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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origin of the Ottoman state</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin_of_the_Ottoman_state-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origin of the Ottoman state subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_the_Ottoman_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gaza_and_gazis_in_early_Ottoman_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaza_and_gazis_in_early_Ottoman_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Gaza and gazis in early Ottoman history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaza_and_gazis_in_early_Ottoman_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Demography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State_centralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_centralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>State centralization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_centralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_and_intellectual_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_and_intellectual_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cultural and intellectual life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_and_intellectual_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Political history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Osman_I_(c._1299–1323/4)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osman_I_(c._1299–1323/4)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Osman I (c. 1299–1323/4)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osman_I_(c._1299–1323/4)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orhan_(1323/4–1362)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orhan_(1323/4–1362)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Orhan (1323/4–1362)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orhan_(1323/4–1362)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Murad_I_(1362–1389)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Murad_I_(1362–1389)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Murad I (1362–1389)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Murad_I_(1362–1389)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Edirne,_1362" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Edirne,_1362"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Edirne, 1362</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edirne,_1362-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallipoli,_1366" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallipoli,_1366"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Gallipoli, 1366</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallipoli,_1366-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maritsa,_1371" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maritsa,_1371"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Maritsa, 1371</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maritsa,_1371-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dubravnica,_1381" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dubravnica,_1381"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.4</span> <span>Dubravnica, 1381</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dubravnica,_1381-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saurian_Field,_1385" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saurian_Field,_1385"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.5</span> <span>Saurian Field, 1385</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saurian_Field,_1385-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plocnik,_1386" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plocnik,_1386"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.6</span> <span>Plocnik, 1386</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plocnik,_1386-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bileća,_1388" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bileća,_1388"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.7</span> <span>Bileća, 1388</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bileća,_1388-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kosovo,_1389" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kosovo,_1389"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.8</span> <span>Kosovo, 1389</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kosovo,_1389-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bayezid_I_(1389–1402)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bayezid_I_(1389–1402)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Bayezid I (1389–1402)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bayezid_I_(1389–1402)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nicopolis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nicopolis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.1</span> <span>Nicopolis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nicopolis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ankara,_1402" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ankara,_1402"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.2</span> <span>Ankara, 1402</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ankara,_1402-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Interregnum_(1402–1413)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Interregnum_(1402–1413)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Interregnum_(1402–1413)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mehmed_I_(1413–1421)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mehmed_I_(1413–1421)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Mehmed I (1413–1421)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mehmed_I_(1413–1421)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Murad_II_(1421–1451)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Murad_II_(1421–1451)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Murad II (1421–1451)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Murad_II_(1421–1451)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constantinople,_1422" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantinople,_1422"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7.1</span> <span>Constantinople, 1422</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantinople,_1422-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thessalonika,_1430" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thessalonika,_1430"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7.2</span> <span>Thessalonika, 1430</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thessalonika,_1430-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Varna,_1444" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varna,_1444"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7.3</span> <span>Varna, 1444</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Varna,_1444-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kosovo,_1448" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kosovo,_1448"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7.4</span> <span>Kosovo, 1448</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kosovo,_1448-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mehmed_II_(1451–1481)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mehmed_II_(1451–1481)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Mehmed II (1451–1481)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mehmed_II_(1451–1481)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constantinople,_1453" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantinople,_1453"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8.1</span> <span>Constantinople, 1453</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantinople,_1453-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>State formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قيام الدولة العثمانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قيام الدولة العثمانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="উসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্যের উত্থান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উসমানীয় সাম্রাজ্যের উত্থান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Образуване на Османската империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Образуване на Османската империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riode_d%27%C3%A9tablissement_de_l%27Empire_ottoman" title="Période d'établissement de l'Empire ottoman – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Période d'établissement de l'Empire ottoman" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebangkitan_Kesultanan_Utsmaniyah" title="Kebangkitan Kesultanan Utsmaniyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kebangkitan Kesultanan Utsmaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascesa_dell%27Impero_ottomano" title="Ascesa dell'Impero ottomano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ascesa dell'Impero ottomano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ოსმალეთის იმპერიის წარმოშობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოსმალეთის იმპერიის წარმოშობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osma%C5%86u_imp%C4%93rijas_uzplaukums" title="Osmaņu impērijas uzplaukums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Osmaņu impērijas uzplaukums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Подем на Отоманското Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Подем на Отоманското Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penubuhan_Empayar_Uthmaniyah" title="Penubuhan Empayar Uthmaniyah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penubuhan Empayar Uthmaniyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%8D%D0%B7%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82_%D0%B3%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82" title="Османы эзэнт гүрний сэргэн мандалт – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Османы эзэнт гүрний сэргэн мандалт" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81_%D8%AF%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC" title="سلطنت عثمانیہ دا عروج – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سلطنت عثمانیہ دا عروج" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8D_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%90%D8%AF%D9%84" title="د عثماني سترواکۍ راپرزېدل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د عثماني سترواکۍ راپرزېدل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascens%C3%A3o_do_Imp%C3%A9rio_Otomano" title="Ascensão do Império Otomano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ascensão do Império Otomano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascensiunea_Imperiului_Otoman" title="Ascensiunea Imperiului Otoman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ascensiunea Imperiului Otoman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Образование Османской империи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Образование Османской империи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Успон Османског царства – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Успон Османског царства" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmanl%C4%B1_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu_kurulu%C5%9F_d%C3%B6nemi" title="Osmanlı İmparatorluğu kuruluş dönemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Osmanlı İmparatorluğu kuruluş dönemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Утворення Османської держави – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Утворення Османської держави" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AC" title="سلطنت عثمانیہ کا عروج – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلطنت عثمانیہ کا عروج" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rise of the Ottoman Empire to prominence (1299-1453)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the historical topic. 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:History of the Ottoman Empire">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History</a> of the<br /><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_(1882%E2%80%931922).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of Arms of the Ottoman Empire"><img alt="Coat of Arms of the Ottoman Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/125px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/188px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg/250px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281882%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1906" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Timeline of the Ottoman Empire">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rise</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1299–1453)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beylik_of_Osman" class="mw-redirect" title="Beylik of Osman">Beylik of Osman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1402–1413)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1453–1566)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1533–1656)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1566–1703)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Köprülü Era">Köprülü Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656–1703)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Old Regime</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1703–1789)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_Era_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip Era in the Ottoman Empire">Tulip Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1718–1730)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline & Modernization</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1789–1908)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nizam-i_Djedid" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam-i Djedid">Nizam-i Djedid</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(late 18th and early 19th)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1839–1876)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">1st Constitutional Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1876–1878)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1908–1922)</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral)"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">2nd Constitutional Era</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1908–1920)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire_during_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Empire during World War I">World War I</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1914–1918)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partitioning</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1918–1922)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition of the Sultanate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1922)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Caliphate" title="Abolition of the Caliphate">Abolition of the Caliphate</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1924)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Historiography of the Ottoman Empire">Historiography</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline</a>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Template:History of the Ottoman Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Template talk:History of the Ottoman Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Ottoman Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>rise of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></b> is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i>Osmanlı Beyliği</i>) in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1299</span>, and ended <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1453</span>. This period witnessed the foundation of a political entity ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Dynasty">Ottoman Dynasty</a> in the northwestern Anatolian region of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>, and its transformation from a small principality on the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> frontier into an empire spanning the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. For this reason, this period in the empire's history has been described as the <i>"Proto-Imperial Era"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout most of this period, the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region, and relied upon the support of local warlords <a href="/wiki/Ghazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazis">Ghazis</a> and vassals (Beys) to maintain control over their realm. By the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman sultans were able to accumulate enough personal power and authority to establish a centralized imperial state, a process which was achieved by Sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1451–1481– </span>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conquest of <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 1453 is seen as the symbolic moment when the emerging Ottoman state shifted from a mere principality into an empire therefore marking a major turning point in its history.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cause of Ottoman success cannot be attributed to any single factor, and they varied throughout the period as the Ottomans continually adapted to changing circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earlier part of this period, the fourteenth century, is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources. Not a single written document survives from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>, and very little survives from the rest of the century.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottomans, furthermore, did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century, more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thus a great challenge for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in analyzing the stories contained in these later chronicles,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so much so that one historian has even declared it impossible, describing the earliest period of Ottoman history as a "black hole".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Turkish historian <a href="/wiki/Halil_Inalcik" class="mw-redirect" title="Halil Inalcik">Halil Inalcik</a> has emphasized the importance of religious zeal—expressed through jihad—as a primary motivation for the conquests of the Ottomans: “The ideal of gaza, holy war, was an important factor in the foundation and development of the Ottoman state. Society in the frontier principalities conformed to a particular cultural pattern imbued with the ideal of continuous Holy War and continuous expansion of the Dar ul Islam—the realms of Islam—until they covered the whole world.”<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is known as the <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaza Thesis">Gaza Thesis</a>, a now largely-criticised theory of early Ottoman expansion. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatolia_before_the_Ottomans">Anatolia before the Ottomans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Anatolia before the Ottomans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png/220px-Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png/330px-Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png/440px-Anatolian_Beyliks_in_1300.png 2x" data-file-width="952" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>A rough map of Anatolian beyliks in c. 1300</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manzikert" title="Battle of Manzikert">Battle of Manzikert</a> (1071) Anatolia was divided between two relatively powerful states: the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in the west and the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Anatolian Seljuks</a> in the central plateau. Equilibrium between them was disrupted by the Mongol invasion and conquest of the Seljuks following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_K%C3%B6se_Da%C4%9F" title="Battle of Köse Dağ">Battle of Köse Dağ</a> in 1243, and the reconquest of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> by the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Palaiologos" title="Palaiologos">Palaiologos</a> dynasty in 1261, which shifted Byzantine attention away from the Anatolian frontier. Mongol pressure pushed nomadic Turkish tribes to migrate westward, into the now poorly-defended Byzantine territory. For the next two centuries, Anatolian Beyliks were under the suzerainty of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a>. All coins minted during this period in Anatolia show <a href="/wiki/Ilkhan_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilkhan (title)">Ilkhanate rulers</a>. From the 1260s onward Anatolia increasingly began to slip from Byzantine control, as <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish</a> <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_beyliks" title="Anatolian beyliks">Anatolian beyliks</a> were established both in formerly Byzantine lands and in the territory of the fragmenting Seljuk Sultanate.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political authority in western Anatolia was thus extremely fragmented by the end of the thirteenth century, split between locally established rulers, tribal groups, holy figures, and warlords, with Byzantine and Seljuk authority ever present but rapidly weakening.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fragmentation of authority has led several historians to describe the political entities of thirteenth and fourteenth-century Anatolia as <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifas</a>, or "petty kings", a comparison with the history of late-medieval <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Spain">Muslim Spain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The power of these groups was largely dependent upon their ability to attract military manpower. Western Anatolia was then a hotbed of raiding activity, with warriors switching allegiance at will to whichever chief seemed most able to provide them with opportunities for plunder and glory.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_the_Ottoman_state">Origin of the Ottoman state</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin of the Ottoman state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> dynasty is named after the first ruler of the Ottoman polity, <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>. According to later Ottoman tradition, he was descended from a Turkic tribe which migrated out of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol Conquests">Mongol Conquests</a>. As evidenced by coins minted during his reign, Osman's father was named <a href="/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul" title="Ertuğrul">Ertuğrul</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but beyond this the details "are too mythological to be taken for granted."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The origin of the Ottoman dynasty isn't known for sure but it is known that it was established by Turks from <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, who migrated to Anatolia and were under Mongol suzerainty.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, nothing is known about how Osman first established his principality (<i>beylik</i>) as the sources, none of them contemporary, provide many different and conflicting origin stories. What is certain is that at some point in the late thirteenth century Osman emerged as the leader of a small principality centered on the town of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCt" title="Söğüt">Söğüt</a> in the north-western Anatolian region of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>. The emergence of Osman as a leader is marked by him issuing coins in his name, unlike his predecessors in the last two centuries who issued coins in the name of the Illkhanates.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osman's principality was initially supported by the tribal manpower of nomadic Turkish groups, whom he led in raids against the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> territories of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Ottoman tribe was based not on blood-ties, but on political expedience. Thus it was inclusive of all who wished to join, including people of Byzantine origin.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottoman enterprise came to be led by several great warrior families, including the family of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6se_Mihal" title="Köse Mihal">Köse Mihal</a>, which had a Greek Christian origin<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the family of <a href="/wiki/Hranislav" title="Hranislav">Hranislav</a>, which was Bulgarian. Islam and Persian culture were part of Ottoman self-identity from the start, as evidenced by a land grant issued by Osman's son <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a> in 1324, describing him as "Champion of the Faith".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gaza_and_gazis_in_early_Ottoman_history">Gaza and gazis in early Ottoman history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Gaza and gazis in early Ottoman history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaza Thesis">Gaza Thesis</a></div> <p>In 1938 the Austrian historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Wittek" title="Paul Wittek">Paul Wittek</a> published an influential work entitled <i>The Rise of the Ottoman Empire</i>, in which he put forth the argument that the early Ottoman state was constructed upon an ideology of Islamic holy war against non-Muslims. Such a war was known as <i>gaza</i>, and a warrior fighting in it was called a <a href="/wiki/Ghazi_(warrior)" title="Ghazi (warrior)"><i>gazi</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wittek's formulation, subsequently known as the "Gaza Thesis," was influential for much of the twentieth century, and led historians to portray the early Ottomans as zealous religious warriors dedicated to the spread of Islam. Beginning in the 1980s, historians increasingly criticized Wittek's thesis.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars now recognize that the terms <i>gaza</i> and <i>gazi</i> did not have strictly religious connotations for the early Ottomans, and were often used in a secular sense to simply refer to raids.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the early Ottomans were neither strict orthodox Muslims nor were they unwilling to cooperate with non-Muslims, and several of the companions of the first Ottoman rulers were either non-Muslims or recent converts.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of holy war existed during the fourteenth century, but it was only one of many factors influencing Ottoman behavior. It was only later, in the fifteenth century, that Ottoman writers retroactively began to portray the early Ottomans as zealous Islamic warriors, in order to provide a noble origin for their dynasty which, by then, had constructed an intercontinental Islamic empire.<sup id="cite_ref-gaza_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gaza-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demography">Demography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Demography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anatolia and the Balkans were greatly impacted by the arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> after 1347. Urban centers and settled regions were devastated, while nomadic groups suffered less of an impact. The first Ottoman incursions into the Balkans began shortly thereafter. Depopulation resulting from the plague was thus almost certainly a major factor in the success of early Ottoman expansion into the Balkans, and contributed to the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the depopulation of Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this early period, before the Ottomans were able to establish a centralized system of government in the middle of the fifteenth century, the rulers' powers were "far more circumscribed, and depended heavily upon coalitions of support and alliances reached" among various power-holders within the empire, including Turkic tribal leaders and Balkan allies and vassals.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Ottoman polity first emerged at the end of the thirteenth century under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a>, it had a tribal organization without a complex administrative apparatus. As Ottoman territory expanded, its rulers were faced with the challenge of administering an ever-larger population. Early on, the Ottomans adopted the <a href="/wiki/Seljuks_of_Rum" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuks of Rum">Seljuks of Rum</a> as models for administration and the Illkhanates as models for military warfare, and by 1324 were able to produce <a href="/wiki/Persian_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Language">Persian-language</a> bureaucratic documents in the Seljuk style.<sup id="cite_ref-Lowry72_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowry72-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Ottoman state's expansion was fueled by the military activity of frontier warriors (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: <i lang="tr">gazi</i>), of whom the Ottoman ruler was initially merely <i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">primus inter pares</a></i>. Much of the state's centralization was carried out in opposition to these frontier warriors, who resented Ottoman efforts to control them. Ultimately, the Ottomans managed to harness <i>gazi</i> military power while increasingly subordinating them.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early Ottomans were noteworthy for the low tax rates which they imposed on their subjects. This reflected both an ideological concern for the well-being of their subjects, and also a pragmatic need to earn the loyalty of newly conquered populations. In the fifteenth century, the Ottoman state became more centralized and the tax burden increased, prompting criticism from writers.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important factor in Ottoman success was their ability to preserve the empire across generations. Other Turkic groups frequently divided their realms between the sons of a deceased ruler. The Ottomans consistently kept the empire united under a single heir.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_centralization">State centralization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: State centralization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of centralization is closely connected with an influx of Muslim scholars from Central Anatolia, where a more urban and bureaucratic Turkish civilization had developed under the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Seljuks of Rum</a>. Particularly influential was the <a href="/wiki/%C3%87andarl%C4%B1_family" title="Çandarlı family">Çandarlı family</a>, which supplied several <a href="/wiki/Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Viziers">Grand Viziers</a> to the early Ottomans and influenced their institutional development. Some time after 1376, <a href="/wiki/%C3%87andarl%C4%B1_Halil_Pasha_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Elder">Kara Halil</a>, the head of the Çandarlı family, encouraged <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a> to institute a tax of one-fifth on slaves taken in war, known as the <i>pençik</i>. This gave the Ottoman rulers a source of manpower from which they could construct a new personal army, known as the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a> (<i>yeniçeri</i>). Such measures frustrated the <i>gazi</i>, who sustained Ottoman military conquests, and created lasting tensions within the state.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also during the reign of Murad I that the office of military judge (<i><a href="/wiki/Kazasker" title="Kazasker">Kazasker</a></i>) was created, indicating an increasing level of social stratification between the emerging military-administrative class (<i>askeri</i>) and the rest of society.<sup id="cite_ref-Kafadar142-3_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kafadar142-3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Murad I also instituted the practice of appointing specific frontier warriors as "Lords of the Frontier" (<i>uc begleri</i>). Such power of appointment indicates that the Ottoman rulers were no longer merely <i>primus inter pares</i>. As a way of openly declaring this new status, Murad became the first Ottoman ruler to adopt the title of <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kafadar142-3_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kafadar142-3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in the 1430s, but most likely earlier, the Ottomans conducted regular <a href="/wiki/Cadastral_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadastral survey">cadastral surveys</a> of the territory under their rule, producing record-books known as <a href="/wiki/Defter" title="Defter"><i>tahrir defter</i>s</a>. These surveys enabled the Ottoman state to organize the distribution of agricultural taxation rights to the military class of <a href="/wiki/Timariots" title="Timariots">timariots</a>, cavalrymen who collected revenue from the land in exchange for serving in the Ottoman army. Timariots came from diverse backgrounds. Some achieved their position as a reward for military service, while others were descended from the Byzantine aristocracy and simply continued to collect revenue from their old lands, now serving in the Ottoman army as well. Of the latter, many were converts to Islam, while others remained Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of great symbolic importance for Ottoman centralization was the practice of Ottoman rulers to stand upon hearing martial music, indicating their willingness to participate in <i>gaza</i>. Shortly after the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Constantinople">Conquest of Constantinople</a> in 1453, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> discontinued this practice, indicating that the Ottoman ruler was no longer a simple frontier warrior, but the sovereign of an empire.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire's capital shifted from <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a>, the city symbolically connected with the frontier warrior ethos of <i>gaza</i>, to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, a city with deeply imperial connotations due to its long history as the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. This was seen, both symbolically and practically, as the moment of the empire's definitive shift from a frontier principality into an empire.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Osman's army at the beginning of the fourteenth century consisted largely of mounted warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These he used in raids, ambushes, and hit-and-run attacks, allowing him to control the countryside of Bithynia. However, he initially lacked the means to conduct sieges. <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a>, the first major town conquered by the Ottomans, surrendered under threat of starvation following a long blockade rather than from an assault. It was under <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a> (r. 1323/4-1362) and <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a> (r. 1362-1389) that the Ottomans mastered the techniques of siege warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The warriors in Osman's service came from diverse backgrounds. Known variously as <i>gazi</i>s<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <span title="Turkish-language text"><i lang="tr">akıncıs</i></span> (raiders), they were attracted to his success and joined out of a desire to win plunder and glory. Most of Osman's early followers were Muslim Turks of tribal origin, while others were of Byzantine origin, either Christians or recent converts to Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-gaza_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gaza-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ottomans began employing gunpowder weapons in the 1380s at the latest. By the 1420s they were regularly using cannons in siege warfare. Cannons were also used for fortress defense, and shore batteries allowed the Ottomans to bypass a Crusader blockade of the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a> in 1444. By that time, handheld firearms had also come into use, and were adopted by some of the <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">janissaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_and_intellectual_life">Cultural and intellectual life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cultural and intellectual life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the early fifteenth century, the Ottoman court was actively fostering literary output, much of it borrowing from the longstanding literary tradition of other Islamic courts further east. The first extant account of Ottoman history ever written was produced by the poet Ahmedi, originally meant to be presented to Sultan <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> but, following the latter's death in 1402, written for his son <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_%C3%87elebi" title="Süleyman Çelebi">Süleyman Çelebi</a> instead.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work, entitled the <i><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skendern%C4%81me" class="mw-redirect" title="İskendernāme">İskendernāme</a>,</i> ("The Book of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>") was part of a genre known as "mirror for princes" (<a href="/wiki/Nasihatname" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasihatname"><i>naṣīḥatnāme</i></a>), meant to provide advice and guidance to the ruler with regard to statecraft. Thus rather than providing a factual account of the dynasty's history, Ahmedi's goal was to indirectly criticize the sultan by depicting his ancestors as model rulers, in contrast to the perceived deviance of Bayezid. Specifically, Ahmedi took issue with Bayezid's military campaigns against fellow Muslims in Anatolia, and thus depicted his ancestors as totally devoted to holy war against the Christian states of the Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_history">Political history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Osman_I_(c._1299–1323/4)"><span id="Osman_I_.28c._1299.E2.80.931323.2F4.29"></span>Osman I (c. 1299–1323/4)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Osman I (c. 1299–1323/4)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osman_I_area_map.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Osman_I_area_map.PNG/300px-Osman_I_area_map.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Osman_I_area_map.PNG/450px-Osman_I_area_map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Osman_I_area_map.PNG/600px-Osman_I_area_map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>An estimation of the territory under the control of Osman.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Osman_I" title="Osman I">Osman I</a></div> <p>Osman's origins are extremely obscure, and almost nothing is known about his career before the beginning of the fourteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The date of 1299 is frequently given as the beginning of his reign, however this date does not correspond with any historical event, and is purely symbolic.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1300 he had become the leader of a group of Turkish pastoral tribes, through which he ruled over a small territory around the town of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B6%C4%9F%C3%BCt" title="Söğüt">Söğüt</a> in the north-western Anatolian region of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>. He led frequent raids against the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Success attracted warriors to his following, particularly after his victory over a Byzantine army in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bapheus" title="Battle of Bapheus">Battle of Bapheus</a> in 1301 or 1302.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osman's military activity was largely limited to raiding because, by the time of his death, in 1323-4, the Ottomans had not yet developed effective techniques for siege warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although he is famous for his raids against the Byzantines, Osman also had many military confrontations with <a href="/wiki/Tatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatar">Tatar</a> groups and with the neighboring principality of <a href="/wiki/Germiyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Germiyan">Germiyan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Osman was adept at forging political and commercial relationships with nearby groups, Muslim as well as Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early on, he attracted several notable figures to his side, including Köse Mihal, a Byzantine village headman whose descendants (known as the Mihaloğulları) enjoyed primacy among the frontier warriors in Ottoman service. Köse Mihal was noteworthy for having been a Christian Greek; while he eventually converted to Islam, his prominent historical role indicates Osman's willingness to cooperate with non-Muslims and to incorporate them in his political enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Osman I strengthened his legitimacy by marrying the daughter of Sheikh Edebali, a prominent local religious leader who was said to have been at the head of a community of <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervishes</a> on the frontier. Later Ottoman writers embellished this event by depicting Osman as having experienced a dream while staying with Edebali, in which it was foretold that his descendants would rule over a vast empire.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orhan_(1323/4–1362)"><span id="Orhan_.281323.2F4.E2.80.931362.29"></span>Orhan (1323/4–1362)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Orhan (1323/4–1362)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelekanon" title="Battle of Pelekanon">Battle of Pelekanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nicaea_(1328%E2%80%931331)" title="Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331)">Siege of Nicaea (1328–1331)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nicomedia" title="Siege of Nicomedia">Siege of Nicomedia</a></div> <p>Upon Osman's death his son <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a> succeeded him as leader of the Ottomans. Orhan oversaw the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a>'s major towns, as <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> (Prusa) was conquered in 1326 and the rest of the region's towns fell shortly thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already by 1324, the Ottomans were making use of Seljuk bureaucratic practices,<sup id="cite_ref-Lowry72_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowry72-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had developed the capacity to mint coins and utilize siege tactics. It was under Orhan that the Ottomans began to attract Islamic scholars from the east to act as administrators and judges, and the first <a href="/wiki/Medrese" class="mw-redirect" title="Medrese">medrese</a> (University) was established in Iznik in 1331.<sup id="cite_ref-Kafadar16_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kafadar16-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to fighting the Byzantines, Orhan also conquered the Turkish principality of <a href="/wiki/Karesi" class="mw-redirect" title="Karesi">Karesi</a> in 1345-6, thus placing all potential crossing points to Europe in Ottoman hands.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experienced Karesi warriors were incorporated into the Ottoman military, and were a valuable asset in subsequent campaigns into the Balkans.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orhan married Theodora, the daughter of Byzantine prince <a href="/wiki/John_VI_Cantacuzenus" class="mw-redirect" title="John VI Cantacuzenus">John VI Cantacuzenus</a>. In 1346 Orhan openly supported John VI in the overthrowing of the emperor <a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaeologus" class="mw-redirect" title="John V Palaeologus">John V Palaeologus</a>. When John VI became co-emperor (1347–1354) he allowed Orhan to raid the peninsula of <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a> in 1352, after which the Ottomans gained their first permanent stronghold in Europe at <a href="/wiki/%C3%87impe_Castle" title="Çimpe Castle">Çimpe Castle</a> in 1354. <a href="/wiki/Orhan" title="Orhan">Orhan</a> decided to pursue war against Europe, Anatolian Turks were settled in and around <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a> to secure it as a springboard for military operations in <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> against the Byzantines and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a>. Most of <a href="/wiki/East_Thrace" title="East Thrace">eastern Thrace</a> was overrun by Ottoman forces within a decade and was permanently brought under Orhan's control by means of heavy colonization. The initial Thracian conquests placed the Ottomans strategically astride all of the major overland communication routes linking Constantinople to the Balkan frontiers, facilitating their expanded military operations. ln addition, control of the highways in Thrace isolated Byzantium from direct overland contact with any of its potential allies in the Balkans and in Western Europe. Byzantine <a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">Emperor John V</a> was forced to sign an unfavorable treaty with Orhan in 1356 that recognized his Thracian losses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For the next 50 years, the Ottomans went on to conquer vast territories in the Balkans, reaching as far north as modern-day <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>. </p><p>In taking control over the passageways to Europe, the Ottomans gained a significant advantage over their rival Turkish principalities in Anatolia, as they now could gain immense prestige and wealth from conquests carried out on the Balkan frontier.<sup id="cite_ref-Kafadar16_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kafadar16-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Murad_I_(1362–1389)"><span id="Murad_I_.281362.E2.80.931389.29"></span>Murad I (1362–1389)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Murad I (1362–1389)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soon after Orhan's death in 1362, <a href="/wiki/Murad_I" title="Murad I">Murad I</a> became Sultan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Edirne,_1362"><span id="Edirne.2C_1362"></span>Edirne, 1362</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Edirne, 1362"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Adrianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Adrianople">Conquest of Adrianople</a></div> <p>Murad's first major offensive was the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_capture_of_Adrianople" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman capture of Adrianople">conquest</a> of the Byzantine city of Adrianople in 1362. He renamed it to <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a> and made it his new capital in 1363.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This is a government website, not something published by a professional historian. (September 2016)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By transferring his capital from Bursa in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> to that newly won city in <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, Murad signaled his intentions to continue Ottoman expansion in Southeast Europe. Before the conquest of Edirne, most Christian Europeans regarded the Ottoman presence in Thrace as merely the latest unpleasant episode in a long string of chaotic events in the Balkans. After Murad I designated Edirne as his capital, they realized that the Ottomans intended to remain in Europe. </p><p>The Balkan states of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbia</a> were frightened by Ottoman conquests in Thrace, and were ill-prepared to deal with the threat. Byzantine territory was reduced and fragmented. It consisted mostly of the capital, Constantinople and its Thracian environs, the city of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> and its immediate surroundings, and the Despotate of the Morea in the Peloponnese. Contact between Constantinople and the two other regions was only feasible via a tenuous sea route through the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a>, kept open by the Italian maritime powers of Venice and Genoa. The weakened Byzantine Empire no longer possessed the resources to defeat Murad on its own. Concerted action on the part of the Byzantines, often divided by civil war, was impossible. The survival of Constantinople itself depended on its legendary defensive walls, the lack of an Ottoman navy, and the willingness of Murad to honor provisions in the 1356 treaty, which permitted the city to be provisioned. </p><p>Bulgaria under <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Alexander_of_Bulgaria" title="Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria">Tsar Ivan Aleksandar</a> was expanding and prosperous. However, at the end of his rule, the Bulgarian Tsar made the fatal mistake to divide the Second Bulgarian Empire into three appanages held by his sons. Bulgaria's cohesion was shattered further in the 1350s by a rivalry between the holder of <a href="/wiki/Vidin" title="Vidin">Vidin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sratsimir_of_Bulgaria" title="Ivan Sratsimir of Bulgaria">Ivan Sratsimir</a>, Ivan Aleksandar's sole surviving son by his first wife, and <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Shishman_of_Bulgaria" title="Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria">Ivan Shishman</a>, the product of Aleksandar's second marriage and the <i>tsar's</i> designated successor. In addition to internal problems, Bulgaria was further crippled by a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungarian</a> attack. In 1365 <a href="/wiki/Louis_I_of_Hungary" title="Louis I of Hungary">Hungarian King Louis I</a> invaded and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_occupation_of_Vidin" title="Hungarian occupation of Vidin">seized Vidin province</a>, whose ruler Ivan Sratsimir was taken captive. Despite the concurrent loss of most Bulgarian Thracian holdings to Murad, Ivan Aleksandar became fixated on the Hungarians in Vidin. He formed a coalition against them with the Bulgarian ruler of Dobrudja <a href="/wiki/Dobrotitsa" title="Dobrotitsa">Dobrotitsa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladislav_I_of_Wallachia" title="Vladislav I of Wallachia">Voievod Vladislav I Vlaicu of Wallachia</a>. Although the Hungarians were repulsed and Ivan Sratsimir restored to his throne, Bulgaria emerged more intensely divided. Ivan Sratsimir proclaimed himself tsar of an "Empire" of Vidin in 1370, and Dobrotitsa received de facto recognition as independent despot in <a href="/wiki/Dobrudzha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dobrudzha">Dobrudzha</a>. Bulgaria's efforts were squandered to little domestic purpose and against the wrong enemy. </p><p>Given Serbia's preeminence in the Balkans under <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Uro%C5%A1_IV_Du%C5%A1an_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia">Tsar Stefan Dušan</a>, its rapid dissolution following his death in 1355 was dramatic. The powerful regional Serb nobles demonstrated little respect for his successor, <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Uro%C5%A1_V_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan Uroš V of Serbia">Stefan Uroš V</a>. Young, weak <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Uro%C5%A1_V_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan Uroš V of Serbia">Uroš</a> was incapable of ruling as his father had. The separatist-minded <i>bojars</i> were quick to take advantage of the situation, and <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbia</a> fragmented. </p><p>First to throw off Serbian control were the Greek provinces of <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epiros" class="mw-redirect" title="Despotate of Epiros">Epiros</a> as well as Dušan's former Albanian holdings. A series of small independent principalities arose in western and southern <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a>, while the Hungarians encroached deeper into Serb lands in the north. Uros held only the core Serbian lands, whose nobles, although more powerful than their prince, generally remained loyal. These core lands consisted of: The western lands, including <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> (<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Zeta" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Zeta">Zeta</a>); the southern lands, held by <a href="/wiki/Jovan_Uglje%C5%A1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Jovan Uglješa">Jovan Uglješa</a> in Serres, encompassing all of eastern Macedonia; and the central Serbian lands, stretching from the Danube south into central Macedonia, co-ruled by Uroš and the powerful noble Vukasin Mrnjavcevic, who held <a href="/wiki/Prilep" title="Prilep">Prilep</a> in Macedonia. Far from preserving Serb unity, Uroš's loosely amalgamated domains were wracked by constant civil war among the regional nobles, leaving Serbia vulnerable to the rising Ottoman threat. Murad I did rise to the power of the Ottoman Empire in 1362. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gallipoli,_1366"><span id="Gallipoli.2C_1366"></span>Gallipoli, 1366</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gallipoli, 1366"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reconquest_of_Gallipoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconquest of Gallipoli">Reconquest of Gallipoli</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>By 1370 Murad controlled most of <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, bringing him into direct contact with Bulgaria and the southeastern Serbian lands ruled by Uglješa. Uglješa, the most powerful Serb regional ruler, unsuccessfully attempted to forge an anti-Ottoman alliance of Balkan states in 1371. Byzantium, vulnerable to the Turks because of its food supply situation, refused to cooperate. Bulgaria, following Ivan Aleksandar's death early that year, lay officially divided into the "Empire" of Vidin, ruled by Stratsimir (1370–96), and Aleksandar's direct successor <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Shishman_of_Bulgaria" title="Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria">Tsar Ivan Shishman</a> (1371–95), who ruled central Bulgaria from <a href="/wiki/Veliko_Tarnovo" title="Veliko Tarnovo">Turnovo</a>. Young, his hold on the throne unsteady, threatened by Stratsimir, and probably pressured by the Turks, Shishman could not afford to participate in Uglješa's scheme. Of the regional Serb <i>bojars</i>, only <a href="/wiki/Vuka%C5%A1in_Mrnjav%C4%8Devi%C4%87" class="mw-redirect" title="Vukašin Mrnjavčević">Vukašin</a>, protector of Uroš and Uglješa's brother, joined in the effort. The others either failed to recognize the Ottoman danger or refused to participate lest competitors attacked while they were in the field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maritsa,_1371"><span id="Maritsa.2C_1371"></span>Maritsa, 1371</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Maritsa, 1371"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maritsa" title="Battle of Maritsa">Battle of Maritsa</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bulgaria-1371.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bulgaria-1371.jpg/200px-Bulgaria-1371.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bulgaria-1371.jpg/300px-Bulgaria-1371.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Bulgaria-1371.jpg/400px-Bulgaria-1371.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>The Ottoman advance after the Battle of Maritsa</figcaption></figure> <p>The Battle of Maritsa took place at the <a href="/wiki/Maritsa_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritsa River">Maritsa River</a> near the village of <a href="/wiki/Ormenio" title="Ormenio">Chernomen</a> on September 26, 1371 with sultan Murad's lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Lala_Shahin_Pasha" title="Lala Shahin Pasha">Lala Shahin Pasha</a> and the Serbs numbering some 70,000 men under the command of the Serbian king of Prilep Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his brother despot Uglješa. Despot Uglješa wanted to make a surprise attack in their capital city, Edirne, while Murad I was in Asia Minor. The Ottoman army was much smaller, but due to superior tactics (night raid on the allied camp), Şâhin Paşa was able to defeat the Christian army and kill King Vukašin and despot Uglješa. Macedonia and parts of Greece fell under Ottoman power after this battle. Both Uglješa and Vukašin perished in the carnage. So overwhelming was the Ottoman victory that the Turks referred to the battle as the Rout (or Destruction) of the Serbs. </p><p>What little unity Serbia possessed collapsed after the catastrophe at Ormenion (Chernomen). Uroš died before the year was out, ending the <a href="/wiki/Nemanji%C4%87_dynasty" title="Nemanjić dynasty">Nemanjić dynasty</a>, and large areas of central Serbia broke away as independent principalities, reducing it to half of its former size. No future ruler ever again officially held the office of <i>car</i>, and no single <i>bojar</i> enjoyed enough power or respect to gain recognition as a unifying leader. Vukasin's son, Marko, survived the slaughter and proclaimed himself Serbian "king" (<i>kralj</i>) but was unable to enforce his claim beyond his lands around <a href="/wiki/Prilep" title="Prilep">Prilep</a>, in central Macedonia. Serbia slipped into accelerated fragmentation and internecine warfare among the proliferating regional princes. </p><p>In the aftermath of the Ormenion battle, Ottoman raids into Serbia and Bulgaria intensified. The enormity of the victory and the incessant raids into his lands convinced Turnovo Bulgarian Tsar Shishman of the necessity for coming to terms with the Ottomans. By 1376 at the latest, Shishman accepted vassal status under Murad and sent his sister as the sultan's "wife" to the harem at Edirne. The arrangement did not prevent Ottoman raiders from continuing to plunder inside Shishman's borders. As for Byzantium, Emperor John V definitively accepted Ottoman vassalage soon after the battle, opening the door to Murad's direct interference in Byzantine domestic politics. </p><p>The Bulgarians and Serbs enjoyed a brief respite during the 1370s and into the 1380s when matters in Anatolia and increased meddling in Byzantium's political affairs kept Murad preoccupied. In Serbia, the lull permitted the northern Serb ‘’bojar’’ Prince <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Hrebeljanovic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lazar Hrebeljanovic">Lazar Hrebeljanovic</a> (1371-89), with the support of powerful Bulgarian and Montenegrin nobles and the backing of the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Pec, to consolidate control over much of the core Serbian lands. Most of the Serb regional rulers in Macedonia, including Marko, accepted vassalage under Murad to preserve their positions, and many of them led Serb forces in the sultan's army operating in Anatolia against his Turkish rivals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dubravnica,_1381"><span id="Dubravnica.2C_1381"></span>Dubravnica, 1381</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Dubravnica, 1381"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dubravnica" title="Battle of Dubravnica">Battle of Dubravnica</a></div> <p>By the mid-1380s Murad's attention once again focused on the Balkans. With his Bulgarian vassal Shishman preoccupied by a war with Wallachian Voievod <a href="/wiki/Dan_I_of_Wallachia" title="Dan I of Wallachia">Dan I of Wallachia</a> (ca. 1383-86), in 1385 Murad took <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a>, the last remaining Bulgarian possession south of the Balkan Mountains, opening the way toward strategically located <a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1" title="Niš">Niš</a>, the northern terminus of the important <a href="/wiki/Vardar" title="Vardar">Vardar</a>-Morava highway. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saurian_Field,_1385"><span id="Saurian_Field.2C_1385"></span>Saurian Field, 1385</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Saurian Field, 1385"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Savra" title="Battle of Savra">Battle of Savra</a></div> <p>Savra field battle was fought on 18 September 1385 between Ottoman and Serbian forces. The Ottomans were victorious and most of the local Serbian and Albanian lords became vassals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plocnik,_1386"><span id="Plocnik.2C_1386"></span>Plocnik, 1386</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Plocnik, 1386"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plocnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Plocnik">Battle of Plocnik</a></div> <p>Murad captured Niš in 1386, perhaps forcing Lazar of Serbia to accept Ottoman vassalage soon afterward. While he pushed deeper into the north—central Balkans, Murad also had forces moving west along the ‘’Via Ingatia’’ into Macedonia, forcing vassal status on regional rulers who until that time had escaped that fate. One contingent reached the Albanian Adriatic coast in 1385. Another took and occupied Thessaloniki in 1387. The danger to the continued independence of the Balkan Christian states grew alarmingly apparent. </p><p>When Anatolian affairs forced Murad to leave the Balkans in 1387, his Serbian and Bulgarian vassals attempted to sever their ties to him. Lazar formed a coalition with Tvrtko I of Bosnia and Stratsimir of Vidin. After he refused an Ottoman demand that he live up to his vassal obligations, troops were dispatched against him. Lazar and Tvrtko met the Turks and defeated them at Plocnik, west of Niš. The victory by his fellow Christian princes encouraged Shishman to shed Ottoman vassalage and reassert Bulgarian independence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bileća,_1388"><span id="Bile.C4.87a.2C_1388"></span>Bileća, 1388</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bileća, 1388"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bile%C4%87a" title="Battle of Bileća">Battle of Bileća</a></div> <p>Murad returned from Anatolia in 1388 and launched a lightning campaign against the Bulgarian rulers Shishman and Sratsimir, who swiftly were forced into vassal submission. He then demanded that Lazar proclaim his vassalage and pay tribute. Confident because of the victory at Plocnik, the Serbian prince refused and turned to Tvrtko of Bosnia and Vuk Brankovic, his son-in-law and independent ruler of northern Macedonia and Kosovo, for aid against the certain Ottoman retaliatory offensive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kosovo,_1389"><span id="Kosovo.2C_1389"></span>Kosovo, 1389</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Kosovo, 1389"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Kosovo,_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87,_1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Battle_of_Kosovo%2C_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87%2C_1870.jpg/200px-Battle_of_Kosovo%2C_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87%2C_1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Battle_of_Kosovo%2C_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87%2C_1870.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Kosovo%2C_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87%2C_1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Battle_of_Kosovo%2C_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87%2C_1870.jpg/400px-Battle_of_Kosovo%2C_Adam_Stefanovi%C4%87%2C_1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1255" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Battle on Kosovo, by Adam Stefanovic, 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>On <a href="/wiki/Vidovdan" title="Vidovdan">St. Vitus' Day</a>, June 15, 1389, the Ottoman army, personally commanded by Sultan Murad, fought the Serbian army led by <a href="/wiki/Serbia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Serbia in the Middle Ages">Serbian</a> Prince <a href="/wiki/Lazar_of_Serbia" title="Lazar of Serbia">Lazar Hrebeljanović</a>, which also included contingents led by <a href="/wiki/Vuk_Brankovi%C4%87" title="Vuk Branković">Vuk Branković</a>, and a contingent sent from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Bosnia</a> by King <a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Tvrtko I">Tvrtko I</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Vlatko_Vukovi%C4%87" title="Vlatko Vuković">Vlatko Vuković</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine-1994-409-11_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine-1994-409-11-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of army sizes vary, with the Ottomans having greater numbers (27,000–40,000) than the Orthodox army (12,000–30,000). The battle resulted in a draw.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both armies were mostly wiped out. Both Lazar and Murad lost their lives. Although the Ottomans managed to annihilate the Serbian army, they also suffered high casualties which delayed their progress. The Serbs were left with too few men to effectively defend their lands, while the Turks had many more troops in the east. Consequently, one after the other, the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals became so in the following years.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine-1994-409-11_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine-1994-409-11-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Battle of Kosovo is particularly important to modern Serbian history, tradition, and national identity.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lazar's young and weak successor <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Lazarevi%C4%87" title="Stefan Lazarević">Stefan Lazarević</a> (1389–1427) concluded a vassal agreement with Bayezid in 1390 to counter Hungarian moves into northern Serbia, while Vuk Branković, the last independent Serb prince, held out until 1392. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bayezid_I_(1389–1402)"><span id="Bayezid_I_.281389.E2.80.931402.29"></span>Bayezid I (1389–1402)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bayezid I (1389–1402)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: the Sultan's personal information <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> (often given the epithet <i>Yıldırım</i>, "the Thunderbolt") succeeded to the sultanship upon the assassination of his father Murad. In a rage over the attack, he ordered all Serbian captives killed; Beyazid became known as <i>Yıldırım</i>, the lightning bolt, for the speed with which his empire expanded.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Bayezid, "the Thunderbolt", lost little time in expanding Ottoman Balkan conquests. He followed up on his victory by raiding throughout Serbia and southern Albania, forcing most of the local princes into vassalage. Both to secure the southern stretch of the Vardar-Morava highway and to establish a firm base for permanent expansion westward to the Adriatic coast, Bayezid settled large numbers of ‘’yürüks’’ along the Vardar River valley in Macedonia. </p><p>The appearance of Turk raiders at Hungary's southern borders awakened the Hungarian <a href="/wiki/King_Sigismund" class="mw-redirect" title="King Sigismund">King Sigismund</a> of Luxemburg (1387–1437) to the danger that the Ottomans posed to his kingdom, and he sought out Balkan allies for a new anti-Ottoman coalition. </p><p>By early 1393 Turnovo Bulgaria's Ivan Shishman, hoping to throw off his onerous vassalage, was in secret negotiations with Sigismund, along with Wallachian Voievod <a href="/wiki/Mircea_the_Old" class="mw-redirect" title="Mircea the Old">Mircea the Old</a> (1386–1418) and, possibly, <a href="/wiki/Vidin" title="Vidin">Vidin</a>'s Ivan Sratsimir. Bayezid got wind of the talks and launched a devastating campaign against Shishman. Turnovo was captured after a <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tarnovo" title="Siege of Tarnovo">lengthy siege</a>, and Shishman fled to <a href="/wiki/Nikopol,_Bulgaria" title="Nikopol, Bulgaria">Nikopol</a>. When that town fell to Bayezid, Shishman was captured and beheaded. All his lands were annexed by the sultan, and Sratsimir, whose Vidin holdings had escaped Bayezid's wrath, was forced to reaffirm his vassalage. </p><p>Having dealt harshly and effectively with his disloyal Bulgarian vassals, Bayezid then turned his attention south to Thessaly and the Morea, whose Greek lords had accepted Ottoman vassalage in the 1380s. Their incessant bickering among themselves, especially those of the Greek Morean magnates, required Bayezid's intervention. He summoned a meeting of all his Balkan vassals at <a href="/wiki/Serres" title="Serres">Serres</a> in 1394 to settle these and other outstanding matters. Among the sultan's attending vassals were the Thessalian and Morean nobles, Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a> (1391–1425), and Serbian Prince Lazarevic. At the meeting, Bayezid acquired possession of all disputed territories, and all of the attendees were required to reaffirm their vassal status. </p><p>When the Moreans later reneged on their Serres agreement with Bayezid, the angered Ottoman ruler blockaded the Morean despot's imperial brother Manuel II in Constantinople and then marched southward and annexed Thessaly. The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Athens" title="Duchy of Athens">Duchy of Athens</a> accepted Ottoman overlordship when Turkish forces appeared on its border. Although a massive Ottoman punitive raid into the Peloponnese in 1395 netted much booty, events in the Balkans’ northeast saved Morea from further direct attack at the time. </p><p>While Bayezid was occupied in Greece, Mircea of Wallachia conducted a series of raids across the Danube into Ottoman territory. In retaliation, Bayezid's forces, which included Serb vassal troops led by Lazarevic and Kralj Marko, struck into Wallachia in 1395 but were defeated at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovine" title="Battle of Rovine">Rovine</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> where Marko was killed. The victory saved Wallachia from Turkish occupation, but Mircea accepted vassalage under Bayezid to avert further Ottoman intervention.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The sultan took consolation for his less than victorious efforts in annexing <a href="/wiki/Dobrudzha" class="mw-redirect" title="Dobrudzha">Dobrudzha</a> and in supporting a pretender, Vlad I (1395–97), to the Wallachian throne. Two years of civil war ensued before Mircea regained complete control of the principality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nicopolis">Nicopolis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nicopolis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg/200px-Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg/300px-Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg/400px-Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1549" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a> (1396)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1396 Hungarian King Sigismund finally pulled together a crusade against the Ottomans. The crusader army was composed primarily of Hungarian and French knights, but included some Wallachian troops. Though nominally led by Sigismund, it lacked command cohesion. The crusaders crossed the Danube, marched through Vidin, and arrived at Nikopol, where they met the Turks. The headstrong French knights refused to follow Sigismund's battle plans, resulting in their <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">crushing defeat</a>. Because Sratsimir had permitted the crusaders to pass through Vidin, Bayezid invaded his lands, took him prisoner, and annexed his territories. With Vidin's fall, Bulgaria ceased to exist, becoming the first major Balkan Christian state to disappear completely by direct Ottoman conquest. </p><p>Following Nikopol, Bayezid contented himself with raiding Hungary, Wallachia, and Bosnia. He conquered most of Albania and forced the remaining northern Albanian lords into vassalage. A new, halfhearted siege of Constantinople was undertaken but lifted in 1397 after Emperor Manuel II, Bayezid's vassal, agreed that the sultan should confirm all future Byzantine emperors. Soon thereafter Bayezid was called back to Anatolia to deal with continuing problems with the Ottomans’ Turkish rivals and never returned to the Balkans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ankara,_1402"><span id="Ankara.2C_1402"></span>Ankara, 1402</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ankara, 1402"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg/200px-Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg/300px-Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg/400px-Chlebowski-Bajazyt_w_niewoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="980" /></a><figcaption>Painting by Stanisław Chlebowski, <i>Sultan Bayezid prisoned by Timur</i>, 1878, depicting the capture of <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid</a> by Timur.</figcaption></figure> <p>Bayezid took with him an army composed primarily of Balkan vassal troops, including Serbs led by Lazarevic. He soon faced an invasion of Anatolia by the Central Asian ruler Timur Lenk. Around 1400, Timur entered the Middle East. Timur Lenk pillaged a few villages in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Anatolia">eastern Anatolia</a> and commenced the conflict with the Ottoman Empire. In August, 1400, Timur and his horde burned the town of Sivas to the ground and advanced into the mainland. Their armies met outside of Ankara, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">Battle of Ankara</a>, in 1402. The Ottomans were routed and Bayezid was taken prisoner, later dying in captivity. A civil war, lasting from 1402 to 1413, broke out among Bayezid's surviving sons. Known in Ottoman history as the Interregnum, that struggle temporarily halted active Ottoman expansion in the Balkans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Interregnum_(1402–1413)"><span id="Ottoman_Interregnum_.281402.E2.80.931413.29"></span>Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the defeat at <a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a> followed a time of total chaos in the Empire. Mongols roamed free in Anatolia and the political power of the sultan was broken. After Beyazid was captured, his remaining sons, Suleiman Çelebi, İsa Çelebi, Mehmed Çelebi, and <a href="/wiki/Musa_%C3%87elebi" title="Musa Çelebi">Musa Çelebi</a> fought each other in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Ottoman Interregnum</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Ottoman Interregnum</a> brought a brief period of semi-independence to the vassal Christian Balkan states. Suleyman, one of the late sultan's sons, held the Ottoman capital at Edirne and proclaimed himself ruler, but his brothers refused to recognize him. He then concluded alliances with <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, to which <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> was returned, and with Venice in 1403 to bolster his position. Suleyman's imperious character, however, turned his Balkan vassals against him. In 1410 he was defeated and killed by his brother Musa, who won the Ottoman Balkans with the support of Byzantine Emperor Manuel II, Serbian Despot Stefan Lazarevic, Wallachian Voievod Mircea, and the two last Bulgarian rulers’ sons. Musa then was confronted for sole control of the Ottoman throne by his younger brother Mehmed, who had freed himself of <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongol</a> vassalage and held Ottoman Anatolia. </p><p>Concerned over the growing independence of his Balkan Christian vassals, Musa turned on them. Unfortunately, he alienated the Islamic bureaucratic and commercial classes in his Balkan lands by continually favoring the lower social elements to gain wide popular support. Alarmed, the Balkan Christian vassal rulers turned to Mehmed, as did the chief Ottoman military, religious, and commercial leaders. In 1412 Mehmed invaded the Balkans, took Sofia and Nis, and joined forces with Lazarevicys Serbs. In the following year, Mehmed decisively defeated Musa outside of Sofia. Musa was killed, and <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a> (1413–21) emerged as the sole ruler of a reunited Ottoman state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mehmed_I_(1413–1421)"><span id="Mehmed_I_.281413.E2.80.931421.29"></span>Mehmed I (1413–1421)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Mehmed I (1413–1421)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>When Mehmed Çelebi stood as victor in 1413 he crowned himself in <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a> (Adrianople) as <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I">Mehmed I</a>. His was the duty to restore the Ottoman Empire to its former glory. The Empire had suffered hard from the interregnum; the Mongols were still at large in the east, even though <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> had died in 1405; many of the Christian kingdoms of the Balkans had broken free of Ottoman control; and the land, especially Anatolia, had suffered hard from the war. </p><p>Mehmed moved the capital from <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a> to Adrianople. He faced a delicate political situation in the Balkans. His <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Serbian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachian</a>, and Byzantine vassals were virtually independent. The Albanian tribes were uniting into a single state, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Bosnia</a> remained completely independent, as did <a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a> retained territorial ambitions in the Balkans, and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> held numerous Balkan coastal possessions. Prior to Bayezid's death, Ottoman control of the Balkans appeared a certainty. At the end of the interregnum, that certainty seemed open to question. </p><p>Mehmed generally resorted to diplomacy rather than militancy in dealing with the situation. While he did conduct raiding expeditions into neighboring European lands, which returned much of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ottoman_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ottoman Albania">Albania</a> to Ottoman control and forced Bosnian King-Ban <a href="/wiki/Tvrtko_II_of_Bosnia" title="Tvrtko II of Bosnia">Tvrtko II Kotromanić</a> (1404–09, 1421–45), along with many Bosnian regional nobles, to accept formal Ottoman vassalage, Mehmed conducted only one actual war with the Europeans — a short and indecisive conflict with Venice. </p><p>The new sultan had grave domestic problems. Musa's former policies sparked discontent among the Ottoman Balkans’ lower classes. In 1416 a popular revolt of Muslims and Christians broke out in <a href="/wiki/Dobruja" title="Dobruja">Dobruja</a>, led by Musa's former confidant, the scholar-mystic <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eeyh_Bedreddin" class="mw-redirect" title="Şeyh Bedreddin">Şeyh Bedreddin</a>, and supported by Wallachian voivode <a href="/wiki/Mircea_I_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mircea I of Wallachia">Mircea I</a>. Bedreddin preached such concepts as merging Islam, Christianity, and Judaism into a single faith and the social betterment of free peasants and nomads at the expense of the Ottoman bureaucratic and professional classes. Mehmed crushed the revolt and Bedreddin died. Mircea then occupied Dobruja, but Mehmed wrested the region back in 1419, capturing the Danubian fort of Giurgiu and forcing <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> back into vassalage. </p><p>Mehmed spent the rest of his reign reorganizing Ottoman state structures disrupted by the interregnum. When Mehmed died in 1421, one of his sons, <a href="/wiki/Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad</a>, became sultan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Murad_II_(1421–1451)"><span id="Murad_II_.281421.E2.80.931451.29"></span>Murad II (1421–1451)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Murad II (1421–1451)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Murad_II" title="Murad II">Murad II</a> spent his early years on the throne disposing of rivals and rebellions, most notably the revolts of the <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a>. He also had problems at home. He subdued the rebels of his uncle <a href="/wiki/Mustafa_%C3%87elebi" title="Mustafa Çelebi">Mustafa Çelebi</a> and brother <a href="/wiki/K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk_Mustafa" title="Küçük Mustafa">Küçük Mustafa</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constantinople,_1422"><span id="Constantinople.2C_1422"></span>Constantinople, 1422</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Constantinople, 1422"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1422)" title="Siege of Constantinople (1422)">Siege of Constantinople (1422)</a></div> <p>In 1422, Murad II laid siege to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> for several months and lifted it only after forcing the Byzantine emperor, <a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a> to pay additional tribute. </p><p>In 1422 the first regular war against <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> began with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Thessalonica (1422–30)">Siege of Thessalonica (1422–30)</a>. Byzantine involvement in the war ended with the transfer of the city to the <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Venetian Republic">Venetian Republic</a> in 1423, which ended Murad's siege of Constantinople. Thessalonica continued to be under siege until 1430, with the Turkish sack of the city. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thessalonika,_1430"><span id="Thessalonika.2C_1430"></span>Thessalonika, 1430</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Thessalonika, 1430"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%931430)" title="Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)">Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)</a></div> <p>On the request of its inhabitants, Venetian troops took control of the city of Salonika (<a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>). The Ottoman army that laid siege to the city knew nothing of the transfer of power, and a number of Venetian soldiers were killed by Ottoman troops, believing them to be Greeks. Murad II had been on peaceful terms with Venice, so the Venetians deemed the act unacceptable and declared full war. </p><p>Murad acted swiftly, besieging Constantinople and sending his armies to Salonika. The Venetians had gained reinforcements by sea but, when the Ottomans stormed the city, the outcome was forgone and the Venetians fled to their ships. But when the Turks entered and began plundering the city, the Venetian fleet started bombarding the city from the sea-side. The Ottomans fled and the fleet was able to hold off the Ottomans until new Venetian reinforcements arrived to recapture the city. The outcome of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Salonika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Salonika (page does not exist)">Battle of Salonika</a> was a setback for Murad. <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> allied themselves with <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a> encouraged other Christian states to join the war against the Ottomans, though only Austria ever sent troops to the Balkans. </p><p>The war in the Balkans began as the Ottoman army moved to recapture <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a>, which the Ottomans had lost to <a href="/wiki/Mircea_I_of_Wallachia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mircea I of Wallachia">Mircea I of Wallachia</a> during the Interregnum and that now was a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungarian</a> vassal state. As the Ottoman army entered Wallachia, the <a href="/wiki/Serbs" title="Serbs">Serbs</a> started attacking <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and, at the same time, urged by the Pope, the Anatolian emirate of <a href="/wiki/Karamanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Karamanid">Karamanid</a> attacked the Empire from the back. Murad had to split his army. The main force went to defend <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a> and the reserves had to be called to <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. The remaining troops in Wallachia were crushed by the Hungarian army that was now moving south into Bulgaria where the Serbian and Ottoman armies battled each other. The Serbs were defeated and the Ottomans turned to face the Hungarians who fled back into Wallachia when they realized they were unable to attack the Ottomans from the back. Murad fortified his borders against Serbia and Hungary but did not try to retake Wallachia. Instead, he sent his armies to Anatolia where they defeated Karaman in 1428. </p><p>In 1430 a large Ottoman fleet attacked Salonika by surprise. The Venetians signed a peace treaty in 1432. The treaty gave the Ottomans the city of Salonika and the surrounding land. The war by Serbia and Hungary against the Ottoman Empire had come to a standstill in 1441, when the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, Poland, <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Jandarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Jandarid">Jandarid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karamanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Karamanid">Karamanid</a> emirates (in violation of the peace treaty) intervened against the Ottomans. <a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%A1" title="Niš">Niš</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sofia" title="Sofia">Sofia</a> fell to the Christians in 1443. In 1444, the Empire suffered a major defeat in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Jalowaz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Jalowaz (page does not exist)">Battle of Jalowaz</a>. On July 12, 1444, Murad signed a treaty which gave Wallachia and the Bulgarian province of <a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> to Hungary and gave western Bulgaria (including Sofia) to Serbia. It forced Murad to abdicate in favor of his twelve-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed</a>. Later the same year the Christians violated the peace treaty and attacked anew. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Varna,_1444"><span id="Varna.2C_1444"></span>Varna, 1444</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Varna, 1444"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a></div> <p>On November 10, 1444, Murad defeated the <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a>–<a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> army of <a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland" title="Władysław III of Poland">Wladislaus III of Poland</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Janos_Hunyadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Janos Hunyadi">Janos Hunyadi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a>. </p><p>Murad was reinstated with the help of the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a> in 1446. Another peace treaty was signed in 1448 giving the Empire <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and a part of <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>. After the Balkan front was secured, Murad turned east and defeated Timur Lenk's son, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Rukh" title="Shah Rukh">Shah Rukh</a>, and the emirates of Candar and <a href="/wiki/Karaman_Emirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaman Emirate">Karaman</a> in Anatolia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kosovo,_1448"><span id="Kosovo.2C_1448"></span>Kosovo, 1448</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Kosovo, 1448"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo_(1448)" title="Battle of Kosovo (1448)">Battle of Kosovo (1448)</a></div> <p>At 1448, John Hunyadi saw the right moment to lead a campaign against the Ottoman Empire. After the Defeat of Varna (1444), he raised another army to attack the Ottomans. His strategy based on possible revolt of Balkan people and the surprise attack, also the assumption to destroy the main force of the Ottomans in a single battle. Hunyadi was totally immodest and led his forces without leaving any escort behind. </p><p>Murad died in the winter 1450–1451 in <a href="/wiki/Edirne" title="Edirne">Edirne</a>. Some have it that he was wounded in a battle against <a href="/wiki/Skanderbeg" title="Skanderbeg">Skanderbeg</a>'s Albanian guerillas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mehmed_II_(1451–1481)"><span id="Mehmed_II_.281451.E2.80.931481.29"></span>Mehmed II (1451–1481)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Mehmed II (1451–1481)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: the Sultan's personal information <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OttomanEmpire1451.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/OttomanEmpire1451.png/300px-OttomanEmpire1451.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/OttomanEmpire1451.png/450px-OttomanEmpire1451.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/OttomanEmpire1451.png/600px-OttomanEmpire1451.png 2x" data-file-width="3598" data-file-height="2584" /></a><figcaption>The Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the second reign of Mehmed II.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> (called <i>Fatih</i>, the Conqueror) again came to the Ottoman throne following Murad's death in 1451. But by conquering and annexing the emirate of <a href="/wiki/Karamanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Karamanid">Karamanid</a> (May–June, 1451) and by renewing the peace treaties with <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> (September 10) and Hungary (November 20) <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> proved his skills both on the military and the political front and was soon accepted by the noble class of the Ottoman court. </p><p>Older and a good deal wiser, he made capturing Constantinople his first priority, believing that it would solidify his power over the high military and administrative officials who had caused him such problems during his earlier reign. Good reasons underlay his decision. So long as Constantinople remained in Christian hands, his enemies could use it as either a potential base for splitting the empire at its center or as an excuse for the Christian West's continued military efforts. Constantinople's location also made it the natural "middleman" center for both land and sea trade between the eastern Mediterranean and central Asia, possession of which would ensure immense wealth. Just as important, Constantinople was a fabled imperial city, and its capture and possession would bestow untold prestige on its conqueror, who would be seen by Muslims as a hero and by Muslims and Christians alike as a great and powerful emperor. </p><p>Mehmed spent two years preparing for his attempt on the Byzantine capital. He built a navy to cut the city off from outside help by sea; he purchased an arsenal of large cannons from the Hungarian gunsmith Urban; he sealed the Bosphorus north of the city by erecting a powerful fortress on its European shore to prevent succor arriving from the Black Sea; and he meticulously concentrated in Thrace every available military unit in his lands. A trade agreement with Venice prevented the Venetians from intervening on behalf of the Byzantines, and the rest of Western Europe unwittingly cooperated with Mehmed's plans by being totally absorbed in internecine wars and political rivalries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constantinople,_1453"><span id="Constantinople.2C_1453"></span>Constantinople, 1453</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Constantinople, 1453"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Rise of the Ottoman Empire">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></div> <p>When in 1451 the bankrupt Byzantines asked <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed</a> to double the tribute for holding an Ottoman pretender for the throne, he used the request as a pretext for annulling all treaties with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Nevertheless, when he proposed in 1452 to siege <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> most of the <a href="/wiki/Divan" title="Divan">divan</a>, and especially the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Vizier" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Vizier">Grand Vizier</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%87andarl%C4%B1_Halil_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Çandarlı Halil Pasha">Çandarlı Halil Pasha</a>, was against it and criticized the Sultan for being too rash and overconfident in his abilities. On April 15, 1452, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed</a> ordered preparations to be made for the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">siege of Constantinople</a>. </p><p>In April 1453, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed</a> laid siege to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. Although the city's defenders, led by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giustiniani" title="Giovanni Giustiniani">Giovanni Giustiniani</a> under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a>'s (1448–53) authority, put up a heroic defense, without the benefit of outside aid their efforts were doomed. The formerly impregnable land walls were breached after two months of constant pounding by Mehmed's heavy artillery. In the predawn hours of 29 May 1453, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed</a> ordered an all-out assault on the battered ramparts. After a brief but vicious melee at the walls in which <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giustiniani" title="Giovanni Giustiniani">Giustiniani</a> was severely injured coupled with Ottoman troops breaching the walls through a sally port door left open, the Ottoman troops were able to breach the walls and rout the defenders. According to Christian sources, Emperor Constantine died bravely rushing into the oncoming Ottoman troops not to be seen again. However, according to Ottoman sources such as Tursun Beg he threw off his mantle and attempted to flee before being cut down by an injured Ottoman soldier. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Army">Ottoman Army</a> broke through and swept over the city. <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, for a millennium considered by many Europeans the divinely ordained capital of the Christian Roman Empire, fell to Mehmed and was transformed into what many Muslims considered the divinely ordained capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. The fabled city's imperial legacy lived on. After the conquest, the sultan had his grand vizier <a href="/wiki/%C3%87andarl%C4%B1_Halil_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Çandarlı Halil Pasha">Çandarlı Halil Pasha</a> killed. His following four granviziers were of <a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">devshirme</a> origin. During the growth of the Empire Turks seldom were appointed to the high positions. </p><p><br /> </p> <table style="border: 1px black solid; margin-left:1em; text-align: left;" align="center" width="100"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="background:DarkKhaki" align="center"><b><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">The Conquest of Constantinople on 29 May 1453</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fatih_Sultan_Mehmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatih Sultan Mehmed">Mehmed The Conqueror <i>( Fatih Sultan Mehmed Khan Ghazi )</i></a></b> </th></tr> <tr style="background:PaleGoldenrod" align="center"> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg/327px-Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg" decoding="async" width="327" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg/491px-Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg/654px-Kusatma_Zonaro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="506" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg/173px-Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg/260px-Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg/346px-Benjamin-Constant-The_Entry_of_Mahomet_II_into_Constantinople-1876.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3150" data-file-height="4126" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/186px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg" decoding="async" width="186" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/279px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg/372px-Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="1224" /></a></span> </td> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellini,_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/175px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/263px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/350px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3132" data-file-height="4226" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr style="background:PaleGoldenrod" align="center"> <td><small><a href="/wiki/Fatih_Sultan_Mehmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatih Sultan Mehmed">Fatih Sultan Mehmed</a>’s Land Transport of The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman Navy</a> from <a href="/wiki/Galata" title="Galata">Galata</a> into <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horn" title="Golden Horn">Golden Horn</a> by <a href="/wiki/Fausto_Zonaro" title="Fausto Zonaro">Fausto Zonaro</a> (1854–1929)</small>. </td> <td><small>Entry of <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_II" title="Mehmed II">Mehmed II</a> into <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Joseph_Benjamin-Constant" title="Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant">Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant (1845–1902)</a></small>. </td> <td><small><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">The Conquest of Constantinople</a> by<br /><a href="/wiki/Fausto_Zonaro" title="Fausto Zonaro">Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929)</a>.</small> </td> <td><small><a href="/wiki/Fatih_Sultan_Mehmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatih Sultan Mehmed">The Conqueror <i>(Fatih Sultan Mehmed)</i></a> by <a href="/wiki/Gentile_Bellini" title="Gentile Bellini">Gentile Bellini, 1479</a><br />(70 <i>x</i> 52; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery" title="National Gallery">National Gallery</a>, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>).</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> Following the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed built the <a href="/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace" title="Topkapı Palace">Topkapı Palace</a> in 1462 and moved the Ottoman capital there from Adrianople. Mehmed had himself titled "<a href="/wiki/Kaiser-i-Rum" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser-i-Rum">Kaiser-i-Rum</a>", or "Roman Caesar", and modelled the state after the old Byzantine Empire, thinking of himself as the successor to the Roman throne. Later, when he invaded <a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Otranto</a>, his goal was to capture Rome and reunite the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> for the first time since 751. Justinian's cathedral of Hagia Sophia was converted into an imperial mosque, as eventually were numerous other churches and monasteries. The rights of non-Muslim inhabitants were protected to ensure continuity and stability for commercial activities. Never fully recovered from the sack of 1204, and suffering from Byzantium's two centuries of near poverty, Constantinople by the time of Mehmed's conquest was but a hollow shell of its former self. Its population had dwindled, and much property was either abandoned or in a state of disrepair. The sultan immediately began to repopulate the city. Civic and private properties were offered to the public to entice much-needed skilled artisans, craftsmen, and traders of all religions and ethnicities back to the city. Newly conquered Constantinople rapidly grew into a multiethnic, multicultured, and bustling economic, political, and cultural center for the Ottoman state,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> whose distant frontiers guaranteed it peace, security, and prosperity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Osman_Gazi2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Osman I"><img alt="Osman I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Osman_Gazi2.jpg/83px-Osman_Gazi2.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Osman_Gazi2.jpg/125px-Osman_Gazi2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Osman_Gazi2.jpg/166px-Osman_Gazi2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="3116" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Osman I</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Orhan_Gazi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Orhan"><img alt="Orhan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Orhan_Gazi.jpg/83px-Orhan_Gazi.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Orhan_Gazi.jpg/124px-Orhan_Gazi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Orhan_Gazi.jpg/165px-Orhan_Gazi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2164" data-file-height="3140" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Orhan</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Murad I"><img alt="Murad I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg/83px-Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg/125px-Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg/167px-Murat_H%C3%BCdavendigar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2140" data-file-height="3070" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Murad I</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bayezid I"><img alt="Bayezid I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg/83px-Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg/125px-Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg/167px-Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1mBayezit4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="3104" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bayezid I</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mehmed_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mehmed I"><img alt="Mehmed I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Mehmed_I.jpg/76px-Mehmed_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="76" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Mehmed_I.jpg/114px-Mehmed_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Mehmed_I.jpg/151px-Mehmed_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="307" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mehmed I</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:II._Murat.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Murad II"><img alt="Murad II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/II._Murat.jpg/82px-II._Murat.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/II._Murat.jpg/124px-II._Murat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/II._Murat.jpg/165px-II._Murat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2132" data-file-height="3100" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Murad II</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bellini,_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mehmed II"><img alt="Mehmed II" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/89px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/133px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg/178px-Bellini%2C_Gentile_-_Sultan_Mehmet_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3132" data-file-height="4226" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mehmed II</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A term normally meaning "a warrior who fights in the name of Islam", but which had a variety of different meanings for the early Ottomans, not all of them strictly religious. On this see the above section, <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Gaza_and_gazis_in_early_Ottoman_history">"Gaza and gazis in early Ottoman history"</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMurphey2008" class="citation book cs1">Murphey, Rhoads (2008). <i>Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty: Tradition, Image, and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household, 1400-1800</i>. London: Continuum. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3"><bdi>978-1-84725-220-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Ottoman+Sovereignty%3A+Tradition%2C+Image%2C+and+Practice+in+the+Ottoman+Imperial+Household%2C+1400-1800&rft.place=London&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84725-220-3&rft.aulast=Murphey&rft.aufirst=Rhoads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphey2008" class="citation book cs1">Murphey, Rhoads (2008). <i>Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty: Tradition, Image, and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household, 1400-1800</i>. London: Continuum. pp. 41–3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3"><bdi>978-1-84725-220-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Ottoman+Sovereignty%3A+Tradition%2C+Image%2C+and+Practice+in+the+Ottoman+Imperial+Household%2C+1400-1800&rft.place=London&rft.pages=41-3&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84725-220-3&rft.aulast=Murphey&rft.aufirst=Rhoads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtçıl2017" class="citation book cs1">Atçıl, Abdurrahman (2017). <i>Scholars and Sultans in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 212. <q>The conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453 can be taken as a watershed moment for Ottoman power, ideology, and governance that is usually characterized as a transition from principality to empire.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scholars+and+Sultans+in+the+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=At%C3%A7%C4%B1l&rft.aufirst=Abdurrahman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 120.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=120&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. xii. <q>There is still not one authentic written document known from the time of ʿO<u>s</u>mān, and there are not many from the fourteenth century altogether.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=xii&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=93&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). <i>Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923</i>. Basic Books. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02396-7</bdi></a>. <q>Modern historians attempt to sift historical fact from the myths contained in the later stories in which the Ottoman chroniclers accounted for the origins of the dynasty</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1923&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02396-7&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber1991" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (1991). Elizabeth Zachariadou (ed.). <i>The Ottoman Emirate (1300-1389)</i>. Rethymnon: <a href="/wiki/Crete_University_Press" title="Crete University Press">Crete University Press</a>. p. 75. <q>Almost all the traditional tales about Osman Gazi are fictitious. The best thing a modern historian can do is to admit frankly that the earliest history of the Ottomans is a black hole. Any attempt to fill this hole will result simply in more fables.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Emirate+%281300-1389%29&rft.place=Rethymnon&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Crete+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFi̇Nalcık1973" class="citation book cs1">i̇Nalcık, Halil (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BItpAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Ottoman Empire The Classical Age, 1300-1600</i></a>. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780297994909" title="Special:BookSources/9780297994909"><bdi>9780297994909</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire+The+Classical+Age%2C+1300-1600&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9780297994909&rft.aulast=i%CC%87Nalc%C4%B1k&rft.aufirst=Halil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBItpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=6-7&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. pp. 125–6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=125-6&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (2007). "A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum". <i>Muqarnas</i>. <b>24</b>: 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas&rft.atitle=A+Rome+of+One%27s+Own%3A+Cultural+Geography+and+Identity+in+the+Lands+of+Rum&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphey2008" class="citation book cs1">Murphey, Rhoads (2008). <i>Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty: Tradition, Image, and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household, 1400-1800</i>. London: Continuum. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3"><bdi>978-1-84725-220-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Ottoman+Sovereignty%3A+Tradition%2C+Image%2C+and+Practice+in+the+Ottoman+Imperial+Household%2C+1400-1800&rft.place=London&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84725-220-3&rft.aulast=Murphey&rft.aufirst=Rhoads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=130&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 60.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=60&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 122. <q>The Ottoman historical tradition maintains, with some exceptions, that the tribe that later represented the core of Osman's earliest base of power came to Asia Minor in his grandfather's generation in the wake of the Chingisid conquest in central Asia. This makes chronological and historical sense, but otherwise the details of their story, including the identity of the grandfather, are too mythological to be taken for granted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=122&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 122. <q>That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=122&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Indiana University Press. p. 10. <q>In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Indiana University Press. pp. 20–1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.pages=20-1&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Indiana University Press. pp. 23–5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.pages=23-5&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Indiana University Press. p. 33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <i>The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</i>. SUNY Press. p. 59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 127.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=127&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). <i>Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923</i>. Basic Books. pp. 9–10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1923&rft.pages=9-10&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWittek1938" class="citation book cs1">Wittek, Paul (1938). <i>The Rise of the Ottoman Empire</i>. Royal Asiatic Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Wittek&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. xi-xii.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=xi-xii&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Ghaza (gaza)". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. p. 231. <q>In recent times, the word ghaza has been understood in the West as meaning "Holy War against the infidels" and as referring to religiously inspired military actions taken by the early Ottomans against their Christian neighbors. Despite being commonly used in this way, however, the meaning of this term has come to be widely contested by scholars. The early Ottoman military activity described as <i>ghaza</i> is now thought to have been a much more fluid undertaking, sometimes referring to actions that were nothing more than raids, sometimes meaning a deliberate holy war, but most often combining a mixture of these elements.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ghaza+%28gaza%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=231&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Ghaza (gaza)". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. p. 231. <q>the closest comrades and fellow-fighters of the first two Ottoman rulers, Osman Ghazi (d. 1324) and Orhan I (r. 1324–62), included several Orthodox Christian Greeks and recent Christian converts to Islam.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ghaza+%28gaza%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=231&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gaza-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gaza_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gaza_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Ghaza (gaza)". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. pp. 231–2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ghaza+%28gaza%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=231-2&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchamiloglu2004" class="citation book cs1">Schamiloglu, Uli (2004). "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire: The Black Death in Medieval Anatolia and its Impact on Turkish Civilization". In Yavari, Neguin; Lawrence G. Potter; Jean-Marc Ran Oppenheim (eds.). <i>Views From the Edge: Essays in Honor of Richard W. Bulliet</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 270–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-23113472-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-23113472-X"><bdi>0-23113472-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+The+Black+Death+in+Medieval+Anatolia+and+its+Impact+on+Turkish+Civilization&rft.btitle=Views+From+the+Edge%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Richard+W.+Bulliet&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=270-2&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-23113472-X&rft.aulast=Schamiloglu&rft.aufirst=Uli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lowry72-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lowry72_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lowry72_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <i>The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</i>. SUNY Press. pp. 72–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=72-3&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 121.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=121&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. pp. 131–2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=131-2&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=136&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. pp. 111–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=111-3&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kafadar142-3-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kafadar142-3_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kafadar142-3_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. pp. 142–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=142-3&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <i>The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</i>. SUNY Press. pp. 90–1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=90-1&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 146.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=146&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 148.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=148&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Indiana University Press. pp. 29–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 262–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=262-4&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800". <i>Journal of World History</i>. <b>25</b>: 88–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2014.0005">10.1353/jwh.2014.0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143042353">143042353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Firearms+and+Military+Adaptation%3A+The+Ottomans+and+the+European+Military+Revolution%2C+1450%E2%80%931800&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=88-94&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2014.0005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143042353%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. pp. 93–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=93-4&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <i>The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</i>. SUNY Press. pp. 15–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=15-25&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKermeli2009" class="citation book cs1">Kermeli, Eugenia (2009). "Osman I". In Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. p. 444. <q>Reliable information regarding Osman is scarce. His birth date is unknown and his symbolic significance as the father of the dynasty has encouraged the development of mythic tales regarding the ruler's life and origins, however, historians agree that before 1300, Osman was simply one among a number of Turkoman tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Osman+I&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pages=444&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Kermeli&rft.aufirst=Eugenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-933070-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-933070-12-8"><bdi>0-933070-12-8</bdi></a>. <q>The chronology of Osman's activities until 1302 cannot be accurately determined.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-933070-12-8&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline. <i>Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923</i>. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1923&rft.pages=2&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 129. <q>Of [military undertakings] we know nothing with certainty until the Battle of Bapheus, Osman's triumphant confrontation with a Byzantine force in 1301 (or 1302), which is the first datable incident in his life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=129&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. pp. 128–9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=128-9&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=126&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 127.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=127&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 128.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=128&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 8–9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8-9&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kafadar16-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kafadar16_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kafadar16_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=16&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. p. 138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pages=138&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"In 1363 the Ottoman capital moved from Bursa to Edirne, although Bursa retained its spiritual and economic importance." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kultur.gov.tr/–EN,33810/ottoman-capital-bursa.html"><i>Ottoman Capital Bursa</i></a>. Official website of Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey. Retrieved 19 December 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fine-1994-409-11-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fine-1994-409-11_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fine-1994-409-11_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fine (1994), pp. 409–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_WaleyPeter_Denley2013" class="citation book cs1">Daniel Waley; Peter Denley (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3qkuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA255"><i>Later Medieval Europe: 1250-1520</i></a>. Routledge. p. 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89018-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89018-8"><bdi>978-1-317-89018-8</bdi></a>. <q>The outcome of the battle itself was inconclusive.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Later+Medieval+Europe%3A+1250-1520&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-317-89018-8&rft.au=Daniel+Waley&rft.au=Peter+Denley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3qkuAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsabelle_Dierauer2013" class="citation book cs1">Isabelle Dierauer (16 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GCuDsecLWmYC"><i>Disequilibrium, Polarization, and Crisis Model: An International Relations Theory Explaining Conflict</i></a>. University Press of America. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-6106-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-6106-5"><bdi>978-0-7618-6106-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disequilibrium%2C+Polarization%2C+and+Crisis+Model%3A+An+International+Relations+Theory+Explaining+Conflict&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2013-05-16&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-6106-5&rft.au=Isabelle+Dierauer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGCuDsecLWmYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgostonBruce_Masters2009" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor; Bruce Masters, eds. (2009). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-6259-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). <i>Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02396-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1923&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02396-7&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Imber" title="Colin Imber">Imber, Colin</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YeccBQAAQBAJ"><i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power</i></a> (Second ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1370-1406-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1370-1406-1"><bdi>978-1-1370-1406-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300%E2%80%931650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-1370-1406-1&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYeccBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7"><bdi>978-0-520-20600-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20600-7&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22118993-90000108">"A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum"</a>. <i>Muqarnas</i>. <b>24</b>: 7–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22118993-90000108">10.1163/22118993-90000108</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas&rft.atitle=A+Rome+of+One%27s+Own%3A+Cultural+Geography+and+Identity+in+the+Lands+of+Rum&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=7-25&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22118993-90000108&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1163%252F22118993-90000108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindner1983" class="citation book cs1">Lindner, Rudi P. (1983). <i>Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-933070-12-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-933070-12-8"><bdi>0-933070-12-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nomads+and+Ottomans+in+Medieval+Anatolia&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-933070-12-8&rft.aulast=Lindner&rft.aufirst=Rudi+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <i>The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</i>. Albany: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-5636-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-5636-6"><bdi>0-7914-5636-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7914-5636-6&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphey2008" class="citation book cs1">Murphey, Rhoads (2008). <i>Exploring Ottoman Sovereignty: Tradition, Image, and Practice in the Ottoman Imperial Household, 1400-1800</i>. London: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-220-3"><bdi>978-1-84725-220-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Ottoman+Sovereignty%3A+Tradition%2C+Image%2C+and+Practice+in+the+Ottoman+Imperial+Household%2C+1400-1800&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84725-220-3&rft.aulast=Murphey&rft.aufirst=Rhoads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchamiloglu2004" class="citation book cs1">Schamiloglu, Uli (2004). "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire: The Black Death in Medieval Anatolia and its Impact on Turkish Civilization". In Yavari, Neguin; Lawrence G. Potter; Jean-Marc Ran Oppenheim (eds.). <i>Views From the Edge: Essays in Honor of Richard W. Bulliet</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-23113472-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-23113472-X"><bdi>0-23113472-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+The+Black+Death+in+Medieval+Anatolia+and+its+Impact+on+Turkish+Civilization&rft.btitle=Views+From+the+Edge%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Richard+W.+Bulliet&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-23113472-X&rft.aulast=Schamiloglu&rft.aufirst=Uli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWittek1938" class="citation book cs1">Wittek, Paul (1938). <i>The Rise of the Ottoman Empire</i>. Royal Asiatic Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Wittek&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZachariadou1991" class="citation book cs1">Zachariadou, Elizabeth, ed. (1991). <i>The Ottoman Emirate (1300-1389)</i>. Rethymnon: Crete University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Emirate+%281300-1389%29&rft.place=Rethymnon&rft.pub=Crete+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2017" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Douglas A. (2017). <i>A History of the Ottoman Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-72730-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-72730-3"><bdi>978-0-521-72730-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-521-72730-3&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkel2005" class="citation book cs1">Finkel, Caroline (2005). <i>Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923</i>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02396-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02396-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osman%27s+Dream%3A+The+Story+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1923&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02396-7&rft.aulast=Finkel&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImber2009" class="citation book cs1">Imber, Colin (2009). <i>The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power</i> (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57451-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-57451-9"><bdi>978-0-230-57451-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%2C+1300-1650%3A+The+Structure+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-57451-9&rft.aulast=Imber&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_formation">State formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: State formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKafadar1995" class="citation book cs1">Kafadar, Cemal (1995). <i>Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20600-7"><bdi>978-0-520-20600-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Two+Worlds%3A+The+Construction+of+the+Ottoman+State&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20600-7&rft.aulast=Kafadar&rft.aufirst=Cemal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowry2003" class="citation book cs1">Lowry, Heath (2003). <i>The Nature of the Early Ottoman State</i>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-5636-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-5636-6"><bdi>0-7914-5636-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Early+Ottoman+State&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7914-5636-6&rft.aulast=Lowry&rft.aufirst=Heath&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARise+of+the+Ottoman+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ottoman_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Template:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ottoman_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ottoman Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ottoman_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Ottoman Empire">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream" title="Osman's Dream">Osman's Dream</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rise</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaza_thesis" title="Ghaza thesis">Ghaza thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum" title="Ottoman Interregnum">Interregnum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Women" title="Sultanate of Women">Sultanate of Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_decline_thesis" title="Ottoman decline thesis">Decline thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_era" title="Köprülü era">Köprülü</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Old_Regime" title="Ottoman Old Regime">Stagnation and reform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulip period">Tulip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_modernization_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire">Decline and modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era" title="First Constitutional Era">1st Constitutional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">Dissolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era" title="Second Constitutional Era">2nd Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Ottoman_sultanate" title="Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate">Abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_the_Ottoman_contraction" title="Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction">Persecution of Ottoman Muslims</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ottoman Empire)">Foreign Affairs Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_relations" title="Ottoman–Safavid relations">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Ottoman Empire–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of treaties of the Ottoman Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of wars involving the Ottoman Empire">Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman constitution of 1876">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution" title="Armenian National Constitution">Armenian Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_electoral_law" title="Ottoman electoral law">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_family_law" title="Ottoman family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCstur" title="Düstur">Düstur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Civil codes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Mecelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_Office_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Translation Office (Ottoman Empire)">Translation Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State organisation of the Ottoman Empire">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">House of Osman</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">List of Ottoman sultans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_claim_to_Roman_succession" title="Ottoman claim to Roman succession">Roman succession claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_the_Two_Holy_Mosques" title="Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques">Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valide_sultan" title="Valide sultan">Valide sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseki_sultan" title="Haseki sultan">Haseki sultan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kad%C4%B1n_(title)" title="Kadın (title)">Kadınefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikbal_(title)" title="Ikbal (title)">Hanımefendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mothers_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" title="List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' mothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_consorts_of_the_Ottoman_sultans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of consorts of the Ottoman sultans">List of Ottoman sultans' consorts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizlar_Agha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kizlar Agha">Kizlar Agha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ender%C3%BBn" title="Enderûn">Inner Palace Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapi_Agha" title="Kapi Agha">Kapi Agha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_School" title="Palace School">Palace Schools</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central (<a href="/wiki/Sublime_Porte" title="Sublime Porte">Porte</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Council_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Imperial Council (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Council</a> <br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(classic period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Grand Viziers">Grand Vizier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">Viziers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazasker" title="Kazasker">Kazaskers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Ministers_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ottoman Ministers of Finance">Defterdars/Ministers of Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C5%9Fanc%C4%B1" title="Nişancı">Nişancı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reis_%C3%BCl-K%C3%BCttab" title="Reis ül-Küttab">Reis ül-Küttab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Porte" title="Dragoman of the Porte">Dragoman of the Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir%C3%BBn" title="Birûn">Outer Palace Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Government_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)">Imperial Government</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(reform and constitutional period)</i></span> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Assembly_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire">Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Senate of the Ottoman Empire">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)">Chamber of Deputies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">Millets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Millet" class="mw-redirect" title="Rum Millet">Rūm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullah_millet" title="Ullah millet">Ullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Millet" title="Bulgarian Millet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_millet" title="Armenian millet">Armenian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakham_Bashi" title="Hakham Bashi">Hakham Bashi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Provincial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyalet" title="Eyalet">Eyalets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beylerbey" title="Beylerbey">Beylerbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilayet" title="Vilayet">Vilayets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjaks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjakbey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanjakbey">Sanjakbeys</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarr%C4%B1f" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrıf">Mutasarrifates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaza" title="Kaza">Kazas</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kadiluk" title="Kadiluk">Kadiluks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">Vassal and tributary states</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Army</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_army_in_the_15th%E2%80%9319th_centuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman army in the 15th–19th centuries">Classic period army</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agha_of_the_Janissaries" title="Agha of the Janissaries">Agha of the Janissaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Divisions_of_Cavalry" title="Six Divisions of Cavalry">Six Divisions of Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timariots" title="Timariots">Timariots</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_military_reforms" title="Ottoman military reforms">Reform period</a></b>: <a href="/wiki/Nizam-i_Djedid_Army" title="Nizam-i Djedid Army">Nizam-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekban-i_Djedid_Army" title="Sekban-i Djedid Army">Sekban-i Djedid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asakir-i_Mansure-i_Muhammediye" title="Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye">Mansure Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamidieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamidieh">Hamidieh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Army_(1861%E2%80%931922)" title="Ottoman Army (1861–1922)">Modernized army</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapudan_Pasha" title="Kapudan Pasha">Kapudan Pasha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kapudan_Pashas" title="List of Kapudan Pashas">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragoman_of_the_Fleet" title="Dragoman of the Fleet">Dragoman of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Arsenal" title="Imperial Arsenal">Imperial Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire_admirals" title="Category:Ottoman Empire admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Ottoman Empire">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_ships_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Naval ships of the Ottoman Empire">Ships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Aviation_Squadrons" title="Ottoman Aviation Squadrons">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Conscription in the Ottoman Empire">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_weapons" title="Ottoman weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Economic history of the Ottoman Empire">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By era <ul><li>Enlargement</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomics_of_the_Ottoman_reformation_era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socioeconomics of the Ottoman reformation era (page does not exist)">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_agriculture&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman agriculture (page does not exist)">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Bank" title="Ottoman Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_currency&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ottoman currency (page does not exist)">Currency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7e" title="Akçe">Akçe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Para_(currency)" title="Para (currency)">Para</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultani" title="Sultani">Sultani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuru%C5%9F" title="Kuruş">Kuruş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_lira" title="Ottoman lira">Lira</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Taxation in the Ottoman Empire">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the Ottoman Empire">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Society of the Ottoman Empire">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_court" title="Ottoman court">Ottoman court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Languages of the Ottoman Empire">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Culture of the Ottoman Empire">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosques_commissioned_by_the_Ottoman_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosques commissioned by the Ottoman dynasty">Mosques</a></li></ul></li> <li>Art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_illumination" title="Ottoman illumination">Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_miniature" title="Ottoman miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_music" title="Ottoman music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat" title="Karagöz and Hacivat">Shadow play</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_clothing" title="Ottoman clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine" title="Ottoman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prose_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Prose of the Ottoman Empire">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_poetry" title="Ottoman poetry">Poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Education in the Ottoman Empire">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of schools in the Ottoman Empire">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_education_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenian education in the Ottoman Empire">of Armenians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Media of the Ottoman Empire">Media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Demographics of the Ottoman Empire">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Women in the Ottoman Empire">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#Religion" title="Ottoman Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Islam in the Ottoman Empire">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Christianity in the Ottoman Empire">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism in the Ottoman Empire">Judaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_anthems_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Imperial anthems of the Ottoman Empire">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Flags of the Ottoman Empire">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tughra" title="Tughra">Tughra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_and_crescent" title="Star and crescent">Star and crescent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Outline of the Ottoman Empire">Outline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Bibliography of the Ottoman Empire">Bibliography</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Ottoman Empire">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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