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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_ores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Specialized ores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_ores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Roasting</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Roasting-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Roasting subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Roasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Smelting_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smelting_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Smelting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smelting_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reverberatory_furnace_smelting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reverberatory_furnace_smelting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Reverberatory furnace smelting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reverberatory_furnace_smelting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flash_furnace_smelting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flash_furnace_smelting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Flash furnace smelting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flash_furnace_smelting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ISASMELT" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ISASMELT"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>ISASMELT</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ISASMELT-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Converting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Converting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Converting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Converting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Refining</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Refining-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Refining subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Refining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fire_refining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_refining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Fire refining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_refining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Electrolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concentrate_and_copper_marketing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentrate_and_copper_marketing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Concentrate and copper marketing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentrate_and_copper_marketing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peak_copper" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peak_copper"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Peak copper</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Peak_copper-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Peak copper subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Peak_copper-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copper_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copper_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Copper supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copper_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_copper_discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_copper_discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>New copper discoveries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_copper_discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reserves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reserves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Reserves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reserves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Known_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Known_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.4</span> <span>Known resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Known_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.4.1</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Undiscovered_conventional_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Undiscovered_conventional_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.4.2</span> <span>Undiscovered conventional resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Undiscovered_conventional_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unconventional_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unconventional_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.4.3</span> <span>Unconventional resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unconventional_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Copper extraction</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupferraffination" title="Kupferraffination – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kupferraffination" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasemaak" title="Vasemaak – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vasemaak" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalurgia_del_cobre" title="Metalurgia del cobre – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Metalurgia del cobre" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D9%85%D8%B3" title="استخراج مس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استخراج مس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraction_du_cuivre" title="Extraction du cuivre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Extraction du cuivre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekstraksi_tembaga" title="Ekstraksi tembaga – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekstraksi tembaga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgia_del_rame" title="Metallurgia del rame – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Metallurgia del rame" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8A%85%E5%B1%B1" title="銅山 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="銅山" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Екстрактовање бакра – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Екстрактовање бакра" 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mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Process of extracting copper from the ground</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chino_copper_mine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chino_copper_mine.jpg/220px-Chino_copper_mine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chino_copper_mine.jpg/330px-Chino_copper_mine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Chino_copper_mine.jpg/440px-Chino_copper_mine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/El_Chino_Mine" class="mw-redirect" title="El Chino Mine">Chino open-pit copper mine</a> in New Mexico</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg/220px-Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg/330px-Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg/440px-Chalcopyrite_perou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4592" data-file-height="3056" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">Chalcopyrite</a> specimen from <a href="/wiki/Huar%C3%B3n_Mining_District" title="Huarón Mining District">Huarón</a> mine, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Copper extraction</b> refers to the methods used to obtain <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> from <a href="/wiki/List_of_copper_ores" title="List of copper ores">its ores</a>. The conversion of copper ores consists of a series of physical, chemical, and electrochemical processes. Methods have evolved and vary with country depending on the ore source, local <a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">environmental regulations</a>, and other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Ullm_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ullm-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg/220px-TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg/330px-TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg/440px-TamarackMiners_CopperCountryMI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1661" /></a><figcaption>Miners at the <a href="/wiki/Tamarack_mine" title="Tamarack mine">Tamarack mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copper_Country" title="Copper Country">Copper Country</a>, in 1905</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Old_Copper_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Copper Complex">Old Copper Complex</a> in North America has been radiometrically dated to 9500 BP—i.e., about 7480 BCE—making it one of the oldest known examples of copper extraction in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of the cold-hammering of native copper comes from the excavation at <a href="/wiki/%C3%87ay%C3%B6n%C3%BC" title="Çayönü">Çayönü Tepesi</a> in eastern <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, which dates between 7200 to 6600 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the various items considered to be votive or amulets, there was one that looked like a fishhook and one like an awl. Another find, at <a href="/wiki/Shanidar_Cave" title="Shanidar Cave">Shanidar Cave</a> in Mergasur, Iraq, contained copper beads, and dates back to 8,700 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the world's oldest known copper mines, as opposed to usage of surface deposits, is at <a href="/wiki/Timna_Valley" title="Timna Valley">Timna Valley</a>, Israel, and has been used since the fourth millennium BC, with surface deposit usage occurring in the fifth and sixth millennium.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Plo%C4%8Dnik_(archaeological_site)" title="Pločnik (archaeological site)">Pločnik</a> archaeological site in southeastern Europe (<a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>) contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 5,000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The find in June 2010 extends for an additional 500 years, dated to 5th millennium BCE, representing the earlier record of copper smelting from <a href="/wiki/Rudna_Glava_(archaeological_site)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudna Glava (archaeological site)">Rudna Glava</a> (<a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper smelting technology gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a>, aka Chalcolithic Age, and then the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. The Bronze Age would not have been possible without the development of smelting technology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smelting">Smelting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Smelting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World-_Copper_Production,_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/World-_Copper_Production%2C_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg/220px-World-_Copper_Production%2C_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/World-_Copper_Production%2C_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg/330px-World-_Copper_Production%2C_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/World-_Copper_Production%2C_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg/440px-World-_Copper_Production%2C_1946_-_DPLA_-_1e25affd63262ebf6f714b859fa37ae6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6312" data-file-height="3357" /></a><figcaption>World copper production, 1946</figcaption></figure> <p>Until the latter half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> sulfide ores was almost the sole means of producing copper metal from mined ores (<i>primary</i> copper production). As of 2002, 80% of global primary copper production was from copper–iron–sulfur minerals, and the vast majority of these were treated by smelting.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper was initially recovered from sulfide ores by directly smelting the ore in a furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The smelters were initially located near the mines to minimize the cost of transport. This avoided the prohibitive costs of transporting the waste minerals and the sulfur and iron present in the copper-containing minerals. However, as the concentration of copper in the ore bodies decreased, the energy costs of smelting the whole ore also became prohibitive, and it became necessary to concentrate the ores first. </p><p>Initial concentration techniques included hand-sorting<sup id="cite_ref-Gill32_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill32-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and gravity concentration. These resulted in high losses of copper. Consequently, the development of the <a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">froth flotation</a> process was a major step forward in mineral processing.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern froth flotation process was independently invented in the early 1900s in Australia by C.V Potter and around the same time by <a href="/wiki/G._D._Delprat" class="mw-redirect" title="G. D. Delprat">G. D. Delprat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It made the development of the giant <a href="/wiki/Bingham_Canyon_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Bingham Canyon mine">Bingham Canyon mine</a> in Utah possible.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the twentieth century, most ores were concentrated before smelting. Smelting was initially undertaken using <a href="/wiki/Sinter_plant" title="Sinter plant">sinter plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or with roasters and <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnaces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roasting and reverberatory furnace smelting dominated primary copper production until the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century_trends">Late 20th century trends</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Late 20th century trends"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1960s and 1970s large copper mining operations by U.S. companies <a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">were nationalized</a> in many of the main copper producing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-valenz_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenz-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus by the 1980s state owned enterpises overtook the dominant role U.S. companies like <a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Copper" title="Anaconda Copper">Anaconda Copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kennecott_Utah_Copper" title="Kennecott Utah Copper">Kennecott</a> had had until then.<sup id="cite_ref-valenz_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenz-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1970s and early 1980s various oil companies like <a href="/wiki/ARCO" title="ARCO">ARCO</a>, Exxon (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Exxon_Minerals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Exxon Minerals (page does not exist)">Exxon Minerals</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil Company">Standard Oil Company</a> expanded into copper mining for a few years before selling their copper assets.<sup id="cite_ref-valenz_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenz-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reportedly gains were not as high as anticipated.<sup id="cite_ref-valenz_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenz-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investments in copper mining concentrated in Chile in the 1980s and 1990s given that copper mining in other countries faced problems like political instability (<a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>), increased environmental requirements (developed countries) or overall disinterest in foreign investment in a nationalized mining industry (<a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-valenz_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-valenz-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concentration_(beneficiation)"><span id="Concentration_.28beneficiation.29"></span>Concentration (beneficiation)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Concentration (beneficiation)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on copper ore body formation: <a href="/wiki/Ore_genesis#Copper" title="Ore genesis">Ore genesis § Copper</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_copper_ores" title="List of copper ores">List of copper ores</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg" title="File:Evolution minerai cuivre.svg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg?lang=en" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg/300px-Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg/450px-Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg/600px-Evolution_minerai_cuivre.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1734" data-file-height="1270" /></a><figcaption>The decreasing concentration of copper in ores now requires pre-treatment of ores.</figcaption></figure> <p>The average grade of copper ores in the 21st century is below 0.6% copper, with a proportion of economic ore minerals being less than 2% of the total volume of the ore rock. Thus, all mining operations, the <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> must usually be <a href="/wiki/Beneficiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beneficiation">beneficiated</a> (concentrated). The concentrate is typically sold to distant <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelters</a>, although some large mines have smelters located nearby. Such colocation of mines and smelters was more typical in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when smaller smelters could be economic. The subsequent processing techniques depend on the nature of the ore. </p><p>In the usual case when it is primarily sulfide copper minerals (such as <a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">chalcopyrite</a>, FeCuS<sub>2</sub>), the ore is treated by <i><a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">comminution</a></i>, where the rock is crushed to produce small particles (<100 μm) consisting of individual mineral phases. These particles are then ready to be separated to remove <a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">gangue</a> (silicate rocks residues) using froth flotation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ullm_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ullm-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Froth_flotation">Froth flotation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Froth flotation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Froth_floatation" class="mw-redirect" title="Froth floatation">Froth floatation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg/220px-FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg/330px-FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg/440px-FlotationFalconbridgeOnt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Froth flotation cells to concentrate copper and nickel sulfide minerals, Falconbridge, Ontario.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prominenthill-flotation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Prominenthill-flotation.jpg/220px-Prominenthill-flotation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Prominenthill-flotation.jpg/330px-Prominenthill-flotation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Prominenthill-flotation.jpg/440px-Prominenthill-flotation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Copper sulfide loaded air bubbles on a <a href="/wiki/Jameson_Cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Jameson Cell">Jameson Cell</a> at the flotation plant of the <a href="/wiki/Prominent_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Prominent Hill">Prominent Hill</a> mine in <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In froth flotation, the crushed ore is wetted, suspended in a slurry, and mixed with reagents that render the sulfide particles <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrophobic">hydrophobic</a>. Typical reagents ("collectors") include <a href="/wiki/Potassium_ethylxanthate" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium ethylxanthate">potassium ethylxanthate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_ethylxanthate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium ethylxanthate">sodium ethylxanthate</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Dithiophosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Dithiophosphate">dithiophosphates</a> and dithiocarbamates are also used. The slurry is introduced to a water-filled aeration tank containing a <a href="/wiki/Surfactant" title="Surfactant">surfactant</a> such as <a href="/wiki/4-Methyl-2-pentanol" title="4-Methyl-2-pentanol">methylisobutyl carbinol</a> (MIBC). Air is constantly forced through the slurry. The air bubbles attach to the hydrophobic copper sulfide particles, which are conveyed to the surface where the froth is skimmed off. These skimmings are generally subjected to a cleaner-scavenger cell to remove excess silicates and to remove other sulfide minerals that can deleteriously impact the concentrate quality (typically, <a href="/wiki/Galena" title="Galena">galena</a>), and the final concentrate sent for smelting. The rock that has not floated off in the flotation cell is either discarded as <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">tailings</a> or further processed to extract other metals such as lead (from galena) and zinc (from <a href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">sphalerite</a>), should they exist. A variety of measures are taken to improve the efficiency of the froth flotation. <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">Lime</a> is used to raise the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of the water bath, causing the collector to bond more efficiently to the copper sulfides. The process can produce a concentrates with 27–29% and 37–40% copper contents from <a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">chalcopyrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalcocite" title="Chalcocite">chalcocite</a>, respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrometallurgy">Hydrometallurgy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hydrometallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cu(Salox)2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cu%28Salox%292.png/170px-Cu%28Salox%292.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cu%28Salox%292.png/255px-Cu%28Salox%292.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cu%28Salox%292.png/340px-Cu%28Salox%292.png 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>In some hydrometallurgical schemes, copper(II) is extracted from aqueous solution as by complexation to <a href="/wiki/Salicylaldoxime" title="Salicylaldoxime">salicylaldoxime</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Oxidised copper ores include carbonates such as <a href="/wiki/Azurite" title="Azurite">azurite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malachite" title="Malachite">malachite</a>, the silicate <a href="/wiki/Chrysocolla" title="Chrysocolla">chrysocolla</a>, and sulfates such as <a href="/wiki/Atacamite" title="Atacamite">atacamite</a>. In some cases, sulfide ores are allowed to degrade to oxides. Such ores are amenable to hydrometallurgy. Specifically, such oxide ores are usually extracted into aqueous <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, usually in a <a href="/wiki/Heap_leaching" title="Heap leaching">heap leaching</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dump_leaching" title="Dump leaching">dump leaching</a>. The resulting pregnant leach solution is purified by solvent extraction (SX). It is treated with an organic solvent and an organic chelators. The chelators bind the copper ions (and no other ions, ideally), the resulting complexes dissolve in the organic phase. This organic solvent is evaporated, leaving a residue of the copper complexes. The copper ions are liberated from the residue with sulfuric acid. The barred (denuded) sulfuric acid recycled back on to the heaps. The organic ligands are recovered and recycled as well. Alternatively, the copper can be precipitated out of the pregnant solution by contacting it with scrap iron; a process called <a href="/wiki/Cementation_(metallurgy)" title="Cementation (metallurgy)">cementation</a>. Cement copper is normally less pure than SX-EW copper.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specialized_ores">Specialized ores</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Specialized ores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chalcocite-271692.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chalcocite-271692.jpg/220px-Chalcocite-271692.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chalcocite-271692.jpg/330px-Chalcocite-271692.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chalcocite-271692.jpg/440px-Chalcocite-271692.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>A specimen of the mineral chalcocite from the Geevor Mine, Cornwall.</figcaption></figure> <p>Secondary sulfides—those formed by <a href="/wiki/Supergene_(geology)" title="Supergene (geology)">supergene</a> secondary enrichment—are resistant (<i><a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a></i>) to sulfuric leaching.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary copper sulfides are dominated by the mineral chalcocite; a mineral formed from primary sulfides, like <a href="/wiki/Chalcopyrite" title="Chalcopyrite">chalcopyrite</a>, that undergo chemical processes such as oxidation or reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically, secondary sulfide ores are concentrated using froth flotation.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other extraction processes like leaching are effectively used for the extraction of secondary copper sulfides, but as demand for copper rises, extraction processes tailored for low-grade ores are required, due to the depletion of copper resources.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Processes including in situ, dump, and heap leaching are cost-effective methods that are suitable for extracting copper from low-grade ores.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Extraction processes for secondary copper sulfides and low-grade ores includes the process of heap bioleaching. Heap bioleaching presents a cost efficient extraction method that requires a less intensive energy input resulting in a higher profit.<sup id="cite_ref-Panda-2015_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panda-2015-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This extraction process can be applied to large quantities of low-grade ores, at a lower capital cost with minimal environmental impact.<sup id="cite_ref-Panda-2015_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panda-2015-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, direct <a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">froth flotation</a> is not used to concentrate copper oxide ores, as a result of the largely ionic and hydrophilic structure of the copper oxide mineral surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Feng-2022_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feng-2022-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copper oxide ores are typically treated via chelating-reagent flotation and fatty-acid flotation, which use organic reagents to ensure adsorption onto the mineral surface through the formation of hydrophobic compounds on the mineral surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Feng-2022_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feng-2022-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some supergene sulfide deposits can be leached using a <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_oxidation" title="Bacterial oxidation">bacterial oxidation</a> heap leach process to oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric acid, which also allows for simultaneous leaching with sulfuric acid to produce a <a href="/wiki/Copper_sulfate" title="Copper sulfate">copper sulfate</a> solution.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For oxide ores, <a href="/wiki/Solvent_extraction_and_electrowinning" title="Solvent extraction and electrowinning">solvent extraction and electrowinning</a> technologies are used to recover the copper from the <a href="/wiki/Pregnant_leach_solution" title="Pregnant leach solution">pregnant leach solution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ochromowicz-2008_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ochromowicz-2008-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To ensure the best recovery of copper, it is important to acknowledge the effect copper dissolution, acid consumption, and gangue mineral composition has on the efficacy of extraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Ochromowicz-2008_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ochromowicz-2008-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Supergene sulfide ores rich in native copper are refractory to treatment with sulfuric acid leaching on all practicable time scales, and the dense metal particles do not react with froth flotation media. Typically, if native copper is a minor part of a supergene profile it will not be recovered and will report to the <a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">tailings</a>. When rich enough, native copper ore bodies may be treated to recover the contained copper by <a href="/wiki/Gravity_separation" title="Gravity separation">gravity separation</a>. Often, the nature of the gangue is important, as clay-rich native copper ores prove difficult to liberate. This is because clay minerals interact with flotation reagents used in extraction processes, that are then consumed, which results in minimal recovery of a high grade copper concentrate.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roasting">Roasting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Roasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)" title="Roasting (metallurgy)">Roasting (metallurgy)</a></div> <p>The roasting process is generally undertaken in combination with <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnaces</a>. In the roaster, the copper concentrate is partially oxidised to produce "<a href="/wiki/Calcine" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcine">calcine</a>". <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide</a> is liberated. The <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a> of the reaction is: </p> <dl><dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">CuFeS<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> + 3 O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> → 2 FeO + 2 CuS + 2 SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span></dd></dl> <p>Roasting generally leaves more sulfur in the calcined product (15% in the case of the roaster at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Isa_Mines" title="Mount Isa Mines">Mount Isa Mines</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) than a sinter plant leaves in the sintered product (about 7% in the case of the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting smelter<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>As of 2005, roasting is no longer common in copper concentrate treatment because its combination with reverberatory furnaces is not energy efficient and the SO<sub>2</sub> concentration in the roaster offgas is too dilute for cost-effective capture. Direct smelting is now favored, and uses the following smelting technologies: <a href="/wiki/Flash_smelting" title="Flash smelting">flash smelting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isasmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Isasmelt">Isasmelt</a>, Noranda, Mitsubishi or El Teniente furnaces.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Smelting_2">Smelting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Smelting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_copper_smelting.svg" title="File:Evolution copper smelting.svg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Evolution_copper_smelting.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Evolution_copper_smelting.svg/300px-Evolution_copper_smelting.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Evolution_copper_smelting.svg/450px-Evolution_copper_smelting.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Evolution_copper_smelting.svg/600px-Evolution_copper_smelting.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1587" data-file-height="985" /></a><figcaption>Replacement of reverberatory furnace smelting by flash smelting, related to the number of copper smelters using this technology. </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png/220px-Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png/330px-Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png/440px-Inco_flash_smelting_furnace.png 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Flash smelting furnace from Inco.</figcaption></figure> <p>The initial melting of the material to be smelted is usually referred to as the <i><a href="/wiki/Smelting#Copper_and_bronze" title="Smelting">smelting</a></i> or <i>matte smelting</i> stage. It can be undertaken in a variety of furnaces, including the largely obsolete <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">reverberatory furnaces</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Flash_smelting" title="Flash smelting">flash furnaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isasmelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Isasmelt">Isasmelt</a> furnaces, etc. The product of this smelting stage is a mixture of copper, iron and sulfur that is enriched in copper, which is called <i><a href="/wiki/Matte_(metallurgy)" title="Matte (metallurgy)">matte</a></i> or <i>copper matte</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>matte grade</i> is normally used to refer to the copper content of the matte.<sup id="cite_ref-Smelting_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelting-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The purpose of the matte smelting stage is to eliminate as much of the unwanted iron, sulfur and <i>gangue</i> minerals (such as silica, magnesia, alumina and limestone) as possible, while minimizing the loss of copper.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is achieved by reacting iron sulfides with oxygen (in air or oxygen enriched air) to produce iron oxides (mainly as <a href="/wiki/FeO" class="mw-redirect" title="FeO">FeO</a>, but with some <a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">magnetite</a> (Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)) and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smelting_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelting-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper sulfide and iron oxide can mix, but when sufficient silica is added, a separate <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> layer is formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes173_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes173-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adding silica also reduces the melting point (or, more properly, the <a href="/wiki/Liquidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquidus">liquidus</a> temperature) of the slag, meaning that the smelting process can be operated at a lower temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes173_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes173-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The slag forming reaction is: </p> <dl><dd>FeO + SiO<sub>2</sub> → FeO.SiO<sub>2</sub><sup id="cite_ref-Smelting_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smelting-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Slag is less dense than matte, so it forms a layer that floats on top of the matte.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper can be lost from the matte in three ways: as <a href="/wiki/Cuprous_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuprous oxide">cuprous oxide</a> (Cu<sub>2</sub>O) dissolved in the slag,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as sulfide copper dissolved in the slag<sup id="cite_ref-Nagamori_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagamori-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as tiny droplets (or <i><a href="/wiki/Prills" class="mw-redirect" title="Prills">prills</a></i>) of matte suspended in the slag.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elliott_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elliott-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The amount of copper lost as oxide copper increases as the oxygen potential of the slag increases.<sup id="cite_ref-Elliott_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elliott-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oxygen potential generally increases as the copper content of the matte is increased.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the loss of copper as oxide increases as the copper content of the matte increases.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackey_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackey-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, the solubility of sulfidic copper in slag decreases as the copper content of the matte increases beyond about 40%.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagamori_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagamori-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nagamori calculated that more than half the copper dissolved in slags from mattes containing less than 50% copper is sulfidic copper. Above this figure, oxidic copper begins to dominate.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagamori_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagamori-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The loss of copper as prills suspended in the slag depends on the size of the prills, the viscosity of the slag and the settling time available.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenqvist_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenqvist-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rosenqvist suggested that about half the copper losses to slag were due to suspended prills.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenqvist_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenqvist-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mass of slag generated in the smelting stage depends on the iron content of the material fed into the smelting furnace and the target matte grade. The greater the iron content of the feed, the more iron that will need to be rejected to the slag for a given matte grade. Similarly, increasing the target matte grade requires the rejection of more iron and an increase in the slag volume. </p><p>Thus, the two factors that most affect the loss of copper to slag in the smelting stage are: </p> <ul><li>matte grade</li> <li>mass of slag.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes173_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes173-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>This means that there is a practical limit on how high the matte grade can be if the loss of copper to slag is to be minimized. Therefore, further stages of processing (converting and fire refining) are required. </p><p>The following subsections briefly describe some of the processes used in matte smelting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reverberatory_furnace_smelting">Reverberatory furnace smelting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reverberatory furnace smelting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reverberatory furnaces are long furnaces that can treat wet, dry, or roasted concentrate. Most of the reverberatory furnaces used in the latter years treated roasted concentrate because putting dry feed materials into the reverberatory furnace is more energy efficient, and because the elimination of some of the sulfur in the roaster results in higher matte grades.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reverberatory furnace feed is added to the furnace through feed holes along the sides of the furnace, and the solid charge is melted.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional silica is normally added to help form the slag. The furnace is fired with burners using pulverized coal, fuel oil or natural gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reverberatory furnaces can additionally be fed with molten slag from the later converting stage to recover the contained copper and other materials with a high copper content.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the reverberatory furnace bath is quiescent, very little oxidation of the feed occurs (and thus very little sulfur is eliminated from the concentrate). It is essentially a melting process.<sup id="cite_ref-Rosenqvist_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosenqvist-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, wet-charged reverberatory furnaces have less copper in their matte product than calcine-charged furnaces, and they also have lower copper losses to slag.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gill quotes a copper in slag value of 0.23% for a wet-charged reverberatory furnace vs 0.37% for a calcine-charged furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of calcine-charged furnaces, a significant portion of the sulfur has been eliminated during the roasting stage, and the calcine consists of a mixture of copper and iron oxides and sulfides. The reverberatory furnace acts to allow these species to approach chemical equilibrium at the furnace <a href="/wiki/Operating_temperature" title="Operating temperature">operating temperature</a> (approximately 1600 °C at the burner end of the furnace and about 1200 °C at the flue end;<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the matte is about 1100 °C and the slag is about 1195 °C<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). In this equilibration process, oxygen associated with copper compounds exchanges with sulfur associated with iron compounds, increasing the iron oxide content of the furnace, and the iron oxides interact with silica and other oxide materials to form the slag.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main equilibration reaction is: </p> <dl><dd>Cu<sub>2</sub>O + FeS → Cu<sub>2</sub>S + FeO<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>The slag and the matte form distinct layers that can be removed from the furnace as separate streams. The slag layer is periodically allowed to flow through a hole in the wall of the furnace above the height of the matte layer. The matte is removed by draining it through a hole into ladles for it to be carried by crane to the converters.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This draining process is known as <i>tapping</i> the furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The matte taphole is normally a hole through a water-cooled copper block that prevents erosion of the <a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory bricks</a> lining the furnace. When the removal of the matte or slag is complete, the hole is normally plugged with clay, which is removed when the furnace is ready to be tapped again. </p><p>Reverberatory furnaces were often used to treat molten converter slag to recover contained copper.<sup id="cite_ref-Gill_44-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gill-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This would be poured into the furnaces from ladles carried by cranes. However, the converter slag is high in magnetite<sup id="cite_ref-Casley_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casley-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some of this magnetite would precipitate from the converter slag (due to its higher melting point), forming an accretion on the hearth of the reverberatory furnace and necessitating shut downs of the furnace to remove the accretion.<sup id="cite_ref-Casley_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casley-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This accretion formation limits the quantity of converter slag that can be treated in a reverberatory furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-Casley_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Casley-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While reverberatory furnaces have very low copper losses to slag, they are not very energy-efficient and the low concentrations of sulfur dioxide in their off-gases make its capture uneconomic. Consequently, smelter operators devoted a lot of money in the 1970s and 1980s to developing new, more efficient copper smelting processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackey1983_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackey1983-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, flash smelting technologies had been developed in earlier years and began to replace reverberatory furnaces. By 2002, 20 of the 30 reverberatory furnaces still operating in 1994 had been shut down.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flash_furnace_smelting">Flash furnace smelting</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Flash furnace smelting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Flash_smelting" title="Flash smelting">flash smelting</a>, the concentrate is dispersed in an air or oxygen stream and the smelting reactions are largely completed while the mineral particles are still in flight.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackey1983_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackey1983-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reacted particles then settle in a bath at the bottom of the furnace, where they behave like calcine in a reverberatory furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-Flash_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flash-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A slag layer forms on top of the matte layer, and they can separately be tapped from the furnace.<sup id="cite_ref-Flash_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flash-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ISASMELT">ISASMELT</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: ISASMELT"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/ISASMELT" title="ISASMELT">ISASMELT</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ISASMELT&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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article <b>contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_soapbox_or_means_of_promotion" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">promotional content</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit">improve it</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spam" title="Wikipedia:Spam">promotional language</a> and inappropriate <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links#Advertising_and_conflicts_of_interest" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a>, and by adding encyclopedic text written from a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutral point of view</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Graph_total_Isasmelt_capacity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Graph_total_Isasmelt_capacity.png/300px-Graph_total_Isasmelt_capacity.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Graph_total_Isasmelt_capacity.png/450px-Graph_total_Isasmelt_capacity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Graph_total_Isasmelt_capacity.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption>The installed feed capacity of Isasmelt furnaces has grown as the technology has been accepted in smelters around the world. Graph courtesy of Xstrata Technology.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/ISASMELT" title="ISASMELT">ISASMELT</a> process is an energy-efficient <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> process that was jointly developed from the 1970s to the 1990s by <a href="/wiki/Mount_Isa_Mines" title="Mount Isa Mines">Mount Isa Mines</a> (a subsidiary of <a href="/wiki/MIM_Holdings" title="MIM Holdings">MIM Holdings</a> and now part of <a href="/wiki/Glencore" title="Glencore">Glencore</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Australia">Government of Australia</a>'s <a href="/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO">CSIRO</a>. It has relatively low capital and operating costs for a smelting process. </p><p>ISASMELT technology has been applied to lead, copper, and nickel smelting. As of 2021, 22 plants were in operation in eleven countries, along with three demonstration plants located at Mt Isa. The installed capacity of copper/nickel operating plants in 2020 was 9.76 million tonnes per year of feed materials and 750 thousand tonnes per year across lead operating plants.<sup id="cite_ref-ISASMELT_Installations_list_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISASMELT_Installations_list-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Smelters based on the copper ISASMELT process are among the lowest-cost copper smelters in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-ISASMELT_Bill,_2002_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISASMELT_Bill,_2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Converting">Converting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Converting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg/220px-Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg/330px-Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg/440px-Tough-Pitch_Copper_Containing_Antimony_And_Nickel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3802" data-file-height="2534" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-free_copper" title="Oxygen-free copper">Oxygen-free copper</a> aka "Tough-pitch" copper (ca. 98% pure), containing antimony and nickel</figcaption></figure> <p>The matte, which is produced in the smelter, contains 30–70% copper (depending on the process used and the operating philosophy of the smelter), primarily as copper sulfide, as well as iron sulfide. The sulfur is removed at a high temperature as sulfur dioxide by blowing air through molten matte: </p> <dl><dd>2 CuS + 3 O<sub>2</sub> → 2 CuO + 2 SO<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <dl><dd>CuS + O<sub>2</sub> → Cu + SO<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <p>In a parallel reaction the iron sulfide is converted to slag: </p> <dl><dd>2 FeS + 3 O<sub>2</sub> → 2 FeO + 2 SO<sub>2</sub></dd> <dd>2 FeO + SiO<sub>2</sub> → Fe<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub></dd></dl> <p>The purity of this product is 98%, it is known as <i>blister</i> because of the broken surface created by the escape of sulfur dioxide gas as blister copper <i>pigs</i> or <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingots</a> are cooled. By-products generated in the process are sulfur dioxide and <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a>. The sulfur dioxide is captured and converted to sulfuric acid and either sold on the open market or used in copper leaching processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Refining">Refining</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Refining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fire_refining">Fire refining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fire refining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CopperAnodeRejects.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Copper anodes after fire refining and casting." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/CopperAnodeRejects.jpg/220px-CopperAnodeRejects.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/CopperAnodeRejects.jpg/330px-CopperAnodeRejects.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/CopperAnodeRejects.jpg/440px-CopperAnodeRejects.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Copper anodes after fire refining and casting.</figcaption></figure> <p>The blister copper is put into an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anode_furnace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anode furnace (page does not exist)">anode furnace</a>, a furnace that refines the blister copper to anode-grade copper in two stages by removing most of the remaining sulfur and iron, and then removing oxygen introduced during the first stage. This second stage, often referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Poling_(metallurgy)" title="Poling (metallurgy)">poling</a></i> is done by blowing <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, or some other reducing agent, through the molten copper oxide. When this flame burns green, indicating the copper oxidation spectrum, the oxygen has mostly been burned off. This creates copper at about 99% pure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolysis">Electrolysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Electrolysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png/300px-CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png/450px-CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png/600px-CuElectrolyticRefineApparatus.png 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Apparatus for electrolytic refining of copper</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">Electrowinning</a></div> <p>The final stage in the production of copper is refining. Refining is achieved by <a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">electrolysis</a>, which exploits the easy (low potential) and selective conversion of copper(II) solutions to the metal. The anodes cast from processed blister copper are placed into an <a href="/wiki/Aqueous" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueous">aqueous</a> solution of 3–4% <a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate" title="Copper(II) sulfate">copper sulfate</a> and 10–16% <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>. Cathodes are thin rolled sheets of highly pure copper or, more commonly these days, reusable stainless steel starting sheets (as in the <a href="/wiki/IsaKidd_refining_technology" title="IsaKidd refining technology">IsaKidd process</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A potential of only 0.2–0.4 volts is required for the process to commence. In industrial plants current densities up to 420 A/m<sup>2</sup> are possible.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> (<a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a> reaction), copper and less noble metals <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolve</a>. More noble metals and less <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble</a> elements such as <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a> settle to the bottom of the cell as <a href="/wiki/Anode_slime" class="mw-redirect" title="Anode slime">anode slime</a>, which forms a salable by-product. Copper(II) ions <a href="/wiki/Electromigration" title="Electromigration">migrate</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> to the cathode. At the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> (<a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a> reaction), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Cu<sup>2+</sup></span> ions are reduced in copper metal and Cu<sub>(s)</sub> plates out, but less noble constituents such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> remain in solution unless a higher voltage is used.<sup id="cite_ref-samans_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-samans-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reactions involving metallic copper and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Cu<sup>2+</sup></span> ions at the electrodes are the following: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <td>– At the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a></td> <td>(oxidation and dissolution)</td> <td>: Cu<sub>(s)</sub></td> <td>→ Cu<sup>2+</sup> + 2 e<sup>−</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>– At the <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a></td> <td>(reduction and precipitation)</td> <td>: Cu<sup>2+</sup> + 2 e<sup>−</sup></td> <td>→ Cu<sub>(s)</sub> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concentrate_and_copper_marketing">Concentrate and copper marketing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Concentrate and copper marketing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copper concentrates produced by mines are sold to smelters and refiners who treat the ore and refine the copper and charge for this service via treatment charges (TCs) and refining charges (RCs). The TCs are charged in US$ per tonne of concentrate treated and RCs are charged in cents per pound treated, denominated in US dollars, with benchmark prices set annually by major Japanese smelters. The customer in this case can be a smelter, who on-sells blister copper ingots to a refiner, or a smelter-refiner which is vertically integrated. </p><p>One prevalent form of copper concentrate contains gold and silver, like the one produced by Bougainville Copper Limited from the Panguna mine from the early 1970s to the late 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The typical contract for a miner is denominated against the London Metal Exchange price, minus the TC-RCs and any applicable penalties or credits. Penalties may be assessed against copper concentrates according to the level of deleterious elements such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>. Because a large portion of copper sulfide ore bodies contain <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> in appreciable amounts, a credit can be paid to the miner for these metals if their concentration <i>within the concentrate</i> is above a certain amount. Usually the refiner or smelter charges the miner a fee based on the concentration; a typical contract will specify that a credit is due for every ounce of the metal in the concentrate above a certain concentration; below that, if it is recovered, the smelter will keep the metal and sell it to defray costs. </p><p>Copper concentrate is traded either via <a href="/wiki/Spot_contract" title="Spot contract">spot contracts</a> or under long term contracts as an intermediate product in its own right. Often the smelter sells the copper metal itself on behalf of the miner. The miner is paid the price at the time that the smelter-refiner makes the sale, not at the price on the date of delivery of the concentrate. Under a Quotational Pricing system, the price is agreed to be at a fixed date in the future, typically 90 days from time of delivery to the smelter. </p><p>A-grade <a href="/wiki/Copper_cathode" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper cathode">copper cathode</a> is of 99.99% copper in sheets that are 1 cm thick, and approximately 1 meter square weighing approximately 200 pounds. It is a true <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a>, deliverable to and tradeable upon the metal exchanges in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> (COMEX), <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> (London Metals Exchange) and <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> (Shanghai Futures Exchange). Often copper cathode is traded upon the exchanges indirectly via warrants, options, or swap contracts such that the majority of copper is traded upon the LME/COMEX/SFE, but delivery is achieved directly, logistically moving the physical copper, and transferring the copper sheet from the physical warehouses themselves. </p><p>The chemical specification for <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytic</a> grade copper is ASTM B 115-00 (a standard that specifies the purity and maximum <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">electrical resistivity</a> of the product). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peak_copper">Peak copper</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Peak copper"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg/300px-Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg/450px-Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg/600px-Copper_-_world_production_trend.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>World copper production, 1900–2012</figcaption></figure> <p>Peak copper is the point in time at which the maximum global <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> production rate is reached. Since copper is a finite resource, at some point in the future new production from mining will diminish, and at some earlier time production will reach a maximum. When this will occur is a matter of dispute. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, copper is <a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">scrapped</a> and reused, and it has been estimated that at least 80% of all copper ever mined is still available (having been repeatedly recycled).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper is among the most important industrial metals, ranking third after <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> in terms of quantity used.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS-1_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS-1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is valued for its heat and electrical conductivities, ductility, malleability and resistance to corrosion. Electrical uses account for about three quarters of total copper consumption, including power cables, data cables and electrical equipment. It is also used in cooling and refrigeration tubing, <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchangers" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat exchangers">heat exchangers</a>, water pipes and consumer products.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS-1_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS-1-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Copper has been used by humans for at least 10,000 years. More than 97% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The increased demand for copper due to the growing Indian and Chinese economies since 2006 has led to increased prices and an increase in <a href="/wiki/Metal_theft" title="Metal theft">copper theft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonard2006_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonard2006-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concern about the copper supply is not new. In 1924 geologist and copper-mining expert <a href="/wiki/Ira_Joralemon" title="Ira Joralemon">Ira Joralemon</a> warned:<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>... the age of electricity and of copper will be short. At the intense rate of production that must come, the copper supply of the world will last hardly a score of years. ... Our civilization based on electrical power will dwindle and die.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copper_supply">Copper supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Copper supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2012copper_(mined).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/2012copper_%28mined%29.svg/300px-2012copper_%28mined%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/2012copper_%28mined%29.svg/450px-2012copper_%28mined%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/2012copper_%28mined%29.svg/600px-2012copper_%28mined%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1397" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Globally, economic copper resources are being depleted with the equivalent production of three world-class copper mines being consumed annually.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonard2006_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonard2006-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental analyst <a href="/wiki/Lester_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Lester Brown">Lester Brown</a> suggested in 2008 that copper might run out within 25 years based on what he considered a reasonable extrapolation of 2% growth per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Brown_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_copper_discoveries">New copper discoveries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: New copper discoveries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fifty-six new copper discoveries have been made during the three decades 1975–2005.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonard2006_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonard2006-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World discoveries of new copper deposits are said to have peaked in 1996.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, according to the US Geological Survey (USGS), remaining world copper reserves have more than doubled since then, from 310 million metric tons in 1996<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 890 million metric tons in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Production">Production</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_copper_production" title="List of countries by copper production">List of countries by copper production</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Top_5_Copper_Producers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Top_5_Copper_Producers.png/220px-Top_5_Copper_Producers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Top_5_Copper_Producers.png/330px-Top_5_Copper_Producers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Top_5_Copper_Producers.png/440px-Top_5_Copper_Producers.png 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>Production trends in the top five copper-producing nations</figcaption></figure> <p>As shown in the table below, the three chief national producers of copper, respectively, in 2002, were Chile, Indonesia, and the <a href="/wiki/Copper_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Copper mining in the United States">United States</a>. In 2013, they were Chile, China, and Peru. Twenty-one of the 28 largest copper mines in the world (as of 2006) are not amenable to expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-Leonard2006_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leonard2006-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"> <caption>Copper production (thousands tonnes)<sup id="cite_ref-USGS2004_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2004-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2006_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2006-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2008_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2008-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2010_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2010-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2011_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2011-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2012_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2012-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2013_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2013-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2014_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2014-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2015_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2015-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2016_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2016-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS2017_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2017-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGSds140-coppe2014_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGSds140-coppe2014-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country </th> <th>2002 </th> <th>2003 </th> <th>2004 </th> <th>2005 </th> <th>2006 </th> <th>2007 </th> <th>2008 </th> <th>2009 </th> <th>2010 </th> <th>2011 </th> <th>2012 </th> <th>2013 </th> <th>2014 </th> <th>2015 </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> </td> <td>4,580 </td> <td>4,860 </td> <td>5,410 </td> <td>5,320 </td> <td>5,560 </td> <td>5,700 </td> <td>5,330 </td> <td>5,390 </td> <td>5,420 </td> <td>5,260 </td> <td>5,430 </td> <td>5,780 </td> <td>5,750 </td> <td>5,760 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> </td> <td>585 </td> <td>565 </td> <td>620 </td> <td>640 </td> <td>890 </td> <td>920 </td> <td>950 </td> <td>995 </td> <td>1,190 </td> <td>1,310 </td> <td>1,630 </td> <td>1,600 </td> <td>1,760 </td> <td>1,710 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> </td> <td>843 </td> <td>850 </td> <td>1,040 </td> <td>1,090 </td> <td>1,049 </td> <td>1,200 </td> <td>1,270 </td> <td>1,275 </td> <td>1,250 </td> <td>1,240 </td> <td>1,300 </td> <td>1,380 </td> <td>1,380 </td> <td>1,700 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td> <td>1,140 </td> <td>1,120 </td> <td>1,160 </td> <td>1,150 </td> <td>1,200 </td> <td>1,190 </td> <td>1,310 </td> <td>1,180 </td> <td>1,110 </td> <td>1,110 </td> <td>1,170 </td> <td>1,250 </td> <td>1,360 </td> <td>1,380 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> </td> <td>873 </td> <td>870 </td> <td>854 </td> <td>930 </td> <td>859 </td> <td>860 </td> <td>886 </td> <td>854 </td> <td>870 </td> <td>958 </td> <td>958 </td> <td>990 </td> <td>970 </td> <td>971 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo-Kinshasa</a> </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>343 </td> <td>520 </td> <td>600 </td> <td>970 </td> <td>1,030 </td> <td>1,020 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td> <td>695 </td> <td>700 </td> <td>675 </td> <td>675 </td> <td>725 </td> <td>730 </td> <td>750 </td> <td>725 </td> <td>703 </td> <td>713 </td> <td>883 </td> <td>833 </td> <td>742 </td> <td>732 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> </td> <td>330 </td> <td>330 </td> <td>427 </td> <td>450 </td> <td>476 </td> <td>530 </td> <td>546 </td> <td>697 </td> <td>690 </td> <td>668 </td> <td>690 </td> <td>760 </td> <td>708 </td> <td>712 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td>600 </td> <td>580 </td> <td>546 </td> <td>580 </td> <td>607 </td> <td>585 </td> <td>607 </td> <td>491 </td> <td>525 </td> <td>566 </td> <td>579 </td> <td>632 </td> <td>696 </td> <td>697 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> </td> <td>1,160 </td> <td>1,170 </td> <td>840 </td> <td>1,050 </td> <td>816 </td> <td>780 </td> <td>651 </td> <td>996 </td> <td>872 </td> <td>543 </td> <td>360 </td> <td>504 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td> <td>330 </td> <td>330 </td> <td>406 </td> <td>420 </td> <td>338 </td> <td>400 </td> <td>247 </td> <td>238 </td> <td>260 </td> <td>443 </td> <td>440 </td> <td>480 </td> <td>515 </td> <td>594 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> </td> <td>490 </td> <td>480 </td> <td>461 </td> <td>400 </td> <td>457 </td> <td>460 </td> <td>420 </td> <td>390 </td> <td>380 </td> <td>417 </td> <td>424 </td> <td>446 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> </td> <td>503 </td> <td>500 </td> <td>531 </td> <td>530 </td> <td>512 </td> <td>470 </td> <td>430 </td> <td>439 </td> <td>425 </td> <td>427 </td> <td>427 </td> <td>429 </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><i>Other countries</i> </td> <td>1,500 </td> <td>1,500 </td> <td>1,610 </td> <td>1,750 </td> <td>1,835 </td> <td>1,800 </td> <td>2,030 </td> <td>2,190 </td> <td>1,900 </td> <td>1,970 </td> <td>2,000 </td> <td>2,200 </td> <td>3,600 </td> <td>3,800 </td></tr> <tr> <th><span class="flagicon" style="padding-left:25px;"> </span><i>World</i> </th> <th>13,600 </th> <th>13,800 </th> <th>14,700 </th> <th>15,000 </th> <th>15,100 </th> <th>15,500 </th> <th>15,600 </th> <th>16,100 </th> <th>16,100 </th> <th>16,100 </th> <th>16,900 </th> <th>18,200 </th> <th>18,400 </th> <th>19,100 </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reserves">Reserves</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Reserves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Copper is a <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">fairly common</a> element, with an estimated concentration of 50–70 ppm (0.005–0.007 percent) in Earth's crust (1 kg of copper per 15–20 tons of crustal rock).<sup id="cite_ref-emsley_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emsley-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A concentration of 60 ppm would multiply out to 1.66 quadrillion <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> over the <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7022277000000000000♠"></span>2.77<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>22</sup> kg</span> mass of the crust,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or over 90 million years' worth at the 2013 production rate of 18.3 MT per year. However, not all of it can be extracted profitably at the current level of technology and the current market value. </p><p>The USGS reported a current total reserve base of copper in potentially recoverable ores of 1.6 billion tonnes as of 2005, of which 950 million tonnes were considered economically recoverable.<sup id="cite_ref-Biello2006_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biello2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 global assessment identified "455 known deposits (with well-defined identified resources) that contain about 1.8 billion metric tons of copper", and predicted "a mean of 812 undiscovered deposits within the uppermost kilometer of the earth's surface" containing another 3.1 billion metric tons of copper "which represents about 180 times 2012 global copper production from all types of copper deposits."<sup id="cite_ref-Hammarstrom2013_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammarstrom2013-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"> <caption>Copper reserves (thousands of tonnes)<sup id="cite_ref-USGS2015_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2015-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS1996_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS1996-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country </th> <th>1996 Reserves </th> <th>Percent </th> <th>2015 Reserves </th> <th>Percent </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> </td> <td>88,000 </td> <td>28.4% </td> <td>209,000 </td> <td>29.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> </td> <td>7,000 </td> <td>2.26% </td> <td>93,000 </td> <td>13.2% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/23px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/35px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg/45px-Flag_of_Peru.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> </td> <td>7,000 </td> <td>2.26% </td> <td>68,000 </td> <td>9.71% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>38,000 </td> <td>5.43% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> </td> <td>45,000 </td> <td>14.5% </td> <td>35,000 </td> <td>5.00% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> </td> <td>3,000 </td> <td>0.968% </td> <td>30,000 </td> <td>4.29% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> </td> <td>20,000 </td> <td>6.45% </td> <td>30,000 </td> <td>4.29% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a> </td> <td>20,000 </td> <td>6.45% </td> <td>28,000 </td> <td>4.00% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> </td> <td>11,000 </td> <td>3.55% </td> <td>25,000 </td> <td>3.57% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/31px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo-Kinshasa</a> </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>20,000 </td> <td>2.86% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Flag_of_Zambia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zambia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> </td> <td>12,000 </td> <td>3.87% </td> <td>20,000 </td> <td>2.86% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td>11,000 </td> <td>3.55% </td> <td>11,000 </td> <td>1.57% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> </td> <td>14,000 </td> <td>4.52% </td> <td>6,000 </td> <td>0.86% </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Zaire_%281971%E2%80%931997%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> </td> <td>11,000 </td> <td>3.55% </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> </td> <td>7,000 </td> <td>2.26% </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left;"><i>Other countries</i> </td> <td>55,000 </td> <td>17.7% </td> <td>90,000 </td> <td>12.9% </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><span class="flagicon" style="padding-left:25px;"> </span><i>World</i> </th> <th>310,000 </th> <th>100% </th> <th>700,000 </th> <th>100% </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Known_resources">Known resources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Known resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Recycling">Recycling</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the US, more copper is recovered and put back into service from recycled material than is derived from newly mined ore. Copper's recycle value is so great that premium-grade scrap normally has at least 95% of the value of primary metal from newly mined ore.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe, about 50% of copper demand comes from recycling (as of 2016).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2011<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, recycled copper provided 35% of total worldwide copper usage.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (July 2023)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Undiscovered_conventional_resources">Undiscovered conventional resources</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Undiscovered conventional resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on discovery rates and existing geologic surveys, researchers estimated in 2006 that 1.6 billion metric tons of copper could be brought into use. This figure relied on the broadest possible definition of available copper as well as a lack of energy constraints and environmental concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-Biello2006_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biello2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The US Geological Survey estimated that, as of 2013, there remained 3.5 billion metric tons of undiscovered copper resources worldwide in porphyry and sediment-hosted type deposits, two types which currently provide 80% of mined copper production. This was in addition to 2.1 billion metric tons of identified resources. Combined identified and estimated undiscovered copper resources were 5.6 billion metric tons,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 306 times the 2013 global production of newly mined copper of 18.3 million metric tons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Unconventional_resources">Unconventional resources</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Unconventional resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">Deep-sea nodules</a> are estimated to contain 700 million tonnes of copper.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS2008_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS2008-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Julian_Lincoln_Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian Lincoln Simon">Julian Simon</a> was a senior fellow at the <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a> and a professor of business and economics. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ultimate_Resource" title="The Ultimate Resource">The Ultimate Resource 2</a></i> (first printed in 1981 and reprinted in 1998), he extensively criticizes the notion of "peak resources", and uses copper as one example. He argues that, even though "peak copper" has been a persistent scare since the early 20th century, "known reserves" grew at a rate that outpaced demand, and the price of copper was not rising but falling over the long run. For example, even though world production of copper in 1950 was only one-eighth of what it was in the early 2000s, known reserves were also much lower at the time – around 100 million metric tons – making it appear that the world would run out of copper in 40 to 50 years at most. </p><p>Simon's own explanation for this development is that the very notion of known reserves is deeply flawed,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as it does not take into account changes in mining profitability. As richer mines are exhausted, developers turn their attention to poorer sources of the element and eventually develop cheap methods of extracting it, raising known reserves. Thus, for example, copper was so abundant 5000 years ago, occurring in pure form as well as in highly concentrated copper ores, that prehistoric peoples were able to collect and process it with very basic technology. As of the early 21st century, copper is commonly mined from ores that contain 0.3–0.6% copper by weight. Yet, despite the material being far less widespread, the cost of, for example, a copper pot was vastly lower in the late 20th century than 5000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (July 2023)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomining" title="Biomining">Biomining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Copper_minerals" title="Category:Copper minerals">Category:Copper minerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_mining_in_the_United_States" title="Copper mining in the United States">Copper mining in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Extractive metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-situ_leach" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ leach">In-situ leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_copper_mines" title="List of copper mines">List of copper mines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_copper_production" title="List of countries by copper production">List of countries by copper production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom" title="2000s commodities boom">2000s commodities boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubbert_peak_theory" title="Hubbert peak theory">Hubbert peak theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_copper_alloys" title="List of copper alloys">List of copper alloys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_resource_classification" title="Mineral resource classification">Mineral resource classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">Peak minerals</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ullm-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ullm_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ullm_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLossin2001" class="citation book cs1">Lossin, Adalbert (2001). "Copper". <i>Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a07_471">10.1002/14356007.a07_471</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3527306730" title="Special:BookSources/3527306730"><bdi>3527306730</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Copper&rft.btitle=Ullmann%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Industrial+Chemistry&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14356007.a07_471&rft.isbn=3527306730&rft.aulast=Lossin&rft.aufirst=Adalbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalakof2021" class="citation news cs1">Malakof, David (19 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/ancient-native-americans-were-among-world-s-first-coppersmiths">"Ancient Native Americans were among the world's first coppersmiths"</a>. Science<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ancient+Native+Americans+were+among+the+world%27s+first+coppersmiths&rft.date=2021-03-19&rft.aulast=Malakof&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fancient-native-americans-were-among-world-s-first-coppersmiths&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraidwoodÇambelRedmanWatson1971" class="citation journal cs1">Braidwood, Robert J.; Çambel, Halet; Redman, Charles L.; Watson, Patty Jo (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389161">"Beginnings of Village-Farming Communities in Southeastern Turkey"</a>. <i>Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A</i>. <b>68</b> (6): 1236–1240. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971PNAS...68.1236B">1971PNAS...68.1236B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.68.6.1236">10.1073/pnas.68.6.1236</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC389161">389161</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16591930">16591930</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc+Natl+Acad+Sci+U+S+A&rft.atitle=Beginnings+of+Village-Farming+Communities+in+Southeastern+Turkey&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1236-1240&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC389161%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16591930&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.68.6.1236&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1971PNAS...68.1236B&rft.aulast=Braidwood&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=%C3%87ambel%2C+Halet&rft.au=Redman%2C+Charles+L.&rft.au=Watson%2C+Patty+Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC389161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR.S._SoleckiR.L._SoleckiA.P._Agelarakis2004" class="citation book cs1">R.S. Solecki; R.L. Solecki; A.P. Agelarakis (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tamupress.com/product/Proto-Neolithic-Cemetery-in-Shanidar-Cave,78.aspx"><i>The Proto-neolithic Cemetery in Shanidar Cave</i></a>. 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July 17, 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/60563/description/Serbian_site_may_have_hosted_first_copper_makers">the original</a> on May 8, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 3,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceNews&rft.atitle=Serbian+site+may+have+hosted+first+copper+makers&rft.date=2010-07-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencenews.org%2Fview%2Fgeneric%2Fid%2F60563%2Fdescription%2FSerbian_site_may_have_hosted_first_copper_makers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davenport-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">W G Davenport, M King, M Schlesinger and A K Biswas, <i>Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Fourth Edition</i> (Elsevier Science Limited: Kidlington, Oxford, England, 2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Raymond, <a href="/wiki/Out_of_the_Fiery_Furnace" title="Out of the Fiery Furnace">Out of the Fiery Furnace</a>, The MacMillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, 1984.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gill32-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gill32_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C B Gill, <i>Non-ferrous Extractive Metallurgy</i> (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980) p. 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Raymond (1984) <a href="/wiki/Out_of_the_Fiery_Furnace" title="Out of the Fiery Furnace">Out of the Fiery Furnace</a>, The MacMillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, pp. 233–235, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/027100441X" title="Special:BookSources/027100441X">027100441X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/guides/mine/historicalnote.htm">"Historical Note"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Europe%27s+Copper+Industry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcopperalliance.eu%2Fabout-us%2Feuropes-copper-industry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Copper_Study_Group" class="citation cs2">International Copper Study Group, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130105033321/https://www.icsg.org/index.php/component/jdownloads/finish/170/1188"><i>The World Copper Factbook 2012</i></a>, p. 50, archived from the original on 5 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-08</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Copper+Factbook+2012&rft.pages=50&rft.au=International+Copper+Study+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icsg.org%2Findex.php%2Fcomponent%2Fjdownloads%2Ffinish%2F170%2F1188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kathleen M. Johnson and others, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2014/3004/pdf/fs2014-3004.pdf">Estimate of undiscovered copper resources of the world, 2013</a>, US Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 2014–3004, Jan. 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simon, Julian (16 February 1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juliansimon.com/writings/Ultimate_Resource/TCHAR12.txt">Chapt 12, "People, Materials, and Environment"</a> in <i>The Ultimate Resource II</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1998" class="citation web cs1">Simon, Julian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juliansimon.com/writings/Ultimate_Resource/">"The Ultimate Resource II: People, Materials, and Environment"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Resource+II%3A+People%2C+Materials%2C+and+Environment&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.juliansimon.com%2Fwritings%2FUltimate_Resource%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.copper.org/">Copper.org</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311113613/http://mazamascience.com/Minerals/USGS/">"US Minerals Databrowser"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mazama_Science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mazama Science (page does not exist)">Mazama Science</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mazamascience.com/Minerals/USGS">the original</a> on 11 March 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 March</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+Minerals+Databrowser&rft.pub=Mazama+Science&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmazamascience.com%2FMinerals%2FUSGS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACopper+extraction" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._B._Gordon*,_M._Bertram_and_T._E._Graedel2006" class="citation journal cs1">R. B. Gordon*, M. Bertram and T. E. Graedel (31 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1360560">"Metal Stocks and Sustainability"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>103</b> (5). <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">U.S. National Academy of Sciences</a>: 1209–1214. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..103.1209G">2006PNAS..103.1209G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0509498103">10.1073/pnas.0509498103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1360560">1360560</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16432205">16432205</a>.</cite><span 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plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1879 <i><a href="/wiki/American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia" class="mw-redirect" title="American Cyclopædia">American Cyclopædia</a></i> article <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_(1879)/Copper_Smelting" class="extiw" title="s:The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Copper Smelting">Copper Smelting</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>The Copper Development Association's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/education/production.html">copper production</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130907132645/http://www.copper.org/education/production.html">Archived</a> 2013-09-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> page.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170505133358/http://www.istc.illinois.edu/info/library_docs/manuals/primmetals/chapter5.htm">Copper Processing</a>, from an online text on metals, Illinois Sustainable Technology Center, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois">University of Illinois</a>, archived in May 2017</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080302034606/http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/27.html">National Pollutant Inventory – Copper and copper compounds fact sheet</a></li> <li>University of Pittsburgh School of Engineering Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engr.pitt.edu/chemical/undergrad/lab_manuals/flotation.pdf">Froth Flotation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051206091734/http://www.engr.pitt.edu/chemical/undergrad/lab_manuals/flotation.pdf">Archived</a> 2005-12-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Lab notes.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chemconnections.org/modules/copper/">Copper Mine</a>, college course syllabus, emphasis on chemistry, last updated 2000</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Copper_extraction&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gill, C. B. (1980) <i>Nonferrous Extractive Metallurgy</i>, John Wiley and Sons: New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471059803" title="Special:BookSources/0471059803">0471059803</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Extractive metallurgy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extractive_metallurgy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Extractive_metallurgy" title="Extractive metallurgy">Extractive metallurgy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_assay" title="Metallurgical assay">Metallurgical assay</a> <a href="/wiki/Non-ferrous_extractive_metallurgy" title="Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy">Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_processing" title="Mineral processing">Mineral processing</a><br /><small>(by physical means)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_survey" title="Geological survey">Geological survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">Ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geology" title="Economic geology">Economic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Mineral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_metal" title="Base metal">Base metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">Precious metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(hard_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (hard rock)">Underground in hard rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_mining_(soft_rock)" class="mw-redirect" title="Underground mining (soft rock)">Underground in soft rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrap" title="Scrap">Scrap</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comminution" title="Comminution">Comminution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_mill" title="Stamp mill">Stamp mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrastra" title="Arrastra">Arrastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusher" title="Crusher">Crusher</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#Autogenous_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">AG mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#SAG_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">SAG mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#Pebble_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">Pebble mill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ball_mill" title="Ball mill">Ball mill</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)#Rod_mill" title="Mill (grinding)">Rod mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IsaMill" title="IsaMill">IsaMill</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sizing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ore_sorting" class="mw-redirect" title="Ore sorting">Ore sorting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanning" title="Vanning">Vanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocyclone" title="Hydrocyclone">Hydrocyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trommel_screen" title="Trommel screen">Trommel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_separation" title="Cyclonic separation">Cyclonic separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyratory_equipment" title="Gyratory equipment">Gyratory equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_screening" title="Mechanical screening">Mechanical screening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ore_concentrate" title="Ore concentrate">Concentration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">Froth flotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jameson_cell" title="Jameson cell">Jameson cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_panning" title="Gold panning">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jig_concentrators" title="Jig concentrators">Jig concentrators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_processing#Gravity_concentration" title="Mineral processing">Gravity Concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_separation" title="Magnetic separation">Magnetic separation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Magnetation_(iron_ore)" title="Magnetation (iron ore)">Magnetation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocker_box" title="Rocker box">Rocker box</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drywasher" title="Drywasher">Dry washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddle_pit" title="Buddle pit">Buddle pit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrometallurgy" title="Pyrometallurgy">Pyrometallurgy</a><br /><small>(by heat)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">Iron smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_smelting" title="Zinc smelting">Zinc smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_smelting" title="Flash smelting">Flash smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISASMELT" title="ISASMELT">ISASMELT</a> furnace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">Refractory linings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy)" title="Refining (metallurgy)">Refining</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cupellation" title="Cupellation">Cupellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkes_process" title="Parkes process">Parkes process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom-blown_oxygen_converter" title="Bottom-blown oxygen converter">Bottom-blown oxygen converter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(metallurgy)" title="Poling (metallurgy)">Poling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IsaKidd_refining_technology" title="IsaKidd refining technology">IsaKidd process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcination" title="Calcination">Calcination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)" title="Roasting (metallurgy)">Roasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquation" title="Liquation">Liquation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hydrometallurgy" title="Hydrometallurgy">Hydrometallurgy</a><br /><small>(by aqueous solution)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(metallurgy)" title="Leaching (metallurgy)">Leaching</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lixiviant" title="Lixiviant">Lixiviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heap_leaching" title="Heap leaching">Heap leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_leaching" title="Dump leaching">Dump leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_leaching" title="Tank leaching">Tank leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_situ_leach" title="In situ leach">In situ leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newbery%E2%80%93Vautin_chlorination_process" title="Newbery–Vautin chlorination process">Gold chlorination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_cyanidation" title="Gold cyanidation">Gold cyanidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayer_process" title="Bayer process">Bayer process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amalgam_(chemistry)" title="Amalgam (chemistry)">Amalgamation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patio_process" title="Patio process">Patio process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_amalgamation" title="Pan amalgamation">Pan amalgamation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrometallurgy" title="Electrometallurgy">Electrometallurgy</a><br /><small>(by electricity)</small></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Electrolysis" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electrolysis" title="Electrolysis">Electrolysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrowinning" title="Electrowinning">Electrowinning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Hall–Héroult process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castner_process" title="Castner process">Castner process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downs_cell" title="Downs cell">Downs cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Co-products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Tailings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangue" title="Gangue">Gangue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">Slag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(waste)" title="Clinker (waste)">Clinker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chat_(mining)" title="Chat (mining)">Chat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauxite_tailings" class="mw-redirect" title="Bauxite tailings">Red mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_sand" title="Stamp sand">Stamp sand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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