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href="/wiki/File:Contract_Flat_Icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Contract_Flat_Icon.svg/150px-Contract_Flat_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Contract_Flat_Icon.svg/225px-Contract_Flat_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Contract_Flat_Icon.svg/300px-Contract_Flat_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Formation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_(law)" title="Capacity (law)">Capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance" title="Offer and acceptance">Offer and acceptance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meeting_of_the_minds" title="Meeting of the minds">Meeting of the minds</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstraction_principle_(law)" title="Abstraction principle (law)">Abstraction principle</a><sup><small>4,5</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posting_rule" title="Posting rule">Posting rule</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_image_rule" title="Mirror image rule">Mirror image rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitation_to_treat" title="Invitation to treat">Invitation to treat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firm_offer" title="Firm offer">Firm offer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">Consideration</a><sup><small>1,4</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied-in-fact_contract" title="Implied-in-fact contract">Implication-in-fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_contract" title="Collateral contract">Collateral contract</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Defences</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misrepresentation" title="Misrepresentation">Misrepresentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistake_(contract_law)" title="Mistake (contract law)">Mistake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duress_(contract_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duress (contract law)">Threats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Undue_influence" title="Undue influence">unequal bargaining power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_agreement" title="Illegal agreement">Illegality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" title="Public policy doctrine">public policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unconscionability" title="Unconscionability">Unconscionability</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Culpa_in_contrahendo" title="Culpa in contrahendo">Culpa in contrahendo</a></i><sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_majeure" title="Force majeure">Force majeure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frustration_of_purpose" title="Frustration of purpose">Frustration of purpose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impossibility_of_performance" title="Impossibility of performance">Impossibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impracticability" title="Impracticability">Impracticability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract#Hardship" title="Contract">Hardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set-off_(law)" title="Set-off (law)">Set-off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_promise" title="Illusory promise">Illusory promise</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_frauds" title="Statute of frauds">Statute of frauds</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non_est_factum" title="Non est factum">Non est factum</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_hands" title="Clean hands">Unclean hands</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accord_and_satisfaction" title="Accord and satisfaction">Accord and satisfaction</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exculpatory_clause" title="Exculpatory clause">Exculpatory clause</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Interpretation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parol_evidence_rule" title="Parol evidence rule">Parol evidence</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_form_contract" title="Standard form contract">Contract of adhesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integration_clause" title="Integration clause">Integration clause</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Contra_proferentem" title="Contra proferentem">Contra proferentem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_International_Commercial_Contracts" title="Principles of International Commercial Contracts">UNIDROIT Principles</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choice_of_law_clause" title="Choice of law clause">Choice of law clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_selection_clause" title="Forum selection clause">Forum selection clause</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Choice_of_Court_Convention" title="Hague Choice of Court Convention">Hague Choice of Court Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">Arbitration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Recognition_and_Enforcement_of_Foreign_Arbitral_Awards" title="Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards">New York Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCITRAL_Model_Law_on_International_Commercial_Arbitration" title="UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration">UNCITRAL Model Law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_Mediation_Convention" title="Singapore Mediation Convention">Singapore Mediation Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_of_foreign_judgments" title="Enforcement of foreign judgments">Enforcement of foreign judgments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Judgments_Convention" title="Hague Judgments Convention">Hague Judgments Convention</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Rights of third parties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Privity of contract</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">Assignment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delegation_(law)" title="Delegation (law)">Delegation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novation" title="Novation">Novation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-party_beneficiary" title="Third-party beneficiary">Third-party beneficiary</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_contract" title="Breach of contract">Breach of contract</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticipatory_repudiation" title="Anticipatory repudiation">Anticipatory repudiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover_(law)" title="Cover (law)">Cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusion_clause" title="Exclusion clause">Exclusion clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efficient_breach" title="Efficient breach">Efficient breach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviation_(law)" title="Deviation (law)">Deviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_breach" title="Fundamental breach">Fundamental breach</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Remedies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Specific_performance" title="Specific performance">Specific performance</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">Money damages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liquidated_damages" title="Liquidated damages">Liquidated, stipulated</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Penal_damages" title="Penal damages">penal damages</a><sup><small>3</small></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescission_(contract_law)" title="Rescission (contract law)">Rescission</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quasi-contract" title="Quasi-contract">Quasi-contractual obligations</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estoppel" title="Estoppel">Promissory estoppel</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quantum_meruit" title="Quantum meruit">Quantum meruit</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unjust_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Unjust enrichment">Unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">Restitution</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Negotiorum_gestio" title="Negotiorum gestio">Negotiorum gestio</a></i><sup><small>2</small></sup></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Duties of parties</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_contract_law#Duty_of_honest_contractual_performance" title="Canadian contract law">Duty of honest contractual performance</a> (or doctrine of abuse of rights)<sup><small>6</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_faith_(law)" title="Good faith (law)">Duty of good faith</a> (also implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing or duty to negotiate in good faith)<sup><small>7</small></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract_A_and_Contract_B_in_Canadian_contract_law" title="Contract A and Contract B in Canadian contract law">Contract A and Contract B in Canadian contract law</a><sup><small>6</small></sup></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related areas of law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_contract_laws" title="Conflict of contract laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> By jurisdiction</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_contract_law" title="Australian contract law">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_contract_law" title="Canadian contract law">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Contract Law of the People's Republic of China">China (mainland)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Contract_Act,_1872" title="Indian Contract Act, 1872">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_law_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Contract law in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_contract_law" title="English contract law">England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_contract_law" title="Scots contract law">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">United States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Other <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> areas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Wills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust law">trusts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">estates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Notes</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li>1 Specific to <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions</li> <li>2 Specific to civil and mixed law jurisdictions</li> <li>3 Historically restricted in common law jurisdictions but generally accepted elsewhere; availability varies between contemporary common law jurisdictions</li> <li>4 Specific to the German <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</a> and other civil codes based on the <a href="/wiki/Pandectist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandectist">pandectist</a> tradition</li> <li>5 Explicitly rejected by the <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_International_Commercial_Contracts" title="Principles of International Commercial Contracts">UNIDROIT Principles</a> of International Commercial Contracts</li> <li>6 Specific to <a href="/wiki/Canadian_contract_law" title="Canadian contract law">Canadian contract law</a> both in Québec and in the country's common law provinces</li> <li>7 Specific to civil law jurisdictions, the American <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Commercial_Code" title="Uniform Commercial Code">Uniform Commercial Code</a>, and Canadian jurisprudence in both Québec and the common law provinces pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Canadian_contract_law#Duty_to_negotiate_in_good_faith" title="Canadian contract law">contractual and pre-contractual negotiation</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Contract_law" title="Template:Contract law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Contract_law" title="Template talk:Contract law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Contract_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Contract law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The doctrine of <b>privity of contract</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> principle which provides that a <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> cannot confer rights or impose obligations upon anyone who is not a party to that contract.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is related to, but distinct from, the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">consideration</a>, according to which a promise is legally enforceable only if valid consideration has been provided for it, and a plaintiff is legally entitled to enforce such a promise only if they are a promisee from whom the consideration has moved.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A principal consequence of the doctrine of privity is that, at common law, a third party generally has no right to enforce a contract to which they are not a party, even where that contract was entered into by the contracting parties specifically for their benefit and with a common intention among all of them that they should be able to enforce it. In England & Wales and Northern Ireland, the doctrine has been substantially weakened by the <a href="/wiki/Contracts_(Rights_of_Third_Parties)_Act_1999" title="Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999">Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999</a>, which created a statutory exception to privity, providing, in certain circumstances, third parties the right to enforce terms of contracts to which they are not privy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Third_party_rights">Third party rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Third party rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Privity of contract occurs only between the parties to the contract, most commonly <a href="/wiki/Contract_of_sale" title="Contract of sale">contract of sale</a> of goods or services. Horizontal privity arises when the benefits from a contract are to be given to a third party. Vertical privity involves a contract between two parties, with an independent contract between one of the parties and another individual or corporation. </p><p>If a third party gets a benefit under a contract, it does not have the right to go against the parties to the contract beyond its entitlement to a benefit. An example of this occurs when a manufacturer sells a product to a distributor and the distributor sells the product to a retailer. The retailer then sells the product to a consumer. There is no privity of contract between the manufacturer and the consumer. </p><p>This, however, does not mean that the parties do not have another form of action: for instance, in <i><a href="/wiki/Donoghue_v._Stevenson" class="mw-redirect" title="Donoghue v. Stevenson">Donoghue v. Stevenson</a></i> –  a friend of Ms. Donoghue bought her a bottle of ginger beer, which contained the partially decomposed remains of a snail. Since the contract was between her friend and the shop owner, Mrs. Donoghue could not sue under the contract, but it was established that the manufacturer was in breach of a <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care" title="Duty of care">duty of care</a> owed to her. Accordingly, she was awarded damages in the tort of negligence for having suffered <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a> and "nervous shock". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to 1861 there existed decisions in English Law allowing provisions of a contract to be enforced by persons not party to it, usually relatives of a promisee, and decisions disallowing third party rights.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The doctrine of privity emerged alongside the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">consideration</a>, the rules of which state that consideration must move from the promise, that is to say that if nothing is given for the promise of something to be given in return, that promise is not legally binding unless promised as a <a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">deed</a>. 1833 saw the case of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Price_v._Easton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Price v. Easton (page does not exist)">Price v. Easton</a></i>, where a contract was made for work to be done in exchange for payment to a third party. When the third party attempted to sue for the payment, he was held to be not privy to the contract, and so his claim failed. This was fully linked to the doctrine of consideration, and established as such, with the more famous case of <i><a href="/wiki/Tweddle_v._Atkinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Tweddle v. Atkinson">Tweddle v. Atkinson</a></i>. In this case the plaintiff was unable to sue the executor of his father-in-law, who had promised to the plaintiff's father to make payment to the plaintiff, because he had not provided any consideration to the contract. </p><p>The doctrine was developed further in <i><a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Pneumatic_Tyre_v._Selfridge_and_Co._Ltd." class="mw-redirect" title="Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre v. Selfridge and Co. Ltd.">Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre v. Selfridge and Co. Ltd.</a></i> through the judgment of Lord Haldane. </p><p>Privity of Contract played a key role in the development of negligence as well. In the first case of <i><a href="/wiki/Winterbottom_v._Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="Winterbottom v. Wright">Winterbottom v. Wright</a></i> (1842), in which Winterbottom, a postal service wagon driver, was injured due to a faulty wheel, attempted to sue the manufacturer Wright for his injuries. The courts however decided that there was no privity of contract between manufacturer and consumer. </p><p>This issue appeared repeatedly until <i><a href="/wiki/MacPherson_v._Buick_Motor_Co." title="MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.">MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.</a></i> (1916), a case analogous to <i>Winterbottom v Wright</i> involving a car's defective wheel. Judge <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a>, writing for the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals" title="New York Court of Appeals">New York Court of Appeals</a>, decided that no privity is required when the manufacturer knows the product is probably dangerous if defective, third parties (e.g. consumers) will be harmed because of said defect, and there was no further testing after initial sale. Foreseeable injuries occurred from foreseeable uses. Cardozo's innovation was to decide that the basis for the claim was that it was a tort not a breach of contract. In this way he finessed the problems caused by the doctrine of privity in a modern industrial society. Although his opinion was only law in New York State, the solution he advanced was widely accepted elsewhere and formed the basis of the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">product liability</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exceptions">Exceptions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_law_exceptions">Common law exceptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Common law exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are exceptions to the general rule, allowing rights to third parties and some impositions of obligations. These are: </p> <ul><li>Collateral Contracts (between the third party and one of the contracting parties)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusts" class="mw-redirect" title="Trusts">Trusts</a> (the beneficiary of a trust may sue the trustee to carry out the contract)</li> <li>Land Law (restrictive covenants on land are imposed upon subsequent purchasers if the covenant benefits neighbouring land)</li> <li>Agency and the <a href="/wiki/Assignment_(law)" title="Assignment (law)">assignment</a> of contractual rights are permitted.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-party_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-party insurance">Third-party insurance</a> - A third party may claim under an insurance policy made for their benefit, even though that party did not pay the premiums.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Contracts_for_the_benefit_of_a_group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contracts for the benefit of a group (page does not exist)">Contracts for the benefit of a group</a>, where a contract to supply a service is made in one person's name but is intended to sue at common law if the contract is breached; there is no privity of contract between them and the supplier of the service.</li></ul> <p>Attempts have been made to evade the doctrine by implying trusts (with varying success), constructing the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Property_Act_1925" title="Law of Property Act 1925">Law of Property Act 1925</a> s. 56(1) to read the words "other property" as including contractual rights, and applying the concept of restrictive covenants to property other than real property (without success). </p> <ol><li>in case of trust/beneficiary</li> <li>in case of family arrangement</li> <li>in case of acknowledgment of debts</li> <li>in case of assignment of contract.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statutory_exceptions">Statutory exceptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Statutory exceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In England and Wales, the <a href="/wiki/Contracts_(Rights_of_Third_Parties)_Act_1999" title="Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999">Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999</a> provided some reform for this area of law which has been criticised by judges such as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Denning" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Denning">Lord Denning</a> and academics as unfair in places. The act states: </p> <dl><dd>1. - (1) Subject to the provisions of this act, a person who is not a party to a contract (a "third party") may in his own right enforce a term of the contract if- <dl><dd>(a) the contract expressly provides that he may, or</dd> <dd>(b) subject to subsection (2), the term purports to confer a benefit on him.</dd></dl></dd> <dd>(2) Subsection (1)(b) does not apply if on a proper construction of the contract it appears that the parties did not intend the term to be enforceable by the third party.</dd></dl> <p>This means that a person who is named in the contract as a person authorised to enforce the contract or a person receiving a benefit from the contract may enforce the contract unless it appears that the parties intended that he may not. </p><p>The Act enables the aim of the parties to be fully adhered to. In <i><a href="/wiki/Beswick_v_Beswick" title="Beswick v Beswick">Beswick v Beswick</a></i>, the agreement was that Peter Beswick assign his business to his nephew in consideration of the nephew employing him for the rest of his life and then paying a weekly annuity to Mrs. Beswick. Since the latter term was for the benefit of someone not party to the contract, the nephew did not believe it was enforceable and so did not perform it, making only one payment of the agreed weekly amount. Yet the only reason why Mr. Beswick contracted with his nephew was for the benefit of Mrs. Beswick. Under the Act, Mrs. Beswick would be able to enforce the performance of the contract in her own right. Therefore, the Act realises the intentions of the parties. </p><p>The law has been welcomed by many as a relief from the strictness of the doctrine, however it may still prove ineffective in professionally drafted documents, as the provisions of this statute may be expressly excluded by the draftsmen. </p><p>In Hong Kong, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Contracts_(Rights_of_Third_Parties)_Ordinance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Ordinance (page does not exist)">Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Ordinance</a> provided for a similar legal effect as the <a href="/wiki/Contracts_(Rights_of_Third_Parties)_Act_1999" title="Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999">Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third-party_beneficiaries">Third-party beneficiaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Third-party beneficiaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, it has been held that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-party_beneficiaries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Third-party beneficiaries (page does not exist)">third-party beneficiaries</a> may uphold a promise made for its benefit in a contract of insurance to which it is not a party (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trident_General_Insurance_Co_Ltd_v._McNiece_Bros_Pty_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trident General Insurance Co Ltd v. McNiece Bros Pty Ltd (page does not exist)">Trident General Insurance Co Ltd v. McNiece Bros Pty Ltd</a></i> (1988) 165 CLR 107).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision in <i>Trident</i> had no clear <a href="/wiki/Ratio_decidendi" title="Ratio decidendi">ratio</a>, and did not create a general exemption to the doctrine of privity in Australia. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Territory" title="Northern Territory">Northern Territory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> have all enacted statutory provisions to enable third party beneficiaries to enforce contracts, and limited the ability of contracting parties to vary the contract after the third party has relied on it. In addition, section 48 of the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) allows third-party beneficiaries to enforce contracts of insurance. </p><p>Although damages are the usual remedy for the breach of a contract for the benefit of a third party, if damages are inadequate, <a href="/wiki/Specific_performance" title="Specific performance">specific performance</a> may be granted (<i><a href="/wiki/Beswick_v._Beswick" class="mw-redirect" title="Beswick v. Beswick">Beswick v. Beswick</a></i> [1968] AC 59). </p><p>The issue of third-party beneficiaries has appeared in cases where a <a href="/wiki/Stevedore" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevedore">stevedore</a> has claimed it is covered under the exclusion clauses in a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_lading" title="Bill of lading">bill of lading</a>. In order for this to succeed, three factors must be made out: </p> <ul><li>The bill of lading must clearly intend to benefit the third party.</li> <li>It is clear that when the <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">carrier</a> contracts with the <a href="/wiki/Consignor" title="Consignor">consignor</a>, it also contracts as an <a href="/wiki/Agency_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agency (law)">agent</a> of the stevedore. That is, either the carrier must have had authority by the stevedore to act on its behalf, or the stevedore must later ratify (endorse) the actions of the carrier.</li> <li>Any difficulties with consideration moving from the stevedores must be made out.</li></ul> <p>The last issue was explored in <i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Shipping_Co_Ltd_v._A_M_Satterthwaite_%26_Co_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand Shipping Co Ltd v. A M Satterthwaite & Co Ltd">New Zealand Shipping Co Ltd v. A M Satterthwaite & Co Ltd</a></i> [1975] AC 154, where it was held that the stevedores had provided consideration for the benefit of the exclusion clause by the discharge of goods from the ship. </p><p><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> has enacted the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Contracts_Privity_Act_1982&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contracts Privity Act 1982 (page does not exist)">Contracts Privity Act 1982</a>, which enables third parties to sue if they are sufficiently identified as beneficiaries by the contract, and in the contract it is expressed or implied they should be able to enforce this benefit. An example case of not being "sufficiently identified" is that of <i><a href="/wiki/Field_v_Fitton" title="Field v Fitton">Field v Fitton</a></i> (1988). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">Contract law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privity" title="Privity">Privity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Privity_of_estate" title="Privity of estate">Privity of estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privity_in_English_law" title="Privity in English law">Privity in English law</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Privity_of_contract&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBeatsonBurrowsCartwright2020" class="citation book cs1">Beatson, J; Burrows, A; Cartwright, J (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlawtrove.com/display/10.1093/he/9780198829973.001.0001/he-9780198829973-chapter-21"><i>Anson's Law of Contract</i></a>. OUP. p. Ch 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198829973" title="Special:BookSources/9780198829973"><bdi>9780198829973</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anson%27s+Law+of+Contract&rft.pages=Ch+21&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780198829973&rft.aulast=Beatson&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Burrows%2C+A&rft.au=Cartwright%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordlawtrove.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Fhe%2F9780198829973.001.0001%2Fhe-9780198829973-chapter-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivity+of+contract" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_Law_Commission1996" class="citation web cs1">The Law Commission (July 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawcom.gov.uk/app/uploads/2017/02/lc242_privity-of-contract-contracts-for-the-benefit-of-third-parties.pdf">"The Law Commission Report No. 242: PRIVITY OF CONTRACT: CONTRACTS FOR THE BENEFIT OF THIRD PARTIES"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Law Commission</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Law+Commission&rft.atitle=The+Law+Commission+Report+No.+242%3A+PRIVITY+OF+CONTRACT%3A+CONTRACTS+FOR+THE+BENEFIT+OF+THIRD+PARTIES&rft.date=1996-07&rft.au=The+Law+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawcom.gov.uk%2Fapp%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F02%2Flc242_privity-of-contract-contracts-for-the-benefit-of-third-parties.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivity+of+contract" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lawcommission.justice.gov.uk/docs/lc242_privity_of_contract_for_the_benefit_of_third_parties.pdf"><i>Privity of Contracts: Contracts for the benefits of third parties</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Law Commission, LC242</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Privity+of+Contracts%3A+Contracts+for+the+benefits+of+third+parties&rft.pub=Law+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flawcommission.justice.gov.uk%2Fdocs%2Flc242_privity_of_contract_for_the_benefit_of_third_parties.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrivity+of+contract" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Drive Yourself Hire Co (London) v Strutt</i></cite>, 1 Q.B. 250 (1954).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">High Court of Australia, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www8.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/44.html">Trident General Insurance Co Ltd v McNiece Bros Pty Ltd [1988] HCA 44; (1988) 165 CLR 107 (8 September 1988)</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1999/31">Text of the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999</a> as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from <a href="/wiki/Legislation.gov.uk" title="Legislation.gov.uk">legislation.gov.uk</a>.</li> <li>Beatson, J, Q.C. (1998). <i>Anson's Law of Contract</i> (27th Ed.). Oxford University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-825262-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-825262-5">0-19-825262-5</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_contract_law121" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_contract_case_law" title="Template:United States contract case law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_contract_case_law" title="Template talk:United States contract case law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_contract_case_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States contract case law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_contract_law121" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">United States contract law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contract formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Offer_and_acceptance" title="Offer and acceptance">Offer and acceptance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Leonard_v._Pepsico,_Inc." title="Leonard v. Pepsico, Inc.">Leonard v. Pepsico, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gottlieb_v._Tropicana_Hotel_%26_Casino" title="Gottlieb v. Tropicana Hotel & Casino">Gottlieb v. Tropicana Hotel & Casino</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Wholesale_Grocery_Co._v._Weber_Packing_Corp." title="Kansas City Wholesale Grocery Co. v. Weber Packing Corp.">Kansas City Wholesale Grocery Co. v. Weber Packing Corp.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ever-Tite_Roofing_Corp._v._Green" title="Ever-Tite Roofing Corp. v. Green">Ever-Tite Roofing Corp. v. Green</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lefkowitz_v._Great_Minneapolis_Surplus_Store,_Inc" title="Lefkowitz v. Great Minneapolis Surplus Store, Inc">Lefkowitz v. Great Minneapolis Surplus Store, Inc</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Implied-in-fact_contract" title="Implied-in-fact contract">Implied-in-fact contract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_%26_Ohio_Railroad_Co._v._United_States" title="Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co. v. United States">Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co. v. United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mailbox_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Mailbox rule">Mailbox rule</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ellefson_v._Megadeth,_Inc." title="Ellefson v. Megadeth, Inc.">Ellefson v. Megadeth, Inc.</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shrink_wrap_contract" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrink wrap contract">Shrinkwrap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clickwrap" title="Clickwrap">Clickwrap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Browsewrap" title="Browsewrap">Browsewrap</a> agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Specht_v._Netscape_Communications_Corp." title="Specht v. Netscape Communications Corp.">Specht v. Netscape</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ticketmaster_Corp._v._Tickets.com,_Inc." title="Ticketmaster Corp. v. Tickets.com, Inc.">Ticketmaster Corp. v. Tickets.com, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nguyen_v._Barnes_%26_Noble,_Inc." title="Nguyen v. Barnes & Noble, Inc.">Nguyen v. Barnes & Noble, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/ProCD,_Inc._v._Zeidenberg" title="ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg">ProCD, Inc. v. Zeidenberg</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Zappos.com,_Inc.,_Customer_Data_Security_Breach_Litigation" title="In re Zappos.com, Inc., Customer Data Security Breach Litigation">In re Zappos.com, Inc., Customer Data Security Breach Litigation</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Cartridge_Remanufacturers_Ass%27n_Inc._v._Lexmark_International_Inc." title="Arizona Cartridge Remanufacturers Ass'n Inc. v. Lexmark International Inc.">Arizona Cartridge Remanufacturers Ass'n Inc. v. Lexmark International Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Step-Saver_Data_Systems,_Inc._v._Wyse_Technology" title="Step-Saver Data Systems, Inc. v. Wyse Technology">Step-Saver Data Systems, Inc. v. Wyse Technology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Baystate_Technologies,_Inc." title="Bowers v. Baystate Technologies, Inc.">Bowers v. Baystate Technologies, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bragg_v._Linden_Research,_Inc." title="Bragg v. Linden Research, Inc.">Bragg v. Linden Research, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Feldman_v._Google,_Inc." title="Feldman v. Google, Inc.">Feldman v. Google, Inc.</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Consideration_under_American_law" title="Consideration under American law">Consideration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamer_v._Sidway" title="Hamer v. Sidway">Hamer v. Sidway</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wood_v._Lucy,_Lady_Duff-Gordon" title="Wood v. Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon">Wood v. Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kirksey_v._Kirksey" title="Kirksey v. Kirksey">Kirksey v. Kirksey</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Angel_v._Murray" title="Angel v. Murray">Angel v. Murray</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_v._Trustees_of_Boston_Univ." title="King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.">King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Marine_Construction_Co._v._United_States_District_Court" title="Atlantic Marine Construction Co. v. United States District Court">Atlantic Marine Construction Co. v. United States District Court</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salsbury_v._Northwestern_Bell_Telephone_Co." title="Salsbury v. Northwestern Bell Telephone Co.">Salsbury v. Northwestern Bell Telephone Co.</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Substantial_performance" title="Substantial performance">Substantial performance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Zehmer" title="Lucy v. Zehmer">Lucy v. Zehmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_%26_Youngs,_Inc._v._Kent" title="Jacob & Youngs, Inc. v. Kent">Jacob & Youngs, Inc. v. Kent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Privity</a> & <a href="/wiki/Third-party_beneficiary" title="Third-party beneficiary">3rd parties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Cicco_v._Schweizer" title="De Cicco v. Schweizer">De Cicco v. Schweizer</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MacPherson_v._Buick_Motor_Co." title="MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.">MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co.</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Implied_warranty" title="Implied warranty">Implied warranty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caveat_emptor" title="Caveat emptor">caveat emptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawkins_v._McGee" title="Hawkins v. McGee">Hawkins v. McGee</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seixas_and_Seixas_v._Woods" title="Seixas and Seixas v. Woods">Seixas and Seixas v. Woods</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc." title="Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc.">Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/G._L._Christian_and_Associates_v._United_States" title="G. L. Christian and Associates v. United States">G. L. Christian and Associates v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kellogg_Bridge_Co._v._Hamilton" title="Kellogg Bridge Co. v. Hamilton">Kellogg Bridge Co. v. Hamilton</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defense against formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Illusory_promise" title="Illusory promise">Illusory promise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Morrison_v._Amway_Corp." title="Morrison v. Amway Corp.">Morrison v. Amway Corp.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harris_v._Blockbuster,_Inc." title="Harris v. Blockbuster, Inc.">Harris v. Blockbuster, Inc.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Douglas_v._U.S._District_Court_ex_rel_Talk_America" title="Douglas v. U.S. District Court ex rel Talk America">Douglas v. U.S. District Court ex rel Talk America</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McMichael_v._Price" title="McMichael v. Price">McMichael v. Price</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_frauds" title="Statute of frauds">Statute of frauds</a> (written) & <a href="/wiki/Parol_evidence_rule" title="Parol evidence rule">Parol evidence</a> (unwritten & informal)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Buffaloe_v._Hart" title="Buffaloe v. Hart">Buffaloe v. Hart</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Foman_v._Davis" title="Foman v. Davis">Foman v. Davis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unconscionable" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconscionable">Unconscionable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Walker-Thomas_Furniture_Co." title="Williams v. Walker-Thomas Furniture Co.">Williams v. Walker-Thomas Furniture Co.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchwald_v._Paramount" title="Buchwald v. Paramount">Buchwald v. Paramount</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelling Contract</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mistake_(contract_law)" title="Mistake (contract law)">Mistake</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sherwood_v._Walker" title="Sherwood v. Walker">Sherwood v. Walker</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lenawee_County_Board_of_Health_v._Messerly" title="Lenawee County Board of Health v. Messerly">Lenawee County Board of Health v. Messerly</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Illegality</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Stoddard_v._Martin" title="Stoddard v. Martin">Stoddard v. Martin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/SCO_Group,_Inc._v._DaimlerChrysler_Corp." title="SCO Group, Inc. v. DaimlerChrysler Corp.">SCO Group, Inc. v. DaimlerChrysler Corp.</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Misrepresentation" title="Misrepresentation">Misrepresentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Spearin" title="United States v. Spearin">United States v. Spearin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Helene_Curtis_Industries,_Inc._v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Helene Curtis Industries, Inc. v. United States">Helene Curtis Industries, Inc. v. United States </a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laidlaw_v._Organ" title="Laidlaw v. Organ">Laidlaw v. Organ</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Bolles" title="Smith v. Bolles">Smith v. Bolles</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasi-contract" title="Quasi-contract">Quasi-contract</a> obligation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Promissory_estoppel" class="mw-redirect" title="Promissory estoppel">Promissory estoppel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Drennan_v._Star_Paving_Co." title="Drennan v. Star Paving Co.">Drennan v. 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