $64,000 Challenge</i> (September 7, 1958)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Twenty-One</i> (October 16, 1958)</li> <li><i>The $64,000 Question</i> (November 2, 1958)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Tic-Tac-Dough,</i> primetime edition (December 29, 1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/For_Love_or_Money_(game_show)" title="For Love or Money (game show)"><i>For Love or Money</i></a> (January 30, 1959)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In late August 1958, New York prosecutor Joseph Stone convened a grand jury to investigate the allegations of the fixing of quiz shows. At the time of the empaneling, neither being a party to a fixed game show nor fixing a game show in the first place were crimes in their own right. Some witnesses in the grand jury acknowledged their role in a fixed show, while others denied it, directly contradicting one another. Many of the coached contestants, who had become celebrities due to their quiz-show success, were so afraid of the social repercussions of admitting the fraud that they were unwilling to confess to having been coached, even to the point of <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjuring</a> themselves to avoid backlash. Producers who had legally rigged the games to increase ratings, but did not want to implicate themselves, their sponsors, or the networks in doing so, categorically denied the allegations. After the nine-month grand jury, no <a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">indictments</a> were handed down and the judge sealed the grand jury report in August 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-MuseumTV_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MuseumTV-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 1959, the <a href="/wiki/House_Subcommittee_on_Legislative_Oversight" title="House Subcommittee on Legislative Oversight">House Subcommittee on Legislative Oversight</a>, under <a href="/wiki/United_States_Representative" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Representative">Representative</a> <a href="/wiki/Oren_Harris" title="Oren Harris">Oren Harris</a>'s chairmanship, began to hold hearings to investigate the scandal. Stempel, Snodgrass, and Hilgemeier all testified.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expansion of the probe led CBS president <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stanton_(executive)" title="Frank Stanton (executive)">Frank Stanton</a> to immediately announce cancellation of three more of its large-prize quiz shows between October 16 and October 19, 1959: <i>Top Dollar</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Payoff" title="The Big Payoff">The Big Payoff</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Name_That_Tune" title="Name That Tune">Name That Tune</a>,</i><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explaining that this decision was made "because of the impossibility of guarding against dishonest practice".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 2 when Van Doren said to the Committee in a nationally televised session that, "I was involved, deeply involved, in a deception. The fact that I, too, was very much deceived cannot keep me from being the principal victim of that deception, because I was its principal symbol."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_and_politics">Law and politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Law and politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All of the regulations regarding television in the late 1950s were defined under the Communications Act of 1934, which dealt with the advertising, fair competition, and labeling of broadcast stations. The act and regulations written by the FCC were indefinite in regard to fixed television programs. Because no specific laws existed regarding the fraudulent behavior in the quiz shows, whether the producers or contestants alike did anything illegal is debatable. Instead, one inference could be that the medium was ill-used.<sup id="cite_ref-KAnderson-TVFraud_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KAnderson-TVFraud-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After concluding the Harris Commission investigation, Congress amended the Communications Act to prohibit the fixing of televised contests of intellectual knowledge or skill.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> signed the bill into law on September 13, 1960. The legislation allowed the FCC to require license renewals of less than the legally required three years if the agency believes it would be in the public interest, prohibited gifts to FCC members, and declared illegal any contest or game with intent to deceive the audience.<sup id="cite_ref-KAnderson-TVFraud_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KAnderson-TVFraud-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contestants">Contestants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Contestants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many quiz-show contestants' reputations were ruined, including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Van_Doren" title="Charles Van Doren">Charles Van Doren</a>, who had become a regular on NBC's <i><a href="/wiki/Today_(NBC_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="Today (NBC program)">Today</a></i>, lost his job in the television industry. He was also forced to resign his professorship at Columbia University. Van Doren took a job as an editor at <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> and continued working as an editor and writer until his retirement in 1982. He refused requests for interviews for more than three decades and chose not to participate in the production of <i>The Quiz Show Scandal,</i> a 1992 one-hour documentary aired on <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. He later turned down an offer of $100,000 to act as a consultant on the 1994 feature film <i><a href="/wiki/Quiz_Show_(film)" title="Quiz Show (film)">Quiz Show</a></i> directed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Redford" title="Robert Redford">Robert Redford</a> (on which Stempel was a consultant) after discussing the matter with family members, who, with the exception of his son John, were against his participation.<sup id="cite_ref-newyorker.com_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newyorker.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, Van Doren broke his silence, describing his quiz show experience in an essay-length memoir published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-newyorker.com_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newyorker.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Van Doren died on April 9, 2019. Stempel, who was his opposing contestant on <a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_(game_show)" title="Twenty-One (game show)"><i>Twenty-One</i></a>, died a year later almost to the day.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Teddy Nadler, whose $264,000 haul on <i>The $64,000 Challenge</i> stood as a record for two decades, resorted to applying for a temporary job with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a> when his prize money started running short; he failed the civil service exam.<sup id="cite_ref-nadler_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nadler-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970, producers exonerated Nadler, stating that they had shown him questions beforehand but that he already knew the answers and did not need them given to him.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nadler died on May 24, 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Ross" title="Leonard Ross">Leonard Ross</a>, who at age 10 won a combined $164,000 on <i>The Big Surprise</i> and <i>The $64,000 Challenge</i>, had major mental-health issues, including <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit disorder">attention deficit disorder</a>, which limited his ability to work as an author and attorney in adulthood; most of his work was completed by other co-authors. After an unsuccessful <a href="/wiki/Cingulotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cingulotomy">cingulotomy</a>, Ross died by <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> on May 1, 1985, at age 39.<sup id="cite_ref-lennyross_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lennyross-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hosts_and_producers">Hosts and producers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hosts and producers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In September 1958, a New York grand jury called producers who had coached contestants to appear in testimony. A prosecutor on the case later estimated that of the 150 sworn witnesses before the panel, only 50 told the truth.<sup id="cite_ref-BoddyFiftiesTelevision_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoddyFiftiesTelevision-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other producers met the same fate as Barry and Enright but, unlike them, could not redeem themselves afterwards. One of the more notable is Frank Cooper, whose <i>Dotto</i> ended up being his longest-running and most popular game creation. Hosts such as <a href="/wiki/Jack_Narz" title="Jack Narz">Jack Narz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hal_March" title="Hal March">Hal March</a> continued to work on television after the scandals. March died in January 1970 from lung cancer. Narz, who passed a lie-detector test at the time of the <i>Dotto</i> affair, had an extensive career as a game-show host after the incident (which also allowed him to help his brother, James, who later took on the name <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kennedy_(television_presenter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tom Kennedy (television presenter)">Tom Kennedy</a>, break into the television business.) Narz died in October 2008; Kennedy died in October 2020. <a href="/wiki/Sonny_Fox" title="Sonny Fox">Sonny Fox</a>, the original host of <i>The $64,000 Challenge,</i> left long before it could become tainted and became a popular children's host in the northeast, remembered best as the host of <i><a href="/wiki/Wonderama" title="Wonderama">Wonderama</a>.</i> (Fox later stated that his unintentional "predilection for asking the answers" was a factor in his decision to only rarely host game shows after the scandals.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Fox died in January 2021. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Television">Television</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The quiz-show scandals exhibited the necessity for stronger network control over programming and production. Quiz-show scandals also justified and accelerated the growth of the networks' power over television advertisers concerning licensing, scheduling, and sponsorship of programs. The networks claimed to be ignorant, and victims of the scandals. The NBC president at the time stated, "NBC was just as much a victim of the quiz-show frauds as was the public."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first sign of the new enforcement this came when <a href="/wiki/American_Safety_Razor_Company" title="American Safety Razor Company">American Safety Razor Company</a> pulled its sponsorship of NBC's <i>World Championship Golf</i> match play series in April 1960 after a December 1959 taping of the match play tournament featured <a href="/wiki/Sam_Snead" title="Sam Snead">Sam Snead</a> against <a href="/wiki/Mason_Rudolph_(golfer)" title="Mason Rudolph (golfer)">Mason Rudolph</a>. With the match tied on the 12th hole, Snead discovered a 15th club in his bag in violation of the Rules of Golf, which is a loss of hole penalty for each hole the excessive club was in the bag. By rule, Rudolph won the match upon Snead's discovery of the violation, 11 and 7. Once the match legally ended on the 12th hole, Snead admitted to staging the Rudolph win. Snead claimed it was to keep the broadcast usable after match concluded on the 12th hole because of his violation. The rule was changed in 1964 by capping the number of penalties for this violation to two, after which Snead would have been informed of the violation, changing the score automatically to Rudolph 2 up, with the seven holes remaining under the new rule, which is still in use.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> A big-money quiz show did not return until <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a> premiered <i><a href="/wiki/100_Grand_(game_show)" title="100 Grand (game show)">100 Grand</a></i> in 1963. It went off the air after three shows, never awarding its top prize. Quiz shows still held a stigma throughout much of the 1960s, which was eventually eased by the success of the lower-stakes and fully legitimate answer-and-question game <i><a href="/wiki/Jeopardy!" title="Jeopardy!">Jeopardy!</a></i> upon its launch in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Jeopardy!</i> distinguished itself with a viewer-friendly format that offers "accessible clues and manageable categories" that the typical viewer has a realistic chance of being able to answer.<sup id="cite_ref-collegebowlupset_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collegebowlupset-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biggest winner across the 11-year original NBC run of <i>Jeopardy!</i>, <a href="/wiki/Burns_Cameron" class="mw-redirect" title="Burns Cameron">Burns Cameron</a>, won only $11,100 in his playing career -- $7,070 in his five days and an additional $4,040 from his Tournament of Champions win, a full order of magnitude less than the 1950s quiz shows at their peak.<sup id="cite_ref-daytimeinterview_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daytimeinterview-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later incarnations of <i>Jeopardy!</i> substantially raised money values and removed limits on winning streaks. Cameron was invited by Sony Pictures Television to participate in the 1990 ABC summer <i>Super Jeopardy!</i> tournament of past champions to represent the original version against players on the contemporary version, where he was eliminated in the first round and won $5,000. Cameron, who died in June 2023, won $16,100 overall in his appearances. Under the current scoring model, Cameron's wins would be worth $391,400 ($141,400 for his five day winnings and $250,000 for the Tournament of Champions win). The other quiz show with a sustained run during the post-scandal era of the 1960s, one with the high-difficulty questions associated with the quiz show format, was <i><a href="/wiki/College_Bowl" title="College Bowl">GE College Bowl</a></i>, in which college students competed on behalf of their universities (and the institutional goodwill those schools provided); competing teams were limited to five appearances and all winnings were placed in a scholarship trust.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-collegebowlupset_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collegebowlupset-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Barry and Enright eventually found a loophole in limits the networks imposed on winnings by selling shows directly into <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_syndication" title="Broadcast syndication">syndication</a>, a business model the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> was actively encouraging in the 1970s by way of rules such as the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Time_Access_Rule" title="Prime Time Access Rule">Prime Time Access Rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Financial_Interest_and_Syndication_Rules" title="Financial Interest and Syndication Rules">Financial Interest and Syndication Rules</a>. Its revival of <i>Tic-Tac-Dough</i> would regularly produce "six to eight" winners each year who netted more than the networks' limits,<sup id="cite_ref-ask-bob_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ask-bob-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including one, <a href="/wiki/Thom_McKee" title="Thom McKee">Thom McKee</a>, who would surpass Nadler's winnings with a total payday of $312,700 over a 46-episode run.<sup id="cite_ref-list_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-list-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barry and Enright eventually brought its winnings limits into line with the networks' so that they could sell the programs to network <a href="/wiki/Owned-and-operated_station" title="Owned-and-operated station">owned-and-operated stations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ask-bob_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ask-bob-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Big money quiz shows would not enjoy widespread popularity in the United States again until the late 1990s. In 1999, ABC launched the <a href="/wiki/Who_Wants_to_Be_a_Millionaire_(American_game_show)" title="Who Wants to Be a Millionaire (American game show)">American adaptation</a> of the British game show franchise, <i>Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?</i> to both enormous critical success and high ratings, such of which still remains the last overall game show as of 2025 to become the <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_watched_television_broadcasts_in_the_United_States" title="List of most watched television broadcasts in the United States">most watched annual regular series overall on U.S. television</a>. Around the turn of 21st century, other American television networks launched similar quiz shows offering large sums of money, including Fox with <i><a href="/wiki/Greed_(game_show)" title="Greed (game show)">Greed</a></i> and NBC, who first revived <i><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_(game_show)" title="Twenty-One (game show)">Twenty-One</a></i> then later adapted the British game show, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Weakest_Link" class="mw-redirect" title="The Weakest Link">The Weakest Link</a>.</i> In 2003, <a href="/wiki/Sony_Pictures_Television" title="Sony Pictures Television">Sony Pictures Television</a> changed the rules on <i>Jeopardy!</i> to allow players to win until they are defeated. At the end of Season 20 in July 2004, contestant <a href="/wiki/Ken_Jennings" title="Ken Jennings">Ken Jennings</a> won over one million dollars after his thirtieth win in the first season of the rule. He won 74 games over two seasons. Three other players -- (<a href="/wiki/James_Holzhauer" title="James Holzhauer">James Holzhauer</a> in 2019, and both <a href="/wiki/Matt_Amodio" title="Matt Amodio">Matt Amodio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amy_Schneider" title="Amy Schneider">Amy Schneider</a> in 2021) -- have won over one million dollars through multiple wins. Amodio's wins came with seven different hosts during the interregnum between Alex Trebek's death (last episode airing January 7, 2021) and the naming of Ken Jennings as full-time host on December 15, 2023. Schneider's wins came primarily with either Mayim Bialik (the official host) or Ken Jennings (substitute host). Amodio and Schneider later played in a Tournament of Champions, and along with Holzhauer participated in Masters specials, both featuring Jennings as host. In 2008, Sony added the <a href="/wiki/Wheel_of_Fortune_(Australian_game_show)" title="Wheel of Fortune (Australian game show)">Australian version's Million Dollar wedge</a> to <i><a href="/wiki/Wheel_of_Fortune_(American_game_show)" title="Wheel of Fortune (American game show)">Wheel of Fortune</a></i> where a player can win a huge sum by landing on the wedge and meeting a series of standards. Today, numerous high-stakes game shows and reality competition shows continue to air on broadcast American television. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Pennsylvania_Lottery_scandal" title="1980 Pennsylvania Lottery scandal">1980 Pennsylvania Lottery scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiz_show_scandals_in_the_United_Kingdom#2007_television_phone-in_scandals" title="Quiz show scandals in the United Kingdom">2007 British television phone-in scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_game_show_winnings_records" title="American game show winnings records">American game show winnings records</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/College_Bowl" title="College Bowl">College Bowl</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/It%27s_Academic" title="It's Academic">It's Academic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Flood" title="Martin Flood">Martin Flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ingram" title="Charles Ingram">Charles Ingram</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/R_v_Ingram,_C.,_Ingram,_D._and_Whittock,_T." title="R v Ingram, C., Ingram, D. and Whittock, T.">R v Ingram, C., Ingram, D. and Whittock, T.</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Jackson_(announcer)" title="Jay Jackson (announcer)">Jay Jackson</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manhunt_(2001_TV_series)" title="Manhunt (2001 TV series)">Manhunt</a></i> (2001) and <i><a href="/wiki/Our_Little_Genius" title="Our Little Genius">Our Little Genius</a></i> (2010), later game shows that were pulled due to manipulation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Larson" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Larson">Michael Larson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quizbowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quizbowl">Quizbowl</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Slumdog_Millionaire" title="Slumdog Millionaire">Slumdog Millionaire</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quiz_Show_(film)" title="Quiz Show (film)">Quiz Show</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CCNY_point-shaving_scandal" title="CCNY point-shaving scandal">CCNY point-shaving scandal</a>, another major scandal in the 1950s that involved the services of <a href="/wiki/Frank_Hogan" title="Frank Hogan">Frank Hogan</a> to help expose what was going on</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Venanzi-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Venanzi_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVenanzi,_Katie1997" class="citation web cs1">Venanzi, Katie (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosin.com/beatbegins/projects/venanzi.html">"An Examination of Television Quiz Show Scandals of the 1950s"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Early+Death+of+a+Bedeviled+Genius&rft.date=1985-05-25&rft.aulast=Dowd&rft.aufirst=Maureen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1985%2F05%2F25%2Fnyregion%2Fthe-early-death-of-a-bedeviled-genius.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819050932/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/quizshow/sfeature/part1.html">"The American Experience | Quiz Show Scandal | Sonny Fox on The 64,000 Challenge"</a>. <i>www.pbs.org</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pbs.org&rft.atitle=The+American+Experience+%7C+Quiz+Show+Scandal+%7C+Sonny+Fox+on+The+64%2C000+Challenge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famex%2Fquizshow%2Fsfeature%2Fpart1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fifties Television: The Industry and Its Critics, William Boddy, University of Illinois Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06299-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06299-5">978-0-252-06299-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=lKNOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QIgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2182,966467&dq=mason+rudolph+sam+snead+asr&hl=en">"Sponsor Cancels After Snead TV Golf Incident"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Victoria_Advocate" title="The Victoria Advocate">The Victoria Advocate</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Texas" title="Victoria, Texas">Victoria, Texas</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. April 9, 1960. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Victoria+Advocate&rft.atitle=Sponsor+Cancels+After+Snead+TV+Golf+Incident&rft.pages=9&rft.date=1960-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DlKNOAAAAIBAJ%26sjid%3DQIgDAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D2182%2C966467%26dq%3Dmason%2Brudolph%2Bsam%2Bsnead%2Basr%26hl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.swarthmore.edu/bulletin/?p=1243">"A garbage-can Memory Produces a CHAMPION OF CHAMPIONS"</a>. <i>Swarthmore College Bulletin</i>. December 1967<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Swarthmore+College+Bulletin&rft.atitle=A+garbage-can+Memory+Produces+a+CHAMPION+OF+CHAMPIONS&rft.date=1967-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.swarthmore.edu%2Fbulletin%2F%3Fp%3D1243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-collegebowlupset-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-collegebowlupset_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-collegebowlupset_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu2018" class="citation web cs1">Yu, Lynn Q. (2018-08-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/culture/2018/08/agnes-scott-vs-princeton-college-bowl-the-biggest-upset-in-quiz-show-history.html">"How Four Nervous Girls From Georgia Staged the Biggest Upset in Quiz Show History"</a>. <i>Slate Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Palm+Beach+Post&rft.atitle=Ask+Bob%3A+Mr.+T%3A+Kids%27+New+Superhero&rft.pages=250&rft.date=1983-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F60962311%2Fask-bob-mr-t-kids-new-superhero%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-list-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-list_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlenske2005" class="citation web cs1">Slenske, Michael (January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200501/slenske">"Trivial Pursuits"</a>. <i>The List</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+List&rft.atitle=Trivial+Pursuits&rft.date=2005-01&rft.aulast=Slenske&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fdoc%2F200501%2Fslenske&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamsRobert_L._Shook1987" class="citation book cs1">Sams, David R.; Robert L. Shook (1987). <i>Wheel of Fortune</i>. New York, N.Y.: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-90833-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-90833-4"><bdi>0-312-90833-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wheel+of+Fortune&rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-312-90833-4&rft.aulast=Sams&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft.au=Robert+L.+Shook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoneTim_Yohn1992" class="citation book cs1">Stone, Joseph; Tim Yohn (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primetimemisdeme00ston"><i>Prime Time and Misdemeanors: Investigating the 1950s TV Quiz Scandal</i></a></span>. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-1753-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-1753-2"><bdi>0-8135-1753-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prime+Time+and+Misdemeanors%3A+Investigating+the+1950s+TV+Quiz+Scandal&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8135-1753-2&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Tim+Yohn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprimetimemisdeme00ston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTedlow1976" class="citation journal cs1">Tedlow, Richard (1976). "Intellect on Television: The Quiz Show Scandals of the 1950s". <i>American Quarterly</i>. <b>28</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">483–</span>495. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2712542">10.2307/2712542</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2712542">2712542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Intellect+on+Television%3A+The+Quiz+Show+Scandals+of+the+1950s&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E483-%3C%2Fspan%3E495&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2712542&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2712542%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tedlow&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1950s+quiz+show+scandals" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_sources">External sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=1950s_quiz_show_scandals&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/quizshow/peopleevents/pande05.html">PBS Article on Radio Quiz Shows</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mlfilms.com/productions/quiz">The Quiz Show Scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Karp" title="Walter Karp">Walter Karp</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanheritage.com/quiz-show-scandal">The Quiz-Show Scandal</a>, in <a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_(magazine)" title="American Heritage (magazine)">American Heritage</a>, May/June 1989</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Quiz_show_scandals" title="Template talk:Quiz show scandals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Quiz_show_scandals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Quiz show scandals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1950s_quiz_show_scandals185" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1950s quiz show scandals</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shows</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dotto" title="Dotto">Dotto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/For_Love_or_Money_(game_show)" title="For Love or Money (game show)"><i>For Love or Money</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Name_That_Tune" title="Name That Tune">Name That Tune</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Big_Surprise" title="The Big Surprise">The Big Surprise</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_$64,000_Question" title="The $64,000 Question">The $64,000 Question</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tic-Tac-Dough" title="Tic-Tac-Dough">Tic-Tac-Dough</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_(game_show)" title="Twenty-One (game show)"><i>Twenty-One</i></a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg/150px-Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg/225px-Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg/300px-Twenty-One-Barry-Van-Doren-1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Producers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Barry_(game_show_host)" title="Jack Barry (game show host)">Jack Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Enright" title="Dan Enright">Dan Enright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Freedman" title="Albert Freedman">Albert Freedman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contestants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Stempel" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Stempel">Herbert Stempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Van_Doren" title="Charles Van Doren">Charles Van Doren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elfrida_von_Nardroff" title="Elfrida von Nardroff">Elfrida von Nardroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Ross" title="Leonard Ross">Leonard Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joyce_Brothers" title="Joyce Brothers">Joyce Brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Winn" title="Marie Winn">Marie Winn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pop culture and advertisers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quiz_Show_(film)" title="Quiz Show (film)"><i>Quiz Show</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Experience_(season_4)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Experience (season 4)"><i>American Experience</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Interviews:_An_Oral_History_of_Television" title="The Interviews: An Oral History of Television">The Interviews: An Oral History of Television</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sponsors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geritol" title="Geritol">Geritol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revlon" title="Revlon">Revlon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other key figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Redford" title="Robert Redford">Robert Redford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Revson" title="Charles Revson">Charles Revson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Stanton_(executive)" title="Frank Stanton (executive)">Frank Stanton (executive)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Officials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oren_Harris" title="Oren Harris">Oren Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Hogan" title="Frank Hogan">Frank Hogan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Subcommittee_on_Legislative_Oversight" title="House Subcommittee on Legislative Oversight">House Subcommittee on Legislative Oversight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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